Journal articles on the topic 'Sentencias – Chile – 2007'

Este artículo de reflexión es el resultado de la revisión analítica, interpretativa y crítica de los documentos, leyes y jurisprudencia relacionada con el derecho al olvido de los pederastas, la pedofilia y la pederastia, cumpliendo con los objetivos principales de clarificar los conceptos objeto de discusión y formular posibles alternativas frente a las escasas limitaciones para la vinculación al mercado laboral de quienes han sido condenados por delitos sexuales contra menores de catorce años. Mediante la utilización del tipo de investigación dogmática, descriptiva y de análisis estático de precedente se logró concluir que la pedofilia, al ser una enfermedad incurable, debe ser tratada con el fin de evitar su materialización en la pederastia y, como medida preventiva de delitos, el Congreso de la República de Colombia ostenta la misión de reglar el manejo de las bases de datos de los condenados por estos delitos a través de una ley estatutaria. Referencias American Psychiatric Association. (2014). DSM-5. Guía de Consulta de los Criterios Diagnósticos del DSM-5. Argentina: Editorial Médica Panamericana.Bertini, C., De Luca, S., Fariña, N., Ganduglia, A. y Sisini, N. (2005). El maltrato hacia los niños. En Giberti, E. (Comp.), Abuso sexual y malos tratos contra niños, niñas y adolescentes. Perspectiva psicosocial y social (239-258). Buenos Aires, Argentina: Espacio Editorial.Bohórquez, L. y Bohórquez, J. (2008). Diccionario Jurídico Colombiano (8a. ed.). Bogotá, Colombia: Editora Jurídica Nacional.Botero Martínez, J. (2014). Sobre la Inimputabilidad: ¿Algo más que decir? ¿Los estados similares son una causal autónoma o amplificadora de la inimputabilidad? Sentido y alcance de los “estados similares”. Opinión Jurídica, 13(25), 207-208.Botero Bernal, J. (Comp.). (2018). Código Penal Colombiano (Ley 599 de 2000). Recuperado de http://perso.unifr.ch/derechopenal/assets/files/legislacion/l_20160208_02.pdfCastillero, O. (s.f.). Diferencias entre pedofilia y pederastia. Recuperado de https://psicologiaymente.net/clinica/diferencias-pedofilia-pederastiaCongreso de la República de Colombia. (s.f.). Proyecto de Ley “por el cual se tutela el derecho al libre desarrollo sexual de las niñas y niños menores de 14 años”. Recuperado de http://www.legisaldia.com/BancoMedios/Archivos/pl-041-16c-base-de-datos-pedofilos.pdf-------. (1991). Ley 12 de 1991 “por medio de la cual se aprueba la Convención sobre los Derechos del Niño adoptada por la Asamblea General de las Naciones Unidas el 20 de noviembre de 1989”. Recuperado de https://www.unidadvictimas.gov.co/sites/default/files/documentosbiblioteca/ley-12-de-1991.pdf-------. (1993). Ley 65 de 1993 “por la cual se expide el Código Penitenciario y Carcelario”. Recuperado de http://wp.presidencia.gov.co/sitios/normativa/leyes/Documents/Juridica/Ley%2065%20de%201993.pdf-------. (2000). Ley 599 de 2000 “por la cual se expide el Código Penal”. Recuperado de https://www.unodc.org/res/cld/legislation/can/codigo-penal_html/Codigo_Penal.pdf-------. (2002). Ley 734 de 2002 “por la cual se expide el Código Disciplinario Único”. Recuperado de http://secretariageneral.gov.co/transparencia/marco-legal/normatividad/ley-734-2002-------. (2004). Ley 890 de 2004 “aplicable a procesos de Ley 600 de 2000”. Recuperado de http://www.cortesuprema.gov.co/corte/index.php/2018/05/10/ley-890-de-2004-aplicable-a-procesos-de-ley-600-de-2000/-------. (2006). Ley 1098 de 2006 “por la cual se expide el Código de la Infancia y la Adolescencia”. Recuperado de https://www.icbf.gov.co/cargues/avance/docs/ley_1098_2006.htm-------. (2008). Ley 1236 de 2008 “por medio de la cual se modifica algunos artículos del Código Penal relativos a delitos de abuso sexual”. Recuperado de http://www.oas.org/dil/esp/ley_1236_de_2008_colombia.pdf-------. (2009). Ley 1336 de 2009, “por medio del cual se adiciona y robustece la Ley 679 de 2001, de lucha contra la explotación, la pornografía y el turismo sexual con niños, niñas y adolescentes”. Recuperado de https://diario-oficial.vlex.com.co/vid/robustece-pornografia-adolescentes-61325313-------. (2016). Proyecto de Ley Estatutaria Nº 112 de 2016 “por medio de la cual se crea el Registro Nacional de Ofensores Sexuales”. Recuperado de http://leyes.senado.gov.co/proyectos/images/documentos/Textos%20Radicados/proyectos%20de%20ley/2016%20-%202017/PL%20112-16%20REGISTRO%20NACIONAL%20DE%20OFENSORES%20SEXUALES.pdf-------. (2018). Ley 1918 de 2018 “por medio de la cual se establece el régimen de inhabilidades a quienes hayan sido condenados por delitos sexuales contra menores, se crea el Registro de inhabilidades y se dicta otras disposiciones”. Bogotá, Colombia. Recuperado de http://www.funcionpublica.gov.co/eva/gestornormativo/norma.php?i=87420Consejo Superior de Política Criminal. (s.f.). Consejo Superior de Política Criminal. Recuperado de http://www.politicacriminal.gov.co/Portals/0/Conceptos/ConceptosCSPC/2016/22%20CSPC%20PLE%20112,%20PL%2087S%20y%2041C%20(Registro%20agresores%20sexuales).pdfCorte Constitucional. República de Colombia. (Junio de 1992). Sentencia T-414/92. [MP Ciro Angarita Barón]. Bogotá, Colombia. Recuperado de http://www.corteconstitucional.gov.co/relatoria/1992/t-414-92.htm-------. (Julio de 1992). Sentencia T-444/92. [MP Alejandro Martínez Caballero]. Bogotá, Colombia. Recuperado de http://www.corteconstitucional.gov.co/relatoria/1992/T-444-92.htm-------. (Marzo de 1995). Sentencia SU-082/95. [MP Jorge Arango Mejía]. Bogotá, Colombia. Recuperado de https://vlex.com.co/tags/sentencia-su-082-95-corte-constitucional-565292-------. (Septiembre de 2002). Sentencia T-729/02. [MP Eduardo Montealegre Lynett]. Bogotá, Colombia. Recuperado de http://www.corteconstitucional.gov.co/relatoria/2002/t-729-02.htm-------. (Diciembre de 2002). Sentencia T-1066/02. [MP Jaime Araujo Rentería]. Bogotá, Colombia. Recuperado de http://www.corteconstitucional.gov.co/relatoria/2002/c-1066-02.htm-------. (Marzo de 2003). Sentencia C-185/03. [MP Eduardo Montealegre Lynett]. Bogotá, Colombia. Recuperado de http://www.corteconstitucional.gov.co/relatoria/2003/C-185-03.htm-------. (Enero de 2008). Sentencia C-061 de 2008. [MP Nilson Pinilla Pinilla]. Bogotá, Colombia. Recuperado de http://www.corteconstitucional.gov.co/relatoria/2008/C-061-08.htm-------. (Marzo de 2008). Sentencia T-284/08. [MP Clara Inés Vargas Hernández]. Bogotá, Colombia. Recuperado de http://www.corteconstitucional.gov.co/relatoria/2008/T-284-08.htm-------. (Octubre de 2008). Sentencia C-1011/08. [MP Jaime Córdoba Triviño]. Bogotá, Colombia. Recuperado de http://www.corteconstitucional.gov.co/relatoria/2008/C-1011-08.htm-------. (Marzo de 2010). Sentencia T-164/10. [MP Jorge Iván Palacio Palacio]. Bogotá, Colombia. Recuperado de http://www.corteconstitucional.gov.co/relatoria/2010/T-164-10.htm-------. (Junio de 2012). Sentencia SU-458/12. [MP Adriana María Guillén Arango]. Bogotá, Colombia. Recuperado de http://www.corteconstitucional.gov.co/RELATORIA/2012/SU458-12.htm-------. (Mayo de 2015). Sentencia T-277-15. [MP María Victoria Calle Correa]. Bogotá, Colombia. Recuperado de http://www.corteconstitucional.gov.co/relatoria/2015/t-277-15.htmCorte Suprema de Justicia. República de Colombia. (Agosto de 2015). Sentencia 20889. [MP Patricia Salazar Cuellar]. Bogotá, Colombia. Recuperado de http://legal.legis.com.co/document?obra=jurcol&document=jurcol_0606b12290a641419649d2c5ec3b8486Christopher’s Law (Sex Offender Registry), 2000 S.O. Recuperado de https://www.ontario.ca/laws/statute/00c01Cifuentes, S., Grupo Centro de Referencia Nacional sobre Violencia e Instituto Nacional de Medicina Legal y Ciencias Forenses. (2015). Exámenes médico legales por presunto delito sexual. Colombia, 2015. Recuperado de http://www.medicinalegal.gov.co/documents/20143/49523/Violencia+sexual.pdfDada, C. (17 de agosto de 2018). Pensilvania es el caso de abuso más preocupante en EE. UU. El Espectador. Recuperado de https://www.elespectador.com/noticias/el-mundo/pensilvania-es-el-caso-de-abuso-mas-preocupante-en-ee-uu-articulo-806746Echeburúa, E. y Guerricaechevarría, C. (2009). Abuso Sexual en la Infancia: Víctimas y agresores. Un enfoque clínico. Barcelona, España: Editorial Ariel.Fondo de las Naciones Unidas para la Infancia (UNICEF). (2006). Convención sobre los Derechos del Niño. Recuperado de http://www.un.org/es/events/childrenday/pdf/derechos.pdfGobierno de España. Ministerio de la Presidencia, Relaciones con las Cortes e Igualdad. (28 de julio 2015). Ley 26/2015 “de modificación del sistema de protección a la infancia y a la adolescencia”. Recuperado de https://www.boe.es/buscar/act.php?id=BOE-A-2015-8470Humanium. (s.f.). Declaración de Ginebra sobre los Derechos del Niño, 1924. Recuperado de https://www.humanium.org/es/ginebra-1924/-------. (s.f.). Declaración de los Derechos del Niño, 1959. Recuperado de https://www.humanium.org/es/declaracion-1959/Instituto Colombiano de Bienestar Familiar (ICBF). (2017). Tratados y Convenios Internacionales en materia de niñez y de familia. Recuperado de https://www.icbf.gov.co/tratados-y-convenios-internacionales-en-materia-de-ninez-y-de-familia.Legislación Informática de Estados Unidos. (1994). Jacob Wetterling Crimes against Children and Sexually Violent Offender Registration Act. Recuperado de http://www.informatica-juridica.com/legislacion/estados-unidos/Lopera, G. y Arias, D. (2010). Principio de Proporcionalidad y Derechos Fundamentales en la Determinación Judicial de la Pena. Bogotá, Colombia: Panamericana Formas e Impresos.López, F., Carpintero, E., Hernández, A., Martin M. y Fuertes, A. (1995). Prevalencia y consecuencias del abuso sexual al menor en España. Child Abuse & Neglect, 19(9), 1039-1050.Lozano, C. (2013). ¿Qué es el Estado social y democrático de derecho? Bogotá, Colombia: Imprenta Nacional de Colombia.Ministerio de la Protección Social. (2007). Resolución No. 2346 “por la cual se regula la práctica de evaluaciones médicas ocupacionales y el manejo y contenido de las historias clínicas ocupacionales”. Recuperado de https://vlex.com.co/vid/-495385211Ministerio del Interior y Seguridad Pública. Subsecretaría del Interior. (19 de junio de 2012). Ley 20594 de 2012 “Crea inhabilidades para condenados por delitos sexuales contra menores y establece registro de dichas inhabilidades”. Recuperado de https://www.leychile.cl/Navegar?idNorma=1041136Ministerio de Tecnologías de la Información y las Telecomunicaciones. (2012). Decreto 019 de 2012 “por el cual se dicta normas para suprimir o reformar regulaciones, procedimientos y trámites innecesarios existentes en la Administración Pública”. Recuperado de https://www.mintic.gov.co/portal/604/w3-article-3567.htmlMontes, R. (24 de mayo de 2018). Catorce sacerdotes suspendidos en Chile por denuncias de abusos sexuales. El País. Recuperado de https://elpais.com/internacional/2018/05/23/america/1527042814_750171.htmlNaciones Unidas. (s.f.). Declaración Universal de los Derechos Humanos. Recuperado de http://www.un.org/es/universal-declaration-human-rights/Oficina del Alto Comisionado para los Derechos Humanos (ACNUDH). (2018). Pacto Internacional de Derechos Civiles y Políticos. Recuperado de https://www.ohchr.org/sp/professionalinterest/pages/ccpr.aspxOrganización de los Estados Americanos (OEA). (2015). Declaración Americana de los Derechos y Deberes del Hombre. Recuperado de http://www.oas.org/es/cidh/mandato/Basicos/declaracion.aspOrganización Panamericana de la Salud. (2017). INSPIRE. Siete estrategias para poner fin a la violencia contra los niños y las niñas. Recuperado de https://www.unodc.org/documents/justice-and-prison-reform/Child-Victims/Executive_Summary-Spanish.pdfPresidencia de la República de Colombia. (2012). Decreto Ley 019 de 2012 “por el cual se dicta normas para suprimir o reformar regulaciones, procedimientos y trámites innecesarios existentes en la Administración Pública”. Bogotá, Colombia. Recuperado de http://wsp.presidencia.gov.co/Normativa/Decretos/2012/Documents/Enero/10/Dec1910012012.pdfQuamtum Future Group. (2014). Depredadores entre nosotros: entrevista con la doctora Anna Salter – SOTT Talk Radio. Recuperado de https://es.sott.net/article/40250-Depredadores-entre-nosotros-Entrevista-con-la-Dra-Anna-Salter-SOTT-Talk-Radio.República de Colombia. (1991). Constitución Política de Colombia. Recuperado de http://www.corteconstitucional.gov.co/inicio/Constitucion%20politica%20de%20Colombia.pdfRicaurte, A. (2017). Exámenes médico legales por presunto delito sexual. En Instituto Nacional de Medicina Legal y Ciencias Forenses (Eds.), Forensis 2016, Datos para la Vida (pp. 352-398). Bogotá, Colombia: Imprenta Nacional.Rodríguez, A. (2016). Pedófilos sin obstáculos: ¿A quién están protegiendo las leyes? Programa Séptimo día. Caracol televisión [Archivo de video]. Recuperado de http://noticias.caracoltv.com/septimo-dia/pedofilos-sin-obstaculos-quien-estan-protegiendo-las-leyesStekel, W. (1954). Infantilismo Psicosexual. Enfermedades psíquicas infantiles en los adultos. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Ediciones Imán.Tamayo, J. (15 de agosto de 2018). La pederastia, cáncer con metástasis. El País. Recuperado de https://elpais.com/autor/juan_jose_tamayo/aUniversidad Externado de Colombia. (2015). Luces y sombras del Derecho al olvido. Recuperado de http://dernegocios.uexternado.edu.co/comercio-electronico/colombia-luces-y-sombras-del-derecho-al-olvido/World Health Organization. (WHO). (2016). INSPIRE, Siete estrategias para poner fin a la violencia contra los niños. Recuperado de https://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/inspire/INSPIRE_ExecutiveSummary_ES.pdf

