Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Self-destructive behavior in adolescence – Psychological aspects'

[Truncated abstract] Regular engagement in physical activity is proven to decrease the risk of numerous chronic diseases and to improve mental well-being. However, many children and adults around the world fail to engage in sufficient levels of activity required to produce health benefits, with reports showing physical activity levels still on the decline. Perhaps because of this increase in sedentary lifestyles, obesity has become one of the biggest public health threats in the 21st century. Furthermore, both obesity and physical inactivity are closely related to psychological health, and may play an important role in shaping self-perceptions and feeling of general well-being. '...' In the first study, physical status, physical activity levels, and social physique anxiety measures were obtained from an adolescent sample of 259 participants. Partial correlation analyses revealed that physical activity involvement was not directly linked with physical status; however, both factors were significantly associated with social physique anxiety, which suggested evidence of an indirect link between the two constructs. That is, analyses showed that poor physical status was associated with higher levels of physique anxiety, which in turn linked to low engagement in physical activity. In addition, age and gender effects emerged, revealing unique differences in the ways in which these three variables may be related. To cross-validate and further examine these relationships STUDY 2 extended the range of self-perception measures to include a multidimensional assessment of physical self-concept and a global self-esteem measure along with physique anxiety. These variables were assessed in a German adult sample (N = 229), again alongside measures of physical status and physical activity involvement. Consistent with STUDY 1, no direct link was found between physical status and levels of physical activity involvement. However, evidence of an indirect link did emerge as both variables were related to multiple dimensions of physical self-concept, thereby reinforcing and extending the findings from STUDY 1. Furthermore, age effects emerged for physical self-concept, which had not been confirmed in previous research on physical self-concept. STUDY 3 employed a longitudinal design and investigated changes in physical self-concept, global self-esteem and social physique anxiety before, during, and after participation in a 12-week weight management programme. Participants (N = 63) were assigned to one of three conditions: (1) cognitive-behavioural treatment only, (2) cognitive-behavioural treatment and exercise, and (3) non-treatment control. Statistical analyses revealed a small, but significant reduction in weight for members of both treatment groups. Relative to controls, both treatment groups also improved on a variety of physical self-concept dimensions. At the same time, however, significant group main effects suggested that a weight-loss program incorporating exercise involvement may provide physical self-concept benefits that go beyond those obtained with standard CBT regimes. Collectively, these studies add to the growing body of literature on the connections between physical activity, self-perceptions and physical status. They also highlight the importance of involvement in habitual physical activity throughout the lifespan. Findings are discussed with regards to their contribution to the extant literature, and applied implications, limitations, and future directions are considered.