Objective: To describe Civil Claims (CCs) related to the provision of dental care according to court rulings published on the website of the Chilean Judicial Power. Material and methods: Descriptive study of 62 CCs filed against dentists or dental clinics according to court rulings available on the website of the Chilean Judicial Power between the years 2011 – 2017, identified by court rulings using a keyword search. Data were tabulated and analyzed using EXCEL and Stata.15, through descriptive statistics, proportions comparison test, and Spearman's Rho test. Results: An increase in the number of CCs according to the 2011-2017 court rulings was observed. CCs were filed on average 27.5 months after the events occurred. Judicial processes lasted a mean of 27 months, and the Araucanía region accounted for the highest rate. The highest number of lawsuits were placed against male general dentists with a mean age of 44, filed by female patients with a mean age of 46. A total of 66.13% of the CCs were rejected by the court, and 33.87% were ruled in favor of the plaintiffs. The financial compensation claims reached an average of $37,751,516 CLP (1500.32 Chilean UF), approximately $47,000 USD as of the date of the data collection process. Conclusion: There is an upward trend in the filing of CCs in Chile, although most were rejected by the court. A better understanding of the reasons that lead to the legal processes is necessary to prevent their occurrence.

Sentencing studies consistently show that male offenders receive more severe sentences than females. However, theory-based explanations for gender disparities in sentencing, which posit lenience is partially based on caregiver status, may be less relevant for crimes against children. This study leverages Pennsylvania Sentencing Commission data to assess sentence type and length among adults convicted of child neglect or physical abuse between 2006 and 2016. Employing bivariate and multivariate statistics, we found that, although female perpetrators make up the majority of child neglect and physical abuse perpetrators in the Child Protective Services system, they are a minority of those convicted. If convicted, women received less harsh sentences than men, consistent with the disparate gender patterns found in general criminal sentencing research.

The Child Justice Act 75 of 2008 establishes a criminal justice system for child accused, separate from the criminal justice system which continues to apply for adult accused in South Africa. The Act aims to keep children out of detention and away from the formal criminal justice system, mainly through diversion. When these interventions would be inadequate or unsuccessful, the Act provides for child offenders to the tried and sentenced in child justice courts. Until now there has been little discussion of the details of the provisions dealing with sentencing. Sentencing in a child justice court is regulated by chapter 10 of the Act and section 68 is the first section in this chapter. This section effectively amounts to the “jurisdictional” provision of the new child sentencing system: it not only mandates child justice courts to impose their sentences in terms of the Act, but also provides the first set of boundaries (or the first part of the framework) within which sentencing should take place. Despite its brevity, section 68 is not without interpretative challenges. Of course, it has to be interpreted within the context of the entire Act. Explaining this context is the first function of this article. The various aspects of section 68 are further critically explored and discussed.

El 29 de noviembre de 2018 la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos dictó una Sentencia, mediante la cual declaró responsable internacionalmente al Estado de Chile porque sus autoridades judiciales rechazaron varias demandas civiles de indemnización por perjuicios morales interpuestas por siete grupos de personas entre 1997 y 2001, en relación con el secuestro o detención y desaparición o ejecución de sus familiares por parte de agentes estatales en 1973 y 1974 durante la dictadura militar. Tales acciones judiciales fueron rechazadas entre 1999 y 2003 con base en la aplicación del plazo de la figura de prescripción establecida en el Código Civil. La Corte consideró responsable al Estado por la violación del derecho de acceso a la justicia, en los términos de los derechos a las garantías judiciales y a la protección judicial, en perjuicio de las víctimas.

Prior to the change brought about by S v M,[1] the interests of children were only considered as a circumstance or mitigating factor of the offender during the sentencing process. The article will discuss case law in order to determine the impact that the inclusion of the human rights of the child had on the sentencing process if the offender was the primary caregiver of the child. Specific reference is made to Sections 28(2) and 28(1)(b) of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996. The article will then consider whether this inclusion might improve therapeutic outcomes without the apprehension that the interests of justice would be forfeited. A therapeutic outcome is brought about when the attention is placed on the human, emotional and psychological side of the law. It is concluded that the Zinn triad remains the basic measure to be used by sentencing courts to determine an appropriate sentence. Should the sentence be direct imprisonment, the court has to ensure that the children receive appropriate care as prescribed by Section 28(1)(b). Should a range of sentences be considered, even though the court has a wide discretion to decide which factors should be allowed to influence the measure of punishment, when the offender is a primary caregiver, Section 28(2) must be included as an independent factor. It is also concluded from the case law discussion that the inclusion of the human rights of the child in the sentencing process did not automatically give rise to a therapeutic outcome, although in some judgments it did result in a therapeutic outcome. Thus, the consideration of the human rights of the children during the sentencing process creates the opportunity for a therapeutic outcome.[1] 2007 2 SACR 539 (CC).

The paper presents research findings with 56 Roma children from Macedonia and Serbia between the ages of 3-6 years. The children’s knowledge of Romani as their mother tongue was assessed with a specially designed test. The test measures the children’s comprehension and production of different types of grammatical knowledge such as wh–questions, wh-complements, passive verbs, possessives, tense, aspect, the ability of the children to learn new nouns and new adjectives, and repetition of sentences. In addition, two pictured narratives about Theory of Mind were given to the children. The hypothesis of the authors was that knowledge of the complex grammatical categories by children will help them to understand better the Theory of Mind stories. The results show that Roma children by the age of 5 know most of the grammatical categories in their mother tongue and most of them understand Theory of Mind. References Bakalar, P. (2004). The IQ of Gypsies in Central Europe. The Mankind Quarterly, XLIV, (3&4), 291-300. Bedore L.M., Peña E.D., García, M. & Cortez, C. (2012). Conceptual versus monolingual scoring: when does it make a difference? J Speech Lang Hear Res 55(1), 1-15. Berko, J. (1958). The Child's Learning of English Morphology. Word 14, 150-177. Berman, R. & Slobin, D. (2009). Relating Events in Narrative: A Cross-Linguistic developmental Study, vol. 1. New York and London: Psychology Press. Bialystok, E. (2001). Bilingualism in development: Language literacy and cognition. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge. Bialystok, E. & Craik, F. (2010). Cognitive and Linguistic processing in the bilingual mind. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19, (1), 19-23. Bialystok, E., Craik, F., and Freedman, M. (2007). Bilingualism as a protection against the onset of symptoms of dementia. Neuropsychologia, 45, 459-464. Brucker, J. L. (n.d). A study of Barriers to Educational Attainment in the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. www.unicef.org/ceecis/Roma_children.pdf Bruner, J. (1986). Actual mind, possible worlds. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Carlson, S. & Meltzoff, A. (2008). Bilingual Experience and Executive Functioning. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 6 (1), 1-15. Chen, C. & Stevenson. H. (1988). Cross-Linguistic Differences in Digit Span of Preschool Children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 46, 150-158 Conti-Ramsden, S., Botting, N. & Faragher, B. (2001). Psycholinguistic Marker for specific Language Impairment (SLI). Journal of Language Psychology and Psychiatry, 42 (6), 741-748. Curenton, S. M. (2004). The association between narratives and theory of mind for low-income preschoolers. Early Education and Development, 15 (2), 120–143. Deen, Kamil Ud (2011). The Acquisition of the Passive. In de Villiers, J. & T. Roeper. (eds) Handbook of Generative Approaches to Language Acquisition (pp. 155-188). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publisher. de Villiers, J., Pace, A., Yust, P., Takahesu Tabori, A., Hirsh-Pasek, K., Golinkoff, R. M., Iglesias, A., & Wilson, M.S. (2014). Predictive value of language processes and products for identifying language delays. Poster accepted to the Symposium on Research in Child Language Disorders, Madison, WI. de Villiers, J. G. (2015). Taking Account of Both Languages in the Assessment of Dual Language Learners. In Iglesias, A. (Ed) Special issue, Seminars in Speech, 36 (2) 120-132. de Villiers, J. G. (2005). Can language acquisition give children a point of view? In J. Astington & J. Baird (Eds.), Why Language Matters for Theory of Mind. (pp186-219) New York: Oxford Press. de Villiers J. G. & Pyers, J. (2002). Complements to Cognition: A Longitudinal Study of the Relationship between Complex Syntax and False-Belief Understanding. Cognitive Development, 17: 1037-1060. de Villiers, J. G., Roeper, T., Bland-Stewart, L. & Pearson, B. (2008). Answering hard questions: wh-movement across dialects and disorder. Applied Psycholinguistics, 29: 67-103. Friedman, E., Gallová Kriglerová, E., Kubánová, M. & Slosiarik, M. (2009). School as Ghetto: Systemic Overrepresentation of Roma in Special Education in Slovakia. Roma Education Fund. ERRC (European Roma Rights Center) (1999). A special remedy: Roma and Special schools for the Mentally Handicapped in the Czech Republic. Country Reports Series no. 8 (June) ERRC (European Roma Rights Centre) (2014). Overcoming barriers: Ensuring that the Roma children are fully engaged and achieving in education. The office for standards in education. online at http://www.errc.org ERRC (European Roma Rights Centre) (2015). Czech Republic: Eight years after the D.H. judgment a comprehensive desegregation of schools must take place http://www.errc.org Fremlova, L. & Ureche, H. (2011). From Segregation to Inclusion: Roma pupils in the United Kingdom. A Pilot research Project. Budapest: Roma Education Fund. Gleitman, L., Cassidy, K., Nappa, R., Papafragou, A. & Trueswell, J. (2005). Hard words. Language Learning and Development, 1, 23-64. Goetz, P. (2003). The effects of bilingualism on theory of mind development. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition. 6. 1-15. Hart, B. & Risley, T.R (1995). Meaningful Differences in the Everyday Experiences of Young American Children. Baltimore, MD: Brookes Publishing Heath, S. B. (1982). What no Bedtime Story Means: Narrative skills at home and at school. In Language and Society. 11.2:49-76. Hirsh-Pasek, K., Kochanoff, A., Newcombe, N. & de Villiers, J.G. (2005). Using scientific knowledge to inform preschool assessment: making the case for empirical validity. Social Policy report (SRCD) Volume XIX, 1, 3-19. Hirsh-Pasek K., Adamson, I.B., Bakeman, R., Tresch Owen, M., Golinkoff, R.M., Pace, A., Yust, P & Suma, K. (2015). The Contribution of Early Communication Quality to Low- Income Children’s Language Success. Psychological Science Online First, June 5, 2015 doi:10.1177/0956797615581493 Hoff, E. (2013). Interpreting the early language trajectories of children from low-SES and language minority homes: implications for closing achievement gaps. Developmental Psychology, 49(1):4-14. Hoff, E. & Elledge, C. (2006). Bilingualism as One of Many Environmental Variables that Affect Language Development in Young Children. In J. Cohen, K. McAlister & J. MacSwan (Eds.), Proceedings of the 4th International symposium on Bilingualism (pp. 1034-1040). Somerville, Ma: Cascadilla press. Hoge, W. (1998). A Swedish Dilemma: The Immigrant Ghetto. The New York Times, October 6th. Kovacs, A. (2009). Early Bilingualism Enhances Mechanisms of False-Belief Reasoning. Developmental Science, 12 (1), 48-54. Kyuchukov, H. (2005). Early socialization of Roma children in Bulgaria. In: X. P. Rodriguez-Yanez, A. M. Lorenzo Suarez & F. Ramallo (Eds.), Bilingualism and Education: From the Family to the School. Muenchen: Lincom Europa. (pp. 161-168) Kyuchukov, H. (2010) Romani language competence. In: J. Balvin and L. Kwadrants (Eds.), Situation of Roma Minority in Czech, Hungary, Poland and Slovakia (pp. 427-465). Wroclaw: Prom. Kyuchukov, H. (2014). Acquisition of Romani in a Bilingual Context. Psychology of Language and Communication, vol. 18 (3), 211-225. Kyuchukov, H. (2013). Romani language education and identity among the Roma children in European context. In: J. Balvin, L. Kwadrans and H. Kyuchukov (eds) Roma in Visegrad Countries: History, Culture, Social Integration, Social work and Education (pp. 465-471). Wroclaw: Prom. Kyuchukov, H. (2015). Socialization of Roma children through Roma oral culture. In: Socializaciya rastushego cheloveka v kontekste progressyivnyih nauchnich ideii XXI veka: socialnoe razvitie detey doshkolnogo vozrastta. [Socialization of the growing man in the context of progressive ideas of the XXI c.: social development of the preschool age children] Proceedings form the First international All-Russia conference, 1-3 April, Yakutsk, pp. 798-802. Kyuchukov, H. & de Villiers, J. (2009). Theory of Mind and Evidentiality in Romani-Bulgarian Bilingual children. Psychology of Language and Communication, 13(2), 21-34. Kyuchukov, H. & de Villiers, J. (2014a). Roma children’s knowledge on Romani. Journal of Psycholinguistics, 19, 58-65. Kyuchukov, H. & de Villiers, J. (2014b). Addressing the rights of Roma children for a language assessment in their native language of Romani. Poster presented at the 35th Annual Symposium on Research in Child Language Disorders in Madison, Wisconsin June 12-14. Lajčakova, J. (2013). Civil Society Monitoring Report on the Implementation of the National Roma Integration Strategy and Roma Decade Action Plan in 2012 in Slovakia. Budapest: Decade of Roma Inclusion. Secretariat Foundation. Landry, S. and the School Readiness Research Consortium (2014). Enhancing Early Child Care Quality and Learning for Toddlers at Risk: The Responsive Early Childhood Program. Developmental Psychology, 50 (2), 526-541. Lust, B., Flynn, S. & Foley, C. (1996). What Children Know about What They Say: Elicited Imitation as a Research Method for Assessing Children's Syntax. In D. McDaniel, C. McKee, & H. Smith Cairns (Eds.), Methods for Assessing Children's Syntax (pp. 55-76). Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. Maratsos, M., Fox, D.E.C., Becker, J.A. & Chalkley, M.A. (1985). Semantic restrictions on children’s passives. Cognition, 19, 167-191. Merz, E.C. Zucker, T.A., Landry, S.H. Williams, J., Assel, M., Taylor, H.B, Lonigan, C.L., Phillips, B., Clancy-Menchetti, J., Barnes, M., Eisenberg, N., de Villiers, J. (2015). Parenting predictors of cognitive skills and emotion knowledge in socioeconomically disadvantaged preschoolers. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 132, 14-31 Pearson, B. Z., Jackson, J. E., & Wu, H. (2014). Seeking a valid gold standard for an innovative dialect-neutral language test. Journal of Speech-Language and Hearing Research. 57(2). 495-508. Reger, Z. (1999). Teasing in the linguistic socialization of Gypsy children in Hungary. Acta Linguistica Hungarica, 46, 289-315. Réger, Z. and Berko-Gleason, J. (1991). Romāni Child-Directed Speech and Children's Language among Gypsies in Hungary Language in Society, 20 (4), 601-617. Roeper, T & de Villiers, J.G. (2011). The acquisition path for wh-questions. In de Villiers, J.G. & Roeper, T. (Eds), Handbook of Generative Approaches to Language Acquisition. Springer. Seymour, H., Roeper, T. & de Villiers, J. (2005). The DELV-NR. (Norm-referenced version) The Diagnostic Evaluation of Language Variation. The Psychological Corporation, San Antonio. Schulz, P. & Roeper, T. (2011). Acquisition of exhaustively in wh-questions: a semantic dimensions of SLI. Lingua, 121(3), 383-407. Stokes, S. F., Wong, A. M-Y., Fletcher, P., & Leonard, L. B. (2006). Nonword repetition and sentence repetition as clinical markers of SLI: The case of Cantonese. Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research, 49(2), 219-236. Vassilev, R. (2004). The Roma of Bulgaria: A Pariah Minority. The Global Review of Ethnopolitics, 3 (2), 40-51. Wellman, H.M., Cross, D., & Watson, J. (2001). Meta-analysis of theory-of-mind development: The truth about false belief. Child Development, 72, 655-684. Wimmer, H., & Perner, J. (1983). Beliefs about beliefs: Representation and constraining function of wrong beliefs in young children’s understanding of deception. Cognition, 13, 103–128.

Resumen: Esta sentencia del TJUE aborda el ámbito y las condiciones que impone el artículo 15 del Reglamento (CE) 2201/2003, del Consejo, de 27 de noviembre de 2003, relativo a la competencia, el reconocimiento y la ejecución de resoluciones judiciales en materia matrimonial y de responsabilidad parental, para que el tribunal competente se abstenga de conocer del asunto por apreciar que los tribunales de otro Estado miembro con el que el menor presenta una vinculación especial está mejor situado para resolverlo en atención a su superior interés. La sentencia examina las circunstancias de este peculiar forum non conveniens de carácter reglado que es característico de este reglamento comunitario.Palabras clave: competencia judicial internacional; responsabilidad parental; forum non conveniens; remisión del asunto al tribunal mejor situado; interés del menor. Abstract: This ECJ judgment addresses the scope of application and the conditions that art. 15 of Council Regulation (EC) nº 2201/2003 (…) impose in order to a court having jurisdiction may transfer the case to a court of another Member State which the child has a particular connection with and it would be a court better placed to hear the case taking into account the best interest of the child. The Judgment examines the circumstances of this particular and regulated forum non conveniens that is characteristic of this Council Regulation. Keywords: international jurisdiction; parental responsibility; forum non conveniens; transfer to a court better placed to hear the case; best interest of the child.

In this contribution a number of procedural issues related to the sentencing of child offenders and emanating from the Child Justice Act 75 of 2008 are considered in some detail. As a general rule, the Act requires pre-sentence reports to be obtained from probation officers before sentencing any child offender, with only a limited number of exceptions. The article argues that the peremptory nature of the Act means that a probation report is always required, even if reports by other experts are also available. The exceptions are limited to instances other than those where the child offender is sentenced to any form of imprisonment or to residence in a care centre. The article addresses the question of whether or not the reference to imprisonment includes alternative imprisonment which is imposed only as an alternative to a fine. It suggests that alternative imprisonment should, generally, not be imposed on child offenders. When an exception is not prevented because of the sentence, a pre-sentence report may be dispensed with only when the offence is a schedule-1 offence (the least serious class of offences) or when obtaining a report would prejudice the child. It is argued that these exceptions are likely to occur rather rarely. A final aspect of the Act’s provisions on pre-sentence reports is the requirement that reasons be given for a departure from the recommendations in a pre-sentence report. This requirement merely confirms the status quo. The Act permits the prosecutor to provide the court with a victim impact statement. Such a statement is defined in the Act. It is a sworn statement by a victim or someone authorised by the victim explaining the consequences to the victim of the commission of the crime. The article also addresses the issue of whether or not the child justice court might mero motu obtain a victim impact statement when the prosecution does not do so. Finally, the article addresses appeals against and reviews of the trial courts’ sentences. It notes that appeal by the child offender is made somewhat easier, as some child offenders need not obtain leave to appeal. These include children under the age of 16, or older children sentenced to imprisonment. Again, the meaning of “imprisonment” is at least somewhat ambiguous. The provisions on automatic review have attracted considerable judicial attention already. The majority of these judgments confirmed the apparently clear wording of the Act, in terms of which the cases of all child offenders under the age of 16 should be reviewed regardless of whether they were legally represented or of the sentence imposed. In the case of child offenders aged 16 or 17, only custodial sentences are reviewable. The judgments which found this to be an incorrect interpretation are dealt with in some detail, with the conclusion that they were incorrectly decided.