Thesis (MSc) -- Stellenbosch University, 2013.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Suicidal behaviour is a serious public health problem. Globally and in South Africa a gendered pattern of suicide rates has been observed, with males being more likely to kill themselves than females. To date little quantitative and qualitative research is available on young male suicidal behaviour in South Africa. This study investigated the attitudes, beliefs and myths young male students hold about suicidal behaviour. Thirteen male university students (ages 20 to 25 years; with and without a history of suicidal behaviour), who volunteered to take part in the present study in response to an email invitation, were interviewed. The attitudes, beliefs and myths identified from the qualitative data are grouped into four themes: 'Moral acceptability of suicidal behaviour', 'Perceived causes and risk factors of suicidal behaviour', 'Perceived motives of suicidal behaviour', and 'Perceived prevention and protective factors of suicidal behaviour'. Besides these four themes, two underlying narratives are identified and discussed: (1) 'Apart or a part: Belonging and suicidal behaviour' is centred on the idea that perceiving oneself to be an integral part of a social system is protective against suicidal behaviour, while a thwarted sense of belonging increases vulnerability to suicidal behaviour. (2) 'Dying to be a man: (Re) negotiating masculinity and suicidal behaviour' is concerned with participants' views that men's relational position to hegemonic (socially most dominant) forms of masculinity is a factor in male suicidal behaviour. Participants regard hegemonic forms of masculinity to be both a part of the problem of suicidal behaviour and a potential solution to suicidal behaviour. These findings are interpreted through a social constructionist lens of gender as performance. Finally, implications of findings for future research, prevention and treatment are discussed.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Selfmoordgedrag is 'n ernstige openbare gesondheidsprobleem. Wêreldwyd en in Suid-Afrika is mans meer geneig as vrouens om selfmoord te pleeg. Tot op hede is daar min kwantitatiewe en kwalitatiewe navorsing beskikbaar van jong manlike selfmoordgedrag in Suid-Afrika. Hierdie studie ondersoek die houdings, oortuiging en mites oor selfmoordgedrag van jong manlike studente. Dertien manlike universiteitstudente (ouderdomme 20 tot 25 jaar, met en sonder 'n geskiedenis van selfmoordgedrag) het vrywillig aan die huidige studie deel geneem in reaksie op 'n e-pos uitnodiging. Die houdings, oortuiging en mites wat vanaf die kwalitatiewe data geïdentifiseer is, is in vier temas gegroepeer: 'Morele aanvaarbaarheid van selfmoordgedrag', 'Siening van die oorsake en risiko faktore van selfmoordgedrag', 'Waargenome motiewe van selfmoordgedrag', en 'Waargenome voorkoming en beskermende faktore van selfmoordgedrag'. Naas hierdie vier temas, is twee onderliggende temas geïdentifiseer en bespreeek: (1) 'Samehorigheid en selfmoordgedrag' is gemoeid met die idee dat om 'n integrale deel van 'n sosiale sisteem te wees is beskermend teen selfmoordgedrag, terwyl 'n persepsie van isolasie tot selfmoordgedrag kan lei. (2) 'Onderhandeling van manlikheid en selfmoordgedrag' is gemoeid met die deelnemers se sienings dat mans se verhouding tot hegemoniese vorme (sosiaal mees dominante vorme) van manlikheid 'n faktor in manlike selfmoordgedrag is. Deelneemers beskou hegemoniese vorme van manlikheid as beide 'n deel van die probleem en 'n moontlike oplossing vir selfmoordgedrag. Hierdie bevindinge is geïnterpreteer deur middel van 'n sosiale konstruksionistiese lens van geslag as prestasie. Die implikasies van die bevindings vir toekomstige navorsing, voorkoming en behandeling word ten slotte bespreek.

Nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) is a form of direct self-harm that involves willful damage to bodily tissue without suicidal intent; it includes behaviors such as cutting, burning, carving, biting, scraping, and scratching of the skin, as well as hitting and skin and scab picking. Engagement in NSSI has been shown to relate to a host of maladaptive states and outcomes, including depression, anxiety, poor emotion regulation, and suicidal ideation and attempts. Socially sanctioned forms of body modification (e.g. tattoos and piercings) have received less attention as potential self-harm outlets, but have been posited to represent similar physical outlets of emotional pain. Indirect self-harm, in contrast, can include behaviors such as substance abuse, disordered eating, participation in abusive relationships, and sexual risk-taking. Extant literature suggests that self-harm in either form is associated with higher levels of self-criticism than healthy adults endorse. However, few studies have examined self-criticism in each of these self-harming subgroups. Female participants were recruited online using Amazon's Mechanical Turk. Results from the present study indicate that 1) direct self-harming individuals are considerably more self-critical than indirect self-harmers and control subjects, 2) those who engage in multiple forms of self-harm are more self-critical than those engaging in only one form, 3) self-criticism did not significantly predict self-harming behaviors, and 4) there are no significant differences in self-criticism based on developmental trajectory of self-harming behaviors. Additionally, individuals with body modification (e.g. tattoos, piercings) did not exhibit different levels of self-criticism than those without socially sanctioned alterations. Implications, limitations, and future directions for research of this nature are discussed.

The purpose of this project was to examine the predictors of risky sexual behaviors and poor eating behaviors for women who experienced childhood sexual abuse, including family hardiness, and depression in a structural equation model. A second group of those who had not been sexually abused as children was also tested using the same structural equation model.