In this study, African American English (AAE)-speaking children's comprehension of 2 different types of double negative sentences was examined and contrasted with that of a comparison group of Standard American English (SAE)-speaking children. The first type of double negative, negative concord, involves 2 negative elements in a sentence that are interpreted together as single negation. The second type of double negative, called true double negation, involves 2 negatives that are interpreted as independent negatives. A cross-sectional cohort of 61 (35 AAE, 26 SAE) typically developing children ranging in age from 5;2 (years;months) to 7;11 participated. The children responded to story-based grammatical judgment tasks that required them to differentiate between negative concord and true double negation. Results revealed no statistically significant differences between AAE- and SAE-speaking children in the way they interpreted negative concord and true double negation. However, there were significantly more correct responses to negative concord sentences across combined groups. In particular, the older children (i.e., 7-year-olds) produced more correct responses to negative concord than did the younger group (i.e., 5-year-olds). Explanations for these findings are framed in terms of children's knowledge about sentences with 2 negatives, the constraints affecting the interpretation of 2 negatives that include negative concord, and the clinical importance of negative concord for assessing specific language impairment in child AAE speakers.

AbstractWe report a longitudinal comprehension study of (long) passive constructions in two native-Spanish child groups differing by age of initial exposure to L2 English (young group: 3;0–4;0; older group: 6;0–7;0), where amount of input, L2 exposure environment, and socioeconomic status are controlled. Data from a forced-choice task show that both groups comprehend active sentences, not passives, initially (after 3·6 years of exposure). One year later, both groups improve, but only the older group reaches ceiling on both actives and passives. Two years from initial testing, the younger group catches up. Input alone cannot explain why the younger group takes five years to accomplish what the older group does in four. We claim that some properties take longer to acquire at certain ages because language development is partially constrained by general cognitive and linguistic development (e.g. de Villiers, 2007; Long & Rothman, 2014; Paradis, 2008, 2010, 2011; Tsimpli, 2014).

This research explored the relationship between sentence disruptions and the length and complexity of sentences spoken by children developing grammar. The study was cross-sectional in design and used samples of naturalistic, conversational interaction between 26 typically developing children (ages 2;6 to 4;0) and a primary caregiver. The active, declarative sentences produced by these children were coded for the presence of disruption, length in morphemes and words, and clausal complexity. The results showed that, for the majority of the children, disrupted sentences tended to be longer and more complex than fluent sentences. The magnitude of the differences in length and complexity was positively correlated with the children's grammatical development, as measured by the Index of Productive Syntax. It was also found that differences between the average complexity of disrupted versus fluent sentences increased with grammatical development even when sentence length was held constant. As grammatical development proceeded, disrupted sentences were more apt to be sentences on the "leading-edge" of the child's production capacity. Although these more advanced grammatical structures are part of the child's grammatical competence, the child cannot produce these sentences without an increased risk of processing difficulty. The results are congruent with proposals concerning the incremental and procedural nature of adult sentence production.

This study describes The principles system of legal protection against Children as criminal perpetrator in Law of the Republic of Indonesia Law Number 11 of 2012 concerning Juvenile Criminal Justice System refer to the Convention on The Rights of The Child and it has covered most of the principles of child protection perpetrator as well. The research method used in this study is a normative legal research because it includes the scope of legal dogmatic learning or researching legal rules. The study also found First, The provision of punishment against the child has been in accordance with that stipulated in Law Number 23 of 2002 concerning Children Protection which states that imprisonment can be applied to the child when there is not last effort any longer, and shall be executed separately from the adult prison;,Second, The Child protection efforts shall be implemented by imposing sentencing restorative (restorative justice) and diversion in the event that completing the requirement of Law Number 11 of 2012 concerning Juvenile Criminal Justice System. Keywords: Sentencing System, Criminal Justice System, Child Protection

The perception of voice similarity was examined in 5-year-old children with normal hearing sensitivity and in pediatric cochlear implant users, 5–12 years of age. Recorded sentences were manipulated to form a continuum of similar-sounding voices. An adaptive procedure was then used to determine how acoustically different, in terms of average fundamental and formant frequencies, 2 sentences needed to be for a child to categorize the sentences as spoken by 2 different talkers. The average spectral characteristics of 2 utterances (including their fundamental frequencies) needed to differ by at least 11%–16% (2–2.5 semitones) for normal-hearing children to perceive the voices as belonging to different talkers. Introducing differences in the linguistic content of the 2 sentences to be compared did not change performance. Although several children with cochlear implants performed similarly to normal-hearing children, most found the task very difficult. Pediatric cochlear implant users who scored above the group mean of 64% of words correct on a monosyllabic open-set word identification task categorized the voices more like children with normal hearing sensitivity.

AbstractIn the shadow of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, adopted and endorsed by 143 nations on 17th September 2007, the then Howard Government suspended the Racial Discrimination Act in Australia to implement the Northern Territory Emergency Response Bill, commonly referred to as the Northern Territory intervention. This legislation included the compulsory acquisition of townships; the suspension of the permit system to access Aboriginal communities; the removal of customary law or cultural practices in any legal considerations in sentencing; the abolition of the Community Development Employment Projects; and the quarantining of a proportion of welfare benefits for all recipients in designated communities. While Australia was one of only four nations who did not endorse the Declaration in 2007, the UN Declaration was subsequently adopted and endorsed in April 2009 by the then Rudd Labor Government. The ratification of the UN Declaration may appear to reflect a change of policy, yet amidst significant Indigenous opposition and criticism of the United Nations, the Gillard Labor Government continued the central tenants of the NT Intervention for a further ten years in the form of the Stronger Futures legislation in 2012. This essay explores some of the tensions and contradictions inherent within legal and political discourse in the recognition of rights between the rights of the child on the one hand, and Indigenous rights and citizenship rights within the Northern Territory Intervention legislation and policy of Stronger Futures in the Northern Territory.

This study investigates the production and online processing of English tense morphemes by sequential bilingual (L2) Turkish-speaking children with more than three years of exposure to English. Thirty-nine six- to nine-year-old L2 children and twenty-eight typically developing age-matched monolingual (L1) children were administered the production component for third person -s and past tense of the Test for Early Grammatical Impairment (Rice & Wexler, 2001) and participated in an online word monitoring task involving grammatical and ungrammatical sentences with presence/omission of tense (third person -s, past tense -ed) and non-tense (progressive -ing, possessive 's) morphemes. The L2 children's performance on the online task was compared to that of children with Specific Language Impairment (SLI) in Montgomery and Leonard (1998, 2006) to ascertain similarities and differences between the two populations. Results showed that the L2 children were sensitive to the ungrammaticality induced by the omission of tense morphemes, despite variable production. This reinforces the claim about intact underlying syntactic representations in child L2 acquisition despite non-target-like production (Haznedar & Schwartz, 1997).

Having explored the youth criminal legislation enacted by the Canadian federal government from the year 1857 to the year 2005, the author attempts to demonstrate that youth criminal intervention has moved from the notion of "child protection" to the notion of "protection of society." The significance of this theoretical shift is that, while the former sort of intervention is mostly concerned with the notions of "reintegration" and "inclusion", the latter is concerned with the notions of "deterrence" and "exclusion." For this study, the author first analyzes the societal factors that led Canadian parliamentarians to enact the Juvenile Delinquents Act (1908). In addition, she focuses on a specific amendment enacted in the year 1924 that "increased" the number of behaviors to be controlled through criminal law legislation. Second, the author discusses the circumstances that led parliamentarians to enact the Young Offenders Act (1982) and the Youth Criminal Justice Act (2002). Moreover, she examines an amendment enacted in the year 1995 that modified the declaration of principles of the Young Offenders Act by introducing the notion of "crime prevention." Finally, she analyzes a case law released in the year 2003 by the Quebec Court of Appeal, Québec v. Canada. This decision declared the unconstitutionality of some specific sections of Bill C-7 (current Youth Criminal Justice Act) that allow the disclosure of young offenders' private information and reverse the onus probandi for the imposition of adult sentences on young offenders. The position of the author is that, even though those sections can be unconstitutional, they are coherent with current theoretical trends in the area of youth criminal law intervention.

Resumen: Este artículo trata sobre la Sentencia del Tribunal de Justicia de la Unión Europea de 19 de noviembre de 2015, relativa al orden público internacional como motivo de denegación del reconocimiento de una resolución en materia de responsabilidad parental y a la prohibición de control de la competencia judicial internacional del tribunal del Estado miembro de origen, en el ámbito del Reglamento 2201/2003.Palabras clave: derecho de custodia, orden público internacional, forum non conveniens, sustracción internacional de menores.Abstract: This article deals with the Judgment of the Court (Fourth Chamber) of 19 November 2015, related to the public policy rule as a ground of non-recognition of judgments in matters of parental responsibility and to the prohibition of review of jurisdiction of the court of origin in the field of Council Regulation (EC) No 2201/2003 of 27 November 2003.Keywords: rights of custody, public policy rule, forum non conveniens, international child abduction.

In the midst of concerns about serious offences committed by young people, the Child Justice Act is the first formal legislative step to introduce restorative justice in South Africa, and promotes reconciliation and problem solving as an approach to the criminal behaviour of youth.This article analyses the new place of restorative justice and ubuntu in the Act through an analysis of the Preamble, Objects and General Principles sections of the Act as well as the chapters on diversion and sentencing. It notes that there is a clear and consistent framework for restorative justice and ubuntu in the Act that accords with the Constitutional Court’s understanding of both concepts.In addition, the article also enquires if the inclusion of these concepts has created a criminal justice system for children that does not hold them properly accountable for their actions. The question as to whether or not the Act has created a "just say sorry" regime is answered in the negative by way of reference to the numerous checks and balances included in the Act by the legislature.In this context it is contended that the inclusion of ubuntu-related ideologies remains relevant to the development of indigenous and locally constructed images of Africanised forms of justice, but that the true test of how it is integrated into the criminal justice system lies in the manner in which criminal justice role-players engage with ubuntu and how its implementation is effected.