Introduction Physical activity (PA) engagement is highly beneficial for adolescents and although interventions are shown to be effective, participants often return to former PA levels once the intervention is removed. Adolescents may lack explicit training in psychological and behaviour change skills required to sustain PA behaviour changes, such as self-regulation. SR is a key process in psychological functioning and its failure can result in impulse control problems, such as a tendency not to engage in behaviours that require a delay of gratification such as physical activity. Purpose Self-regulated learning (SRL) is an approach that focusses on how to make improvements through a systematic method of learning how to adapt to ever changing environments, i.e. through planning, self-monitoring, effort, self-efficacy, self-evaluation and reflection. Study 1 examined the effectiveness of studies examining SRL variables in a PA context. Study 2 translated and validated an English language SRL questionnaire to measure SRL in a Chinese adolescent population. Study 3 assessed the contribution of SRL variables to PA in both Chinese and Scottish adolescent samples. In preparation for study 5, study 4 qualitatively assessed Chinese students’ motivation for and engagement in PA. Finally, study 5 taught SRL skills in a PA context with the aim of positively impacting on adolescent PA levels. Methods and Results In study 1 a systematic review of the literature was conducted. The majority of reviewed studies demonstrated a positive effect of SRL variables on PA. The review highlighted a lack of research conducted using SRL theory. Study 2 translated and validated a Chinese version of an SRL questionnaire with 315 (and cross-validated with 480) Hong Kong Chinese adolescents. The short SRL-SRS-C was found to be a sufficiently reliable instrument to measure SRL in a Hong Kong Chinese adolescent population. In study 3, a cross-sectional study of 480 Hong Kong and 411 Scottish adolescents was conducted to assess the relationship SRL and physical activity. Results revealed that adolescents from Hong Kong and Scotland do not engage in sufficient PA to achieve the potential health benefits that PA can provide. Significantly more use of self-monitoring, self-evaluation and reflection was associated with significantly higher LTPA in Scottish adolescents. In both samples, SRL was weakly but significantly associated with higher PA, and self-efficacy and reflection played significant roles this SRL-PA relationship. Study 4 conducted two qualitative focus group interviews and found that most Chinese adolescents only engaged in PA during limited physical education classes. Most students were knowledgeable of the health benefits of PA, however, academic pressures and the effort required to overcome PA barriers was too great. Students propose that walking more and felt that novel ways to encourage PA, such as through WhatsApp, were worthwhile. Finally, study 4 used a quasi-experimental design with three groups (total n = 98) Hong Kong Chinese secondary school students. Peers modelled SRL skills and the learning was prompted either face-to-face or through Whatsapp. Meaningful, but not significant, mean value increases in PA and SRL were found. SRL was weakly but positive and significantly associated with PA, and reflection emerged as the key SRL component in the SRL-PA relationship. Conclusions SRL and PA are weak, but positive and significantly associated. Importantly, reflection has emerged as a significant predictor of adolescent PA. Adolescents with better SRL and reflective skills may be more aware of their strengths and weaknesses and able to translate this knowledge into future action. Considering that SRL skills are amenable to training, further experimental research should focus on teaching SRL strategies, particularly reflection, and assessing their impact on PA. SRL research in the adolescent PA area is promising but is at an early stage. Therefore, further research is recommended before strong conclusions can be made.

Overall, this thesis was designed to explore the nature of adolescent boys' body image, the effects of body image on body change strategies and psychological adjustment, and the factors that influence body image. The first study examined body image in 362 adolescent boys. Body image was considered in terms of attitudes to different body parts and attributes, including, lower, middle and upper body, as well as weight, shape and muscles. The relationships between Body Mass Index (BMI), body image, sociocultural messages, psychological adjustment and body change strategies, including strategies to decrease weight and increase muscles using food and exercise, drive for thinness, bulimic attitudes and behaviour, excessive exercise, food supplements to lose weight, increase muscles and steroids, were also investigated. Multiple regression analyses were used to examine the role of body image, sociocultural messages and psychological adjustment to predict satisfaction with different body attributes and body change strategies. The findings from study one led to the development of a program aimed at preventing the development of unhealthy attitudes and behaviours among adolescent boys. Study two involved the implementation and evaluation of this prevention program. One hundred and twenty one boys participated in the program. The program was based on social-cognitive theory, and included a focus on accepting differences and the development of self-esteem. The boys who participated in the program indicated some change in existing attitudes and showed less development of risk behaviours relative to the control group. The implications of the findings from this thesis in relation to future research, as well as the prevention of adolescent boys' body image problems are discussed.