This study examined the long- and short-term spectral characteristics of speech simultaneously recorded at the ear and at a reference microphone position (30 cm at 0° azimuth). Twenty adults and 26 children (2–4 years of age) with normal hearing were asked to produce 9 short sentences in a quiet environment. Long-term average speech spectra (LTASS) were calculated for the concatenated sentences, and short-term spectra were calculated for selected phonemes within the sentences (/m/, /n/, /s/, /∫/, /f/, /a/, /u/, and /i/). Relative to the reference microphone position, the LTASS at the ear showed higher amplitudes for frequencies below 1 kHz and lower amplitudes for frequencies above 2 kHz for both groups. At both microphone positions, the short-term spectra of the children's phonemes revealed reduced amplitudes for /s/ and /∫/ and for vowel energy above 2 kHz relative to the adults' phonemes. The results of this study suggest that, for listeners with hearing loss (a) the talker's own voice through a hearing instrument would contain lower overall energy at frequencies above 2 kHz relative to speech originating in front of the talker, (b) a child's own speech would contain even lower energy above 2 kHz because of adult-child differences in overall amplitude, and (c) frequency regions important to normal speech development (e.g., high-frequency energy in the phonemes /s/ and /∫/) may not be amplified sufficiently by many hearing instruments.

The purpose of the present study was to clarify the characteristics of fatal child maltreatment in families with multiple births in Japan. An exhaustive information search was performed to find multiple-birth cases between July 2003 and March 2011. There were 437 cases of fatal maltreatment of children aged 0–17 years during this period, including 14 involving multiple-birth children. A keyword search was performed to create a full profile for each multiple-birth case. The 14 multiple-birth victims were twins from 13 families. No significant difference between twins and singletons with fatal maltreatment was observed for most characteristics. However, in the case of twins, 0-month victims were rare, and the number of children per family was larger. One twin died from shaken baby syndrome. The victim's siblings were also maltreated in six out of 12 relevant cases, including all six co-twins. Premature birth, having a disabled co-twin, delay of growth or development, and parental disfavor tended to be factors of maltreatment when only one twin was maltreated. Four families were given suspended sentences in total, including three mothers who acted as solitary murderers (43% = 3/7). In conclusion, recent Japanese nationwide data suggests that the non-specific overburden of child rearing might be one possible reason for higher frequency of child maltreatment for multiples compared with singletons, and parental comparisons between two twins might be another. The penal sentences for fatal child maltreatment might be more lenient for perpetrators of this crime against twins than against singletons.

Resumen: La sentencia objeto del presente comentario resuelve, en sentido confirmatorio, el recur­so de apelación presentado contra una sentencia de instancia que declara la disolución de un matrimonio celebrado en Israel y adopta las correspondientes medidas definitivas respecto al hijo común. Entre los motivos de apelación, el recurrente alega la existencia de un proceso de divorcio pendiente en Israel, lo que constituye una situación de litispendencia internacional regulada por el artículo 39 LCJIMC. Pero la Audiencia Provincial de Barcelona ignora el precepto, limitándose a desechar la aplicación del artículo 19 del Reglamento 2201/2003, por no tratarse de un supuesto de litispendencia intracomunitaria. Un ra­zonamiento correcto pero incompleto, que se deja en el camino justamente la resolución de la verdadera cuestión jurídica planteada en la litis.Palabras clave: disolución de matrimonio, Reglamento 2201/2003, competencia judicial interna­cional, litispendencia internacional, Ley de Cooperación Jurídica Internacional en Materia Civil, Dere­cho internacional privado.Abstract: The commented sentence resolves, in a confirmatory sense, the appeal filed against an instance judgement declaring the dissolution of a marriage celebrated in Israel and adopting the man­datory measures regarding the common child. Among the grounds of appeal, the appellant alleges the existence of a pending divorce process in Israel, which constitutes a situation of international litigation governed by article 39 Act 29/2015 of July 30. But the Provincial Court of Barcelona ignores the pre­cept, limiting itself to rejecting the application of article 19 of Regulation 2201/2003, since it is not an intra-community litigation case. A correct but incomplete reasoning, which leaves precisely the resolu­tion of the true legal issue raised in the litigation.Keywords: dissolution of marriage, Council Regulation (EC) Nº 2201/2003 of 27 November, in­ternational jurisdiction, Act on International Judicial Cooperation in Civil Matters (Act 29/2015 of July 30), international lis pendes, private international law.

Article 40 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child requires states parties to take appropriate measures to ensure that children accused of committing offences are treated in a manner that would ensure that their best interests are upheld. South Africa ratified the CRC in 1995, the provisions of which have influenced the children’s rights clause in its 1996 Constitution. Section 28(1)(g) of the Constitution stipulates that children may not be detained, except as a measure of last resort and, should they be detained, it should be for the shortest appropriate period of time. Section 28(1)(g) goes further to give domestic effect to the following guarantees stipulated in Article 40 of the CRC: (1) the right to be treated in a manner, and kept in conditions, that take account of the child’s age; and (2) to have a legal practitioner assigned to the child. Recently, SA has enacted its Child Justice Act 75 of 2008, which came into operation on 1 April 2010. The question to be covered in this article is whether this Act truly complies with the international standards set by the CRC (15 years after SA ratified it); the general comments by the United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child and other non-binding, yet persuasive instruments like the Standard Minimum Rules on the Administration of Juvenile Justice and the United Nations Rules for the Protection of Juveniles Deprived of their Liberty. This article only examines four aspects of the Child Justice Act, being: criminal capacity; pretrial release and detention; diversion; and sentencing. It concludes that, but for a few technical aspects of the Child Justice Act, SA took significant steps to comply with its international obligations when it domesticated the CRC in relation to children who commit offences.

Volatile substance abuse (VSA, solvent abuse, ‘glue sniffing’), carries a risk of sudden death (some 700 deaths in the UK, 1996-2006). However, mortality data take no account of the social cost of the habit. From press cuttings we have identified 508 instances (569 individuals: 507 male, median age 25 yr, range 8-51 yr and 62 female, median age 18 yr, range 11-36 yr) where VSA, either alone or together with alcohol/other drugs, was reported in association with criminal or antisocial behaviour that resulted in a criminal conviction or caution. The frequency of reports decreased from 84 per annum (1997 and 1998) to 20 (2007). The agents reported (17 individuals, two agents) were ‘glue’ (225), LPG/‘butane’/aerosol propellants (176), ‘solvents’ (158), and petrol (gasoline) (27). The offences cited (most serious crime) were: homicide (35), rape or other sexual assault (34), arson (25), assault or serious threat of assault (192), child neglect/cruelty (6), attempting to pervert the course of justice (2), criminal damage (41), burglary/robbery/theft/shoplifting (100), nuisance/breach of the peace/breach of antisocial behaviour order (104), driving whilst impaired and other vehicle-related offence (22), and supply (non-retail) (8). Thirty offenders were given life sentences or detained indefinitely under mental health legislation. Reports came from all parts of the UK, although most were from Northern England, Northern Ireland, and Scotland. There were many reports of recidivists; one 34-year-old male had made 113 court appearances, and had spent approximately nine years in custody. Although there are severe limitations to data derived from press cuttings and not-withstanding that in some cases VSA may have been raised in mitigation, these data provide an additional insight into the problem posed by VSA in the UK.

Abstract In a sentence where the disjunction huo ‘or’ appears under the negation mei ‘no’ (e.g.: Ta mei chi qingjiao huo qiezi. ‘He did not eat green peppers or eggplants.’), the sentence is globally ambiguous between the conjunctive interpretation and the disjunctive interpretation. The primary goal of this study is to investigate if there is a default meaning for simple negative statements containing huo ‘or’. Data collected from the self-paced region-by-region reading experiment indicated that the participants consistently preferred the conjunctive interpretation. Additionally, in the conjunction-biased condition where the sentences turned out to favor the disjunctive interpretations at the end, there was reading time penalty at the last region of the sentences and participants spent significantly longer time judging the appropriateness of those sentences. Contrary to Jing’s (2008) assertion that both disjunction and conjunction readings are equally prominent in an out-of-the-blue context, the results from the quantitative data revealed that the conjunction reading is the default meaning for simple negative statements containing huo ‘or’. The findings of the current experiment provide essential implications to the study of child language acquisition. Specifically, we argue that understanding the adults’ linguistic patterns is a prerequisite to the study of children’s language acquisition patterns.

A sample of 2,190 sex offenders seen between 1966 and 2009 was compared on lifetime sexual and all offending, using charges, convictions, court appearances, and self-report as criteria. Of these various criteria, between 47.4% and 81.1% reoffended. Canadian child abuse reporting laws, which came into effect in the 1980s, were associated with increased charges and convictions for offenders, who victimized children, and with a reduction in their longer term reoffense rates. Immigration and population mobility, use of aliases, study follow-up time, and self-reported undetected sex crimes influenced reoffense rates. Results indicate that sex offenders continued to have short prison sentences and/or spend little or no time incarcerated during the latter part of the 20th century.

El 27 de enero de 2014, la Corte Internacional de Justicia (CIJ), órgano judicial principal de la organización de las Naciones Unidas, dio su sentencia en el caso de la controversia marítima (Perú c. Chile), el cual el Perú presentó ante ella en enero de 2008. Durante el proceso ante la Corte, las partes presentaron posiciones fundamentalmente distintas sobre la existencia de un límite marítimo entre ellas y sobre cómo la Corte debía proceder para resolver este caso. Para llegar a su fallo, la Corte debió evaluar esos múltiples argumentos legales planteados por ambos Estados a lo largo de años. En particular, varios de los argumentos legales planteados por el Perú fueron aceptados por la Corte y acogidos en el fallo, desde la interpretación que dio a las proclamaciones de Perú y Chile de 1947, pasando por los argumentos que planteó el Perú sobre la Declaración de Santiago de 1952 (que había sido el núcleo del caso argumentado por Chile, el cual fue descartado por la Corte), hasta el argumento peruano en el sentido de que el Convenio sobre Zona Especial Fronteriza Marítima de 1954 no creó una zona de tolerancia que se extienda por doscientas millas marinas. Sin embargo, la Corte consideró que en ese tratado de 1954 las partes reconocieron la existencia de un acuerdo tácito, figura que no argumentaron las partes ante la Corte, pero que tiene su fundamentación legal en jurisprudencia previa de la CIJ. La Corte luego tuvo que determinar la extensión de ese acuerdo legal tácito, labor sumamente difícil ya que las partes no habían contemplado la existencia de esa figura ni argumentado hasta dónde se habría extendido la misma. Luego de establecer que el acuerdo legal tácito se extendía por ochenta millas marinas a lo largo de un paralelo de latitud, la Corte procedió a establecer un límite marítimo siguiendo exactamente las normas y principios sobre delimitación marítima planteados por el Perú, los cuales aplicados al caso determinan el establecimiento de una línea equidistante. Con relación al punto de inicio del límite marítimo, la Corte no empleó el punto planteado por el Perú pero, correctamente, dejó en claro que el punto de inicio del límite marítimo y el punto de inicio del límite terrestre no tienen necesariamente que coincidir. Finalmente, la manera como la Corte estableció el límite marítimo reconoce sin lugar a duda que el área antes llamada «triángulo exterior» corresponde exclusivamente al Perú, como ese Estado argumentó y Chile se opuso repetidas veces a lo largo de los años. En resumen, se trata de una decisión ajustada al derecho internacional y tomada sobre la base de la evidencia a disposición de la Corte, en la que esta emplea y confirma diversos de los argumentos legales planteados por el Perú durante el proceso, a pesar de todo lo que Chile argumentó contrariamente.

The aims of this study are to know the role of young learner’s parents in choosing good and educating television program for their child, and to describe the effects of TV exposure in their child’s English language development. A five-year-old young learner who lives in Denpasar was observed in 2017. The data were collected by giving a questionnaire to the young learner’s parents in order to get the description of the effects of the television programs to her language development. As it is a following research of the previous research on English vocabulary acquisition, the results of the observation of the young learner and the interview with her parents that have already been done are used to support the analysis of this small research. The collected data were analysed descriptively based on approaches from Barr, et.al. (2010), Christakis (2009), and March (2004) about English language acquisition and language development of young children. The results show that the young learner’s parents have the important role in choosing good and educating television program for her. It can be seen from the choices of cartoon movies as one of the television programs that is educating as well as entertaining for a child in her age, the intensive accompaniment when she was watching the movies, the limitation of television watching time, and also the parents’ assistance in order to help her understand the stories and vocabulary meanings. It is true that good content, context, and the amount of daily TV viewing time as well as parental assistance will be beneficial for the young learner’s second language development in informal learning situation. The effectiveness of watching cartoon movies has led her to gain the positive second language development in her bilingual condition, although English code-switching in Indonesian sentences sometimes occur. Keywords: SLA, English, language development, TV exposure, cartoon movies

En noviembre de 2004, la abogada y juez chilena Karen Atala, presentó una petición ante la Comisión Interamericana de Derechos humanos por considerar al Estado de Chile responsable por la violación de su derecho a la igualdad y no discriminación; a la vida privada y familiar; entre otros. El informe de la Comisión fue favorable a la Sra. Atala, y ante el incumplimiento, por parte del Estado chileno, de las recomendaciones emitidas por la Comisión, ésta decidió llevar el caso ante la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos. A lo largo de los procesos seguidos ante la Comisión y ante la Corte se presentaron numerosos amicus curiae a fin de apoyar tanto la posición de la Sra. Atala como la del Estado chileno. En la actualidad el proceso ha concluido y nos encontramos a la espera de la sentencia que deberá emitir la Corte. En este sentido, este artículo tiene por finalidad exponer los hechos del caso y las cuestiones pertinentes que consideramos que la Corte debe valorar, las cuales han sido debidamente fundamentadas en el escrito de Amicus Curiae presentado por nuestra Facultad ante la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos.

Resumen: Esta sentencia se refiere a la interpretación del art. 8 del Reglamento 2201/2003. La cuestión prejudicial la formuló un tribunal inglés en un procedimiento entre UD y XB, madre y padre de una menor nacida en Bangladés. Se cuestionó si la presencia física de la menor en el Reino Unido constituía un elemento necesario del concepto de residencia habitual, dado que nunca había estado en este país. La cuestión se formuló en un contexto muy particular, pues la menor nació en Bangladés debido a que la madre, supuestamente, estaba siendo retenida bajo coacción en este país por el padre.Palabras clave: residencia habitual, menor lactante, madre retenida bajo coacción en un tercer Estado.Abstract: This judgment refers to the interpretation of Article 8 of Regulation 2201/2003. The request for the preliminary ruling was made by an English court in a proceeding between UD and XB, mother and father of an infant, born in Bangladesh. The English court questioned whether physical presence was an intrinsic element of the concept of habitual residence, as the girl had never been in The United Kingdom. This question was made in a very particular context, as the child was born in Bangladesh because the mother, supposedly, was being kept through coercion in that country by the father.Keywords: habitual residence, infant, mother kept through coercion in a third State.

ABSTRACTRecent analyses have revealed that child-directed speech contains distributional regularities that could, in principle, support young children's discovery of distinct grammatical categories (noun, verb, adjective). In particular, a distributional unit known as the frequent frame appears to be especially informative (Mintz, 2003). However, analyses have focused almost exclusively on the distributional information available in English. Because languages differ considerably in how the grammatical forms are marked within utterances, the scarcity of cross-linguistic evidence represents an unfortunate gap. We therefore advance the developmental evidence by analyzing the distributional information available in frequent frames across two languages (Spanish and English), across sentence positions (phrase medial and phrase final), and across grammatical forms (noun, verb, adjective). We selected six parent–child corpora from the CHILDES database (three English; three Spanish), and analyzed the input when children were aged 2 ; 6 or younger. In each language, frequent frames did indeed offer systematic cues to grammatical category assignment. We also identify differences in the accuracy of these frames across languages, sentences positions and grammatical classes.

This paper explores crime reports on verdicts and sentences in child/teenager murder cases in the British press with a view to demonstrating that ‘simplifi cation’ is one of the signifi cant values of crime reporting, regardless of the type of newspaper (Jewkes 2004). The analysis illustrates how both quality and popular British newspapers employ ‘binary oppositions’ (i.e. a typical feature of simplifi cation), such as good vs. evil, in order to communicate to their audiences the social status of victims and killers and at the same time traditional social values and norms. The employment of ‘binary oppositions’ in noun phrases that introduce and/or classify victims and killers thus enables newspapers to appeal to the public and act, or at least try to act, as moral guardians.

This paper explores crime reports on verdicts and sentences in child/teenager murder cases in the British press with a view to demonstrating that ‘simplifi cation’ is one of the signifi cant values of crime reporting, regardless of the type of newspaper (Jewkes 2004). The analysis illustrates how both quality and popular British newspapers employ ‘binary oppositions’ (i.e. a typical feature of simplifi cation), such as good vs. evil, in order to communicate to their audiences the social status of victims and killers and at the same time traditional social values and norms. The employment of ‘binary oppositions’ in noun phrases that introduce and/or classify victims and killers thus enables newspapers to appeal to the public and act, or at least try to act, as moral guardians.

Resumen: La Sentencia TJUE, de 19 de septiembre de 2018, Hampshire County Council contra C.E. y N.E, asuntos acumulados C 325/18 PPU y C 375/18 PPU, responde a cuestiones prejudicial, que tienen como cuestión fundamental de fondo la protección del interés del menor, que prevalece frente a cualquier sujeto, en este caso frente a la autoridad local responsable de la protección de la infancia, de Reino Unido. En este caso, el TJUE se muestra a favor de que un Tribunal de un Estado miembro pueda adoptar medidas cautelares contra el citado organismo público, de otro Estado miembro, con objeto de que no pueda seguir o entablar un procedimiento de adopción.Palabras clave: Reglamento 2201/2003, restitución del menor, tutela judicial efectiva, interés del menor.Abstract: The CJUE judgement of 19 September 2018, Hampshire County Council v C.E., N.E., In Joined Cases C-325/18 PPU and C-375/18 PPU, responds to questions for a preliminary ruling, which have as a fundamental issue the protection of the child’s interests, that prevails in front of any subject, in this case in front of the local authority responsible for the protection of children, of the United Kingdom. In this case, the CJEU is in favor of a court of a Member State being able to take preventive measures against the public body of another Member State, so that it cannot continue or initiate an adoption procedure.Keywords: Regulation 2201/2003, return the children, effective judicial protection, children’s interests

Language skills affect each other. Before the child is able to speak, read, and write the child first listens. Listening is the earliest ability a child learns among the three other abilities. This is explained also by Tarigan (2008: 2) "in childhood we learn to listen to language then speak, after that we read and write". PPT activities that are able to develop the ability to listen to children through storytelling activities. By telling a child's hearing can be functioned well to help the ability to speak, by increasing vocabulary vocabulary, the ability to say words, train stringing sentences in accordance with the stage of development. The research design used is qualitative descriptive research. The subjects of this study were children aged 3-4 years in PPT Tanjung IX Kenjeran Surabaya. From the results of research the ability to listen is the ability that can be possessed by children through guidance, in group A PPT Tanjung IX Kenjeran Surabaya children the ability to listen to children based on research results is still in the developing stages. To reach the stage it has developed and is developing very well the teacher must guide and train the child. The data analysis technique of the Miles and Huberman model consists of 3 steps namely, data reduction, data display, and conclusion drawing / verification. The conclusion of this study is that the child is in the stage of developing according to the expected indicators. Situation factors are the factors that most influence the ability to listen to children in storytelling activities. The method used by teachers in PPT Tanjung IX Kenjeran Surabaya is the method of recounting, working on it, answering questions and paraphrase

Background: The Listening in Spatialized Noise—Sentences test (LiSN-S; Cameron and Dillon, 2009) was originally developed to assess auditory stream segregation skills in children aged 6 to 11 yr with suspected central auditory processing disorder. The LiSN-S creates a three-dimensional auditory environment under headphones. A simple repetition-response protocol is used to assess a listener's speech reception threshold (SRT) for target sentences presented in competing speech maskers. Performance is measured as the improvement in SRT in dB gained when either pitch, spatial, or both pitch and spatial cues are incorporated in the maskers. A North American-accented version of the LiSN-S (NA LiSN-S) is available for use in the United States and Canada. Purpose: To develop normative data for adolescents and adults on the NA LiSN-S, to compare these data with those of children aged 6 to 11 yr as documented in Cameron et al (2009), and to consolidate the child, adolescent, and adult normative and retest data to allow the software to be used with a wider population. Research Design: In a descriptive design, normative data and test-retest reliability data were collected. Study Sample: One hundred and twenty normally hearing participants took part in the normative data study (67 adolescents aged 12 yr, 1 mo, to 17 yr, 10 mo, and 53 adults aged 19 yr, 10 mo, to 30 yr, 30 mo). Forty-nine participants returned between 1 and 4 mo after the initial assessment for retesting. Participants were recruited from sites in Cincinnati, Dallas, and Calgary. Results: When combined with data collected from children aged 6 to 11 yr, a trend of improved performance as a function of increasing age was found across performance measures. ANOVA (analysis of variance) revealed a significant effect of age on performance. Planned contrasts revealed that there were no significant differences between adults and children aged 13 yr and older on the low-cue SRT; 14 yr and older on talker and spatial advantage; 15 yr and older on total advantage; and 16 yr and older on the high-cue SRT. Mean test-retest differences on the various NA LiSN-S performance measures for the combined child, adult, and adolescent data ranged from 0.05 to 0.5 dB. Paired comparisons revealed test-retest differences were not significant on any measure of the NA LiSN-S except low-cue SRT. Test-retest differences across measures did not differ as a function of age. Test and retest scores were significantly correlated for all NA LiSN-S measures. Conclusions: The ability to use either spatial or talker cues in isolation becomes adultlike by about 14 yr of age, whereas the ability to combine spatial and talker cues does not fully mature until closer to adulthood. By consolidating child, adolescent, and adult normative and retest data the NA LiSN-S can now been utilized to assess auditory processing skills in a wider population.

Outcomes of 21 children who were previously identified as late talkers were investigated at 5 years of age. The model of service delivery used for these children included a parent program for preventive intervention when the children were 2 years old, followed by focused direct intervention for children whose gains in speech and/or language skills continued to be slow. Their outcomes at 5 years of age were investigated using general language measures as well as higher level language tasks designed to stress the language system. Late talkers’ results were compared to those of a comparison group of children with histories of typical language development. Scores on standardized tests of language development indicated that the majority of late-talking children (i.e., 86%) had ‘caught up’ to their age-matched peers in expressive grammar and vocabulary. However, weaknesses remained in a number of higher level language areas, including a standardized test designed to measure facility with teacher-child discourse, a novel task that examined the child's use of pragmatic cues for anaphora resolution of ambiguous sentences, and narrative tasks. The clinical implications of these findings include close monitoring of these children as they reach school age and intervention in key areas of weakness for children who continue to demonstrate language difficulties as they mature.