Adolescence is a formative period of identity development. From the start of high school young people begin to direct their own development through peer selection and behavioural choices. During this time young people have the opportunity to engage in risky behaviours such as drinking alcohol, smoking, having unprotected sex and taking illegal drugs, for the first time. These behaviours amongst young people have been linked to a range of adverse health and wellbeing outcomes, both short and long term. This study seeks to improve understanding of eleven to fifteen year olds' behavioural choices through investigation of potential links to perceptions of adulthood and gender. In order to capture this more fully a mixed methods approach is used with a quantitative cross-sectional pupil survey and in-depth intergenerational family qualitative interviews. By exploring a broad range of age and gender stereotyped, and risky behaviours, this study seeks to provide better understanding of participants' perceptions, motivations and involvement in these behaviours. Results of the study demonstrate both gendered and age differentiated patterns of perceptions. Between eleven and fifteen years old, boys demonstrate more pronounced values attributed to masculine roles. Conversely, stereotyped feminine roles appear to decrease in appeal to girls. Fourth year girls perceive risky behaviours as considerably more relevant to them, than their male peers. Interviewed mothers were unsure of how best to manage their daughter's behaviours considering their own lack of experience and the apparently high value attributed to non-confrontational, friendship based, mothering. Current methods of teaching and intervening generally address mixed gender age-group classes. This research suggests in order to modify risk-taking behaviours a gender specific approach may be more effective.

Summaries in Afrikaans and English
The goal of this study is to understand the phenomenon of self mutilation by adolescents, with whom there is no developmental or mental barrier, from an educational-psychological perspective. A literature study was undertaken to investigate the nature, classification, causes and treatment of self mutilation, as well as the Educational Psychological Relations Theory. The self mutilation of adolescents was placed within the Educational Psychological Relations Theory framework. The research results showed that selfmutilation, with adolescents with whom there is no developmental or mental barrier, is a symptom of disharmonic intra- and interpsychic processes, as it is understood within the Educational Psychological Relations Theory. Self mutilation is used as a coping mechanism to regulate unpleasant emotional experiences. The empirical study also showed that an impoverished educational climate contributes to the development of self mutilation by adolescents.
Die doel van hierdie studie is om die verskynsel van selfmutilering by adolessente, by wie daar nie ontwikkelings- of geestesgestremdheid aanwesig is nie, vanuit 'n opvoedkundig-sielkundige perspektief te verstaan. Aan die hand van die literatuurstudie is die aard, klassifisering, oorsake en behandeling van selfmutilering, asook die Opvoedkundig-Sielkundige Relasieteorie verken. Die Opvoedkundig-Sielkundige Relasieteorie is as raamwerk gebruik waarbinne die verskynsel van selfmutilering by adolessente ondersoek is. Die navorsingsresultate het aan die lig gebring dat selfmutilering, by adolessente by wie daar nie geestes- of ontwikkelingsgestremdheid teenwoordig is nie, 'n simptoom is van disharmoniese intra- en interpsigiese gebeure soos dit verstaan word binne die Opvoedkundig-Sielkundige Relasieteorie. Selfmutilering word gebruik as 'n verdedigingsmeganisme waarmee onaangename belewinge gereguleer word. Die empiriese studie het ook getoon dat 'n onbevredigende opvoedingsklimaat 'n groot bydrae lewer tot die ontwikkeling van selfmutilering by adolessente.
Educational Studies
M. Ed. (with specialiation in Guidance and Counseling)

Self-injurious behaviour (SIB) is recognised as a difficult behaviour to work/deal with and Community Support Workers (CSW‟s) who work with this behaviour may not have any formal training in the field of SIB. This study was therefore aimed at assessing the needs of CSW‟s working in the field of self-injurious behaviour amongst adolescents. A qualitative approach was used, the study was of an explorative nature and the researcher made use of purposive non-probability sampling to select respondents who were willing to participate in one-on-one semi-structured interviews with the researcher. This data was then analysed by the researcher making use of Creswell‟s spiral of analysis. The data collected was sorted into themes, sub-themes and categories and interpreted according to literature. The study identified that there are specific needs amongst CSW‟s who work with adolescent SIB in the specific areas of support and education/training.
Social Work
M. Diac. (Play Therapy)

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI)
African American adolescents have inadequate self-management behaviors, particularly during middle adolescence (14-16 years of age). Inaccurate beliefs, degree of asthma impairment (well controlled or not well controlled), and gender could influence asthma self-management (symptom management, medication management, and environmental control). The researcher used the illness representations concept from the common sense self-regulation model as the framework for this study. The descriptive correlational study explored (1) differences in illness representations (cognitive and emotional) and self-management behaviors by gender, asthma impairment, and gender by asthma impairment of African American adolescents with asthma; and (2) relationships between illness representations and asthma self-management behaviors, gender, and asthma impairment in 133 African American adolescents with asthma. Data were collected using the Asthma Control Test, the Illness Perceptions Questionnaire-Revised, and the Asthma Self-Care Practice Instrument. Data were analyzed using ANOVA, MANOVA, Pearson correlations, and multiple regressions. Findings indicated that females whose asthma was not well controlled had more beliefs about the chronicity of their asthma than those who were well controlled. However, there were no differences in such beliefs among males whose asthma was not well controlled from those who were well controlled. Well controlled adolescents differed from not well controlled adolescents for cognitive representations of cyclic timeline, treatment control, psychological attributes, and consequences as well as for emotional representations. There were no significant differences in the means of the self-management behaviors by gender, by asthma impairment, or by gender by asthma impairment. A significant bivariate relationship was found between representations of identity, consequences, treatment control, and symptom management. In the multiple regression model, representations of treatment control and consequences contributed to variances in symptom management; however, no other representations, gender, or asthma impairment variables were statistically significant. The representations, gender, and asthma impairment variables did not contribute to variances in medication management or environmental control. Limited studies have been conducted with African American adolescents with asthma; therefore, the findings will contribute information to the literature on their illness representations and self-management behaviors. The findings also contribute to the literature information based on adolescents' genders and levels of asthma impairment.

M.A. (Psychology)
The~present study is an exploratory investigation into the deliberate self-harm syndrome. Throughout the text, a distinction is made between other types of self-harm (for example, indirect self-harm such as alcohol abuse; "direct self-harm performed by a psychotic individual) and the self-harm performed within the deliberate self-harm syndrome (that is, direct, voluntary, non-lethal self-harm, performed by a non-psychiatric individual). The aim of this study is to foster an understanding of this syndrome and, accordingly, to facilitate acceptance of the individuals who suffer from this syndrome, without displaying the need to classify these individuals into any one particular psychiatric category. It is hoped that this aim is realised through a discussion of associated features and related.patterns of the syndrome. This research conducted an investigation of 21 individuals who appeared to fit into the syndrome. Three of the subjects were excluded from the study because their type of self-harm and/or their motivation for self-harming differed from those individuals who suffer from the deliberate self harm syndrome. Although some queries were made about the suitability of eight of the subjects, enough evidence has been put forward by the study to assume the possible existence of such a syndrome, and for the syndrome to be taken seriously. Many grey areas were discussed with regards to the criteria that should be considered when determining whether an individual fits into the syndrome or not. This merely serves to both highlight and confirm the point that it is not a rigid psychiatric category that is being proposed, but that there are, nevertheless, certain criteria that need to be considered when whether an individual deliberately self-harms, discussed in this study) determining or not (as even though there were certain limitations in the study (most of them being related to the study's exploratory point of departure) the researcher is of the opinion that the information provided in this study, should be treated with the respect that it deserves.