Abstract Growth models for subtests of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, 4th edition (R. L. Thorndike, E. P. Hagen, & J. M. Sattler, 1986a, 1986b) were developed for individuals with Down syndrome. Models were based on the assessments of 208 individuals who participated in longitudinal and cross-sectional research between 1987 and 2004. Variation in performance among individuals was large and significant across all subtests except Memory for Sentences. Scores on the Memory for Sentences subtest remained low between ages 4 to 30 years. Greatest variation was found on the Pattern Analysis subtest, where scores continued to rise into adulthood. Turning points for scores on the Vocabulary and Comprehension subtests appeared premature relative to normative patterns of development. The authors discuss development at the subdomain level and analyze both individual and group trajectories.

The intention of the drafters of the 2006 Sexual Offences Act of Kenya was to curb the growing number of sexual crimes. The application of Section 8 of the Act by courts of law has, encountered some challenges, however, especially where adolescents are involved. Key among them is the identification of a victim where there is mutual defilement by children; the interpretation of Section 8(5) and (6) which provides a defence where the said child acted as an adult; the unjust outcomes of the mandatory minimum sentences in the Act; and the potential hindrance to the right to access reproductive health by adolescents. Therefore, this study seeks to provide solutions in dealing with these challenges. It advances the position that in certain instances, adolescents may consent to sexual intercourse, and so, stiff criminal sanctions may seem unwarranted. This study will rely on multidisciplinary studies such as medicine, in addition to the law, to further this argument. It proposes certain legislative reforms in order to avoid injustices while maintaining the legitimate interests of society to protect minors from sexual molestation.

La decisión legislativa de abrir la institución del matrimonio a las parejas formadas por personas del mismo sexo y de permitirles la adopción de menores, a través de la Ley 13/2005, generó en nuestro país un, en ocasiones, enconado debate doctrinal. Si la pretensión del Tribunal Constitucional en su Sentencia 198/2012, que resuelve el recurso de inconstitucionalidad promovido contra la citada Ley, era superar dicho debate, no parece que lo haya conseguido. La opción de la mayoría de realizar una interpretación evolutiva de la Constitución, o los argumentos manejados en los Votos Particulares propician nuevas reflexiones, como son las que se ofrecen en el presente estudio.The legislative decision that opened in our legal system the marriage institution to same-sex couples, allowing child adoption, provoked, at some point, an intense doctrinal debate. If the intention of the Spanish Constitutional Court, through the Judgment 198/2012, that settled the constitutional demand promoted against the cited decision, was to finish those debates, it doesn´t seem that the purpose was achieved. The majoritarian option dealing with an evolutive interpretation of the Constitution, or the reasons given in the dissent opinions, brought new considerations, like the ones given in this paper.

This research to know the legal basis for investigation of cases of children who distribute pharmaceutical preparation which does not have a marketing authorization, the implementation of the investigation on the case of children who distribute pharmaceutical preparation which does not have a marketing authorization in the territory of the police station of the Kudus, barriers and solutions in the implementation of the investigation on the case of children who circulate preparations pharmacy that does not have a marketing authorization in the territory of the Kudus Police.The method used is empirical juridical methods. Specifications research used the descriptive analysis. Data was collected by interviewing the parties involved in research, direct observation and recording of documents.The results showed that the basic legal basis for investigation of trafficking cases and abuse of pharmaceutical preparations without a marketing authorization is Act No.36 of 2009 on Health, which sentencing criminal offense trafficking and abuse of pharmaceutical preparations without a marketing authorization provided for in Article 197, it refers to the the provisions of Article 106 paragraph (1) in the form of pharmaceutical preparations and medical devices can only be released after obtaining marketing authorization. The process of investigation of the case of children who distribute pharmaceuticals do not have a marketing authorization in the territory of the Kudus Police have been done by the procedural law in Indonesia, namely the Criminal Code, it is proved to have been implemented procedures Investigators action in the process of investigation. The process of investigation is also under the provisions of Article 189Undang Act No. 36 of 2009 on Health and Act No. 3 of 1997 on Juvenile Court and the provisions of Article 82 of Act No. 23 of 2002 on Child Protection. Barriers faced by investigators Kudus Police in carrying out investigation on the case of children who distribute pharmaceuticals do not have a marketing authorization in the jurisdiction of the Kudus Police is limited both the quantity and quality of human resources of law enforcement officers who understand the case for children, operating costs, low awareness of the witness in attending the examination process, the lack of legal awareness of the society and time specified in the investigation of cases children are very little, while filing must be submitted as soon as possible.Keywords: Investigation; Children; Pharmacy Circulation Without Permission.

Protection of children as perpetrators of crime will never stop throughout the history of life, because children are the next generation of the nation and the next generation of development, that is, the generation prepared as subjects for implementing sustainable development and controlling the future of a country. This type of research is normative juridical and descriptive analyst. The legal arrangements for the theft of violence with the result that the death of a victim is regulated in Article 365 of the Criminal Law Act, linked to Law 35 of 2014 Amendment to Law No.23 of 2002 concerning Child Protection, and Law No. 11 of 2012 Amendment to Law No. 3 of 1997 concerning Juvenile Courts. Legal protection that children get protection, accompanied by a Legal Counsel, Psychologist, the existence of peace efforts between the parties concerned. Sanctions and sentences in Decision No. 37 / Pid.Sus-Anak / 2017 / PN. Mdn because the perpetrators violated Article 365 paragraph (4) of the Criminal Code, considering Law Number 11 of 2012 concerning the Criminal Justice System for Children, the offender was sentenced to a prison sentence of six years.

– In Spain the compassionate use and off-label prescription, are both regulated in the same law: the Royal Decree 1015/2009. This norm facilitates the access to drugs in specific clinical situations, similar to US regulation and in a different way to the UE regulation.– It is a legal practice to prescribe in an off-label manner if the following requirements are followed: there are no authorized therapeutic alternatives, prescribed in health centers, when access to these drugs is provided through a protocol of use after justifying (written) and properly informing (verbal) and obtaining the patient's consent.– When prescribing off-label the doctor's decision is based on contrasted scientific evidence (not merely on personal intuition nor personal experience). In fact, this anticipates an eventual update of the data sheet for new indications or populations, unlike the French situation where they have the ATU (Temporary Utilization Authorization).– In Spain the holder of the Marketing Authorization is obliged not to promote or advertise the use of the drug in different conditions to those approved (unlike the USA regulation).– The jurisprudential analysis from the Spanish Courts states that the doctor's responsibility is equal than that concerning on-label prescription, that is, only in the case of bad medical praxis (as in the USA). The most important cause of sentencing were: the lack of informed consent, lack of control of the medication and lack of correct follow-up of the illness, whereas this does not include the drug, dose, duration or even the patient's age.– In European Union the general rule dictated by the Courts is to permit off-label use if this is according to the best medical practice (lex artis ad hoc). Even more, there are some specific cases (in Germany, like in the USA) where it is possible to generate doctor's responsibility for no prescribing in a off-label manner.

According to a process called selected focusing, the linguist in order to produce a coherent statement or an adequate description has to focus on one aspect of a language and exclude the others. Yet, such isolation is only an artificial element. A layman or a child does not have a least idea about the various levels of language. Yet, he is very-well equipped with the grammatical, structural, and semantic tools that help him to instantly identify the ill-formed or unmeaningful sentences of his native language as language is learned and taught as a whole. With regard to syntax-semantics interface in linguistic literature, two opposite mainstreams have been found; a syntactically- oriented perspective (Chomsky 1957, 65, 79, 81, Cullicover 1976, Radford 1988, Horrock 1987, and Haegman 1992) modified and supported later on by the Optimality Theory approach (henceforth OT) established by Alan Prince and Paul Smolensky (1993) and a semantically-oriented one in its two facets the generative and the interpretive (Jerrold J. Katz & Jerry A. Fodor: 1963, George Lakoff 1963) developed in some of its aspects by Charles Fillmore's case grammar (1968). Furthermore, a great deal of effort has been proposed in line with these two opposite approaches to produce some experimental psycholinguistic and neurolinguistic studies to support or reject one or both of them (Millar & Mckean 1964, Savin & Perchonock 1965, and Clifton & Odom 1966, Gleason, J. & Ratner, N. 1993, Friederici, Angela D., & Jürgen Weissenborn 2007). The early generative transformational approach went too far in insisting that the syntactic aspect has an autonomous characteristic and should be dealt with in isolation from semantics; others argue that they are interrelated and cannot be separated. Some linguists as the generative semanticists consider semantics as more basic in grammatical description than syntax; whereas, others hold a totally reversed approach assuming that semantics cannot be described and it should be considered as an extra-linguistic element. This paper is at attempt to shed some light on this serious linguistic controversy to arrive at some general outlines that might help the linguistic theorists, language second/foreign teachers and students to establish a scientific scheme in dealing with language.

The first issue of 2013 contains fifteen contributions dealing with a potpourri of themes. The first contribution is an oratio presented by the retired Dean of the Faculty of Law of the NWU and former editor of PER, Francois Venter, during his exodus in October 2012. He gave his presentation in his mother tongue, Afrikaans, and asks the question if one may assume that being a professor entails belonging to a profession, in other words, an academic profession. The second oratio was a keynote speech delivered by Torsten Stein, the Director of the Institute of European Studies and holder of the chair for European law and European Public Law at Saarland University, Germany. He delivered his speech during November 2012 at the 3rdHuman Rights Indaba on The Role of International Law in Understanding and Applying the Socio-economic Rights in South Africa's Bill of Rights, which was held by the Faculty of Law (NWU, Potchefstroom Campus) in collaboration with the Konrad-Adenauer Foundation. He shared some thoughts about the nature, development and implementation of socio-economic rights within an international and European setting. The next nine articles make up the bulk of this issue. The first one is by Babatunde Fagbayibo, who gives an analytical overview of the common problems affecting supranational attempts in Africa. He argues that Africa's efforts to solidify its unity should be geared towards building on the experiences of past and present experiments at the sub-regional level. Samantha Goosen discusses the very thorny issue of battered women and the elements of self-defence if she has to stand trial for killing her husband. Recent developments in the area of pro bono legal services are the heart of Dave Holness' article. He focuses on legal service delivery for the indigent by attorneys in private practice acting pro bono in civil rather than criminal matters. Henk Kloppers discusses the very topical issue of corporate social responsibility. He gives an overview of the social and ethics committee created in terms of the Companies Act 71 of 2008 as a potential driver of corporate social responsibility. The always newsworthy theme of HIV/AIDS and the question of whether to disclose or not to disclose one's status forms the focal point of Andra le Roux-Kemp's contribution. Chucks Okpaluba gives an overview of South African and Commonwealth decisions dealing with the issue of reasonable and probable cause in the law of malicious prosecution. The never-ending problem of language diversity once again comes to the fore in the article by Loot Pretorius. He asks the question if the recently adopted Use of Official Languages Act 12 of 2012 complies with the normative instructions of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996. In his second essay on the Child Justice Act 75 of 2008, Stephan Terblanche deals with a number of procedural issues related to the sentencing of child offenders. The last article, which is by Bonnie Venter, deals with the ethical question of whether the payment of kidney donors could be regarded as constitutionally acceptable or not. In the first of five notes, Nqobizwe Ngema asks if the African custom of theleka (the withholding of a wife by her father or guardian from her husband to coerce him to pay the outstanding lobolo) has an impact on the custody of children in the context of the best interest of the child. The central question Phazha Ngandwe asks is how states can discharge their duties and obligations vis-à-vis their nationals without perpetuating the bottlenecks to and the stigma that attaches to migration and thereby upsetting the international and regional integration objectives of the free movement of people. Mzukisi Njotini's note discusses the adequacy of South Africa's measures designed to protect critical information infrastructures. In the second last note, Anthea Wagener considers the practice of South African motor-vehicle insurers of using gender as a rating variable to classify risks into certain classes, thereby determining insurance premiums, and asks if this practice boils down to unfair discrimination. The final note by Anri Botes deals with the history of labour hire in our neighbouring country, Namibia.