非自殺性自傷行為（以下簡稱自傷行為）在青少年中是一種常見的但卻令研究者和心理治療師感到困惑的行為。青少年為何會自傷是研究的熱點，但研究者們對該問題仍然沒有獲得確實性的結論。為回答這一問題，本論文提出了一個關於自傷行為發展的整合性模型，其中包括自傷行為的三類風險因子：易感因子，特別誘發因子和保持因子。本研究的第一部分通過一個3期的追蹤研究來測試該模型。為了更詳細的瞭解青少年的自傷行為，本論文還進行了第二部分的訪談研究。
在本研究的第一部分中，3,600名青少年（56.6%為女性）完成了關於自傷行為和其他與自傷相關因素的自我報告問卷，問卷分三次進行，每次間隔半年。結果表明自傷行為主要用於情緒調節。情緒反應性，不穩定的自我感和人際關係是自傷作為情緒調節工具的易感因素。行為衝動性，自我批評和同伴影響會特別誘發青少年的自傷行為。另外，負面情緒/想法和行為衝動性令青少年持續自傷。
在本研究的第二部分中，42名有反復性自傷行為的青少年參與了結構性訪談。參加者同樣將情緒調節作為自傷的最主要原因。負面情緒通常出現在自傷前和自傷過程中，正面情緒和自我覺知的負面情緒通常出現在自傷後。自傷後負面情緒顯著下降表明自傷成功完成了情緒調節作用。自傷後，青少年傾向于尋求朋友的幫助。
這些發現有助我們增強對青少年自傷行為發展的理解，也對診斷和治療自傷行為提供了重要的啟示。
Nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) is a common and perplexing behavior among adolescents. The question why adolescents engage in this self-destructive behavior is a hotly-studied topic, yet conclusive answers to this question have not been reached. To address this question, this dissertation proposed an integrative model of the development of NSSI. In this model, three types of risk factors: predisposing factors, specific vulnerability factors and maintaining factors for NSSI were examined. In Part 1 of this dissertation, a 3-wave longitudinal design was used to test this model. To understand adolescents’ experience of NSSI in more details, Part 2 of this dissertation reported findings from structured interviews conducted with selected repetitive self-injurers.
In Part 1 of this dissertation, 3,600 adolescents (56.6% females) completed self-report questionnaires assessing NSSI and a comprehensive set of NSSI correlates for three waves over one and a half years. Results showed that NSSI mostly served the emotion regulation function. Emotion over-reactivity, unstable sense of self and relationship problems predisposed adolescents to adopt NSSI as an emotion regulation strategy. Behavioral impulsivity, self-criticism and peer influence served as specific vulnerability factors for NSSI. Unwanted emotions/thoughts and behavioral impulsivity also contributed to the maintenance of NSSI.
In Part 2 of this dissertation, 42 repetitive self-injurers completed individual structured interviews assessing their lived experience of NSSI. Participants again rated emotion regulation to be their primary reason for engaging in NSSI. Negative affects often occurred before and during NSSI, while positive and self-conscious negative affects often followed after NSSI. Negative affects significantly decreased after NSSI, suggesting that NSSI successfully accomplished the emotion regulation function. After NSSI, adolescent self-injurers tended to turn to their friends for help.
Findings of this dissertation enhanced our understanding of the development of NSSI among community adolescents. Conceptual and clinical implications of these findings were discussed.
Detailed summary in vernacular field only.
Detailed summary in vernacular field only.
Detailed summary in vernacular field only.
Detailed summary in vernacular field only.
You, Jianing.
Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2012.
Includes bibliographical references (leaves 128-136).
Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web.
Abstract also in Chinese.
Abstract --- p.i
Acknowledge --- p.iv
List of Tables --- p.vi
List of Figures --- p.viii
Overview --- p.1
Chapter Part 1: --- Tracking the Developmental Trajectories of Nonsuicidal Self-injury among Chinese Adolescents --- p.3
Introduction --- p.3
Method --- p.19
Results --- p.31
Discussion --- p.73
Chapter Part 2: --- Lived Experience of Nonsuicidal Self-injury Among Chinese Adolescents --- p.87
Introduction --- p.87
Method --- p.90
Results --- p.93
Discussion --- p.114
General Discussion --- p.121
References --- p.128

You, Jianing.
Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2009.
Includes bibliographical references (p. 72-79).
Abstract also in Chinese.
List of Tables --- p.vi
List of Figures --- p.vii
Chapter Chapter 1 --- Introduction --- p.1
Chapter Chapter 2 --- Method --- p.24
Chapter Chapter 3 --- Results --- p.30
Chapter Chapter 4 --- Discussion --- p.56
References --- p.65

Bibliography: leaves 156-165. Electronic publication; full text available in PDF format; abstract in HTML format. Several researchers have indicated that the emphasis placed by young people on body shape and appearance has been greatly shaped by the media. The aim of this research was to investigate this notion specifically with regard to televised media. It was hypothesised that there would be a relationship between media images, eating attitudes and dietary behaviours, particularly for teenagers with body-image self-schemas who were conscious of their appearance. Nine hundred and sixty five senior secondary school students, from 33 country and metropolitan, state and independent, co-educational and single-sex South Australian high schools were surveyed. Electronic reproduction.[Australia] :Australian Digital Theses Program,2001.