Abstrak - Kasus Terorisme sejak beberapa tahun kebelakang banyak dijumpai bermacam jenis kejahatan terorisme baik berupa aksi teror dengan menggunakan bom maupun dengan kejahatan. Tidak sedikit tindak pidana terorisme yang dilakukan oleh anak dibawah umur. Tujuan penelitian ini untuk mengetahui pengaturana anak yang terlibat Tindak Pidana Terorisme, mengetahui faktor penyebab anak terlibat Tindak Pidana Terorisme, dan untuk mengetahui bagaimana pertanggungjawaban jika anak terlibat Tindak Pidana Terorisme. Penelitian ini menggunakan library research atau metode penelitian kepustakaan. Adapun sumber data yang digunakan adalah bahan hukum primer, sekunder dan tersier.data akan dianalisa dengan menggunakan metode deskriptif-analisis. Landasan terori yang digunakan adalah teori tangung jawab negara. Berdasarkan analisa data yang dilakukan, diperoleh kesimpulan bahwa pengaturan Tindak Pidana Terorisme berdasarkan Undang-Undang Nomor 5 tahun 2018 tentang Perubahan Atas Undang-Undang Nomor 1 Tahun 2002 tentang Pemberantasan Tindak Pidana Terorisme berdasarkan pasal 19 dan 24 dalam penjatuhan hukuman minimum tidak berlaku bagi anak dibawah 18 (delapan belas) tahun, faktor penyebab anakt terlibat yaitu berdasarkan terori motivasi, faktor usia, faktor kelamin, faktor kedudukan anak dalam keluarga, serta faktor dorongan dari keluarga itu sendiri, dan pertanggungjawaban anak dibawah umur yaitu dilakukan pemidaan tetapi tidak boleh melebihi ½ dari hukuman orang dewasa. Kata Kunci : Tindak Pidana Terorsme dilakukan oleh Anak dibawah Umur. Abstract - Terrorism Cases since the past few years many types of terrorism crimes have been found, both in the form of acts of terror using bombs and with crimes. Not a few criminal acts of terrorism committed by minors. The purpose of this study was to determine the organization of children involved in criminal acts of terrorism, determine the factors causing children to be involved in criminal acts of terrorism, and to find out how responsibility if children are involved in criminal acts of terrorism. This research uses library research or library research methods. The data sources used are primary, secondary and tertiary legal materials. The data will be analyzed using descriptive-analysis method. The theoretical foundation used is the theory of state responsibility. Based on the analysis of the data conducted, it was concluded that the regulation of Terrorism Crimes based on Law Number 5 of 2018 concerning Amendment to Law Number 1 of 2002 concerning Eradication of Terrorism Crimes under articles 19 and 24 in the imposition of minimum sentences does not apply to children under 18 (eighteen) years, the causative factors involved are based on motivational theory, age factors, sex factors, the position of the child in the family, as well as the encouragement factors of the family itself, and the responsibility of minors, namely carried out convictions but may not exceed ½ of adult punishment. Keywords : Crime of Terrorism is carried out by Minors.

The aim of the article is to describe psycholinguistic meanings of the word-stimulus “playfulness” in the linguistic world-image of the Russian-speaking population of Ukraine. The main method of the conducted research was the psycholinguistic experiment. The sample according to the criteria “gender” (males and females – included both age groups) and “age” (18-35 and 36-60) included 1,600 respondents with 400 people in each sub-group of respondents. The overall number of reactions to stimulus “playfulness” comprised 1,600 associative reactions with 475 unique associations including word combinations and sentences, where 159 reactions have frequency over 1,316 individual associations, and 0 refusals. The semantic interpretation of the results of the free association test made it possible to single out 19 psycholinguistic meanings, 12 out of them accounted for more than 1%: 1) “cheerful and joyful state”, 2) “intention to attract the attention of the opposite or one’s own sex”, 3) “child-like spontaneity”, 4) “agility, physical activity of an animal”, 5) “daring and provocative behavior”, 6) “agility, physical behavior of a human being”, 7) “ease”, 8) “changeability”, 9) “behavior during a sexual intercourse”, 10) “carelessness”, 11) “mental activity”, 12) “deliberate deceit”. Taking into account the respondents’ verbal behavior, the following components of playfulness were identified: flirting, impishness, humor, fugue (eccentricity), ease, imagination. The formulated psycholinguistic meanings of playfulness can be fully considered as such that give the most adequate and reliable model of the systemic significance of the studied word and which reflects the reality of linguistic consciousness. References Barnett, L. A. (2007). The nature of playfulness in young adults. Personality and Individual Differences, 43, 949-958. Bowman, J. R. (1987). Making work play. In: Meaningful play, playful meanings. (pp. 61-71). G.A. Fine (Ed.), Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Bundy, A. C. (1996). Play and playfulness: what to look for. In: Play in Occupational Therapy for Children, (pp. 52-66). D. L. Parham & L. S. Fazio (Eds.). St. Louis, MO: Mosby. Chandler, B. E. (1997). The essence of play: a child’s occupation. Bethesda, MD: American Occupational Therapy Association, Inc. Glynn, M. A., Webster, J. (1992). The adult playfulness scale: An initial assessment. Psycho­logical Reports, 71(1), 83-103. Gordiienko-Mytrofanova, I. V. (2014a). Leksikograficheskoie znacheniie slova “igrivost” (podgo­to­­­vitelnyi etap psikholingvisticheskogo eksperimenta) [The lexicographic meaning of the word “playfulness” (the preparatory stage of the psycholinguistic experiment)]. Psychological Prospects Journal, 24, 65-77. Gordiienko-Mytrofanova, I. V. (2014b). Psikhologicheskoie soderzhaniie leksikograficheskikh znachenii slova “igrivyi” (podgotovitelnyi etap psikholingvisticheskogo eksperimenta) [The psychological content of the lexicographic meanings of the word “playful” (the preparatory stage of the psycholinguistic experiment)]. Problemy suchasnoi pedahohichnoi osvity – Problems of Modern Pedagogical Education, 45(2), 419-430. Gordiienko-Mytrofanova, I. V. (2014c). Psikhologicheskaia interpretatsiia leksikograficheskogo opisaniia slova “igrivyi” [Psychological interpretation of the lexicographic description of the word “playful”]. Problemy Suchasnoi Psykholohii – Problems of Modern Psychology, 25, 83-98. Gordienko-Mytrofanova, I., Sypko, A. (2015). Playfulness as a relevant lexeme in the bilingual linguistic consciousness of Ukrainian people. East European Journal of Psycholinguistics, 2(1), 43-51. Gordienko-Mytrofanova, I., Sauta, S. (2016). Playfulness as a peculiar expression of sexual relationships (semantic interpretation of the results of the psycholinguistic experi­ment). European Humanities Studies: State and Society, 1, 46-62. Gordienko-Mytrofanova, I., Kobzieva, I. (2017). Humor as a component of ludic competence. Visnyk [Journal] of the Hryhorii Skovoroda Kharkiv National Pedagogical University, 57, 40-56. Gordienko-Mytrofanova, I., Kobzieva, I. (2018). Concept «Holy Fool» in the Linguistic World-Image of the Russian-Speaking Population of Ukraine. Psycholinguistics, 24(1), 118-133. Gordiienko-Mytrofanova, I., Pidchasov, Y., Sauta, S. Kobzieva, I. (2018). The problem of sample representativeness for conducting experimental and broad psychological research. Psycholinguistics, 23(1), 11-46. Guitard, P., Ferland, F., & Dutil, É. (2005). Toward a better understanding of playfulness in adults. OTJR: Occupation, Participation and Health, 25(1), 9-22. Kondakov, N. I. (1975). The Logical Dictionary-Reference. Moscow: Nauka. Proyer, R. T. (2012). A Psycho-linguistic Study on Adult Playfulness: Its Hierarchical Structure and Theoretical Considerations. Journal of Adult Development, 19(3), 141-149. Proyer, R.T. (2014). A Psycho-Linguistic Approach For Studying Adult Playfulness: A Replication and Extension Toward Relations With Humor, The Journal of Psychology, 148(6), 717-735. Proyer, R.T. (2017). A new structural model for the study of adult playfulness: Assessment and exploration of an understudied individual differences variable. Personality and Individual Differences, 108, 113-122. Rudakova, A. V. (2015). On the concept of an integrated lexicographic meaning of a word and the methodology of its description. Culture of Communication and Its Formation: Interuniversity Collection of Scientific Works, 31, 109-115. Schaefer, C. & Greenberg, R. (1997). Measurement of Playfulness: A Neglected Therapist Variable. International Journal of Play Therapy, 6(2), 21-31. Shen, X. (2010). Adult playfulness as a personality trait: Its conceptualization, measurement, and relationship to psychological well-being. Doctoral dissertation. Retrieved from Pennsylva­nia State University Library Catalog (OCLC No. 859524715). Sternin, I.A., & Rudakova, A.V. (2011). Psikholingvisticheskoie znacheniie slova i yego opisaniie [Psycholinguistic meaning of the word and its description]. Voronezh: Lambert. Tsuji, Hit., Tsuji, Hei., Yamada, S., Natsuno, Y., Morita, Y., Mukoyama, Y., Hata, K., Fujishima, Y. (1996). Standardization of the Five Factor Personality Questionnaire: Factor structure. International Journal of Psychology, 31. Proceedings from the XXVI International Congress of Psychology. August 16–21, 1996, Montreal, Canada. (103-217). Ufimtseva, N. V. (2009). Obraz mira russkikh: sistemnost i soderzhaniie [Image of the world of Russians: the systemic characteristics and the content]. Yazyk i kultura – Language and Culture, 98-111. Yarnal, C., & Qian, X. (2011). Older-adult Playfulness: An innovative construct and measure­ment for healthy aging research. American Journal of Play, 4(1), 52-79. Yue, X. D., Leung, C. L., Hiranandani, N. A. (2016). Adult Playfulness, Humor Styles, and Subjective Happiness. Psychological Reports, 119(3), 630-640.

The main principle when sentencing children is that imprisonment should be a measure of last resort and only for the shortest appropriate period of time. However, contrary to international and foreign law in this regard, South Africa continues to sentence children to life imprisonment. The aim of this article is to contrast our current sentencing practices with regard to life imprisonment for children, with the sentencing principles set out in South African common law and in international law. Furthermore, the article sets out the negative effects of a mandatory life sentence in terms of the minimum sentences legislation.

The Constitutional Court recently declared the Criminal Law (Sexual Offences and Related Matters) Amendment Act 2007 (Act 32 of 2007) unconstitutional in its requirement that the names of child offenders be automatically included on the National Register for Sex Offenders when convicted of a sexual offence against a child or a person with disability. The Court held that automatic inclusion on the Register violated a child’s right in terms of section 28(2) to have their best interests taken into account as the paramount consideration in every matter affecting the child. The Court held that the individual circumstances of children should be taken into account and that they should be given the opportunity to be heard by the sentencing court regarding the placement of their details on the Register. The Court decided that sentencing courts should be given the discretion to decide whether to place a child on the Register or not.