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Journal articles on the topic 'Shade avoidance syndrome (SAS)'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 18 February 2022

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1

Liu, Yang, Feresheeh Jafari, and Haiyang Wang. "Integration of light and hormone signaling pathways in the regulation of plant shade avoidance syndrome." aBIOTECH 2, no. 2 (April 26, 2021): 131–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s42994-021-00038-1.

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AbstractAs sessile organisms, plants are unable to move or escape from their neighboring competitors under high-density planting conditions. Instead, they have evolved the ability to sense changes in light quantity and quality (such as a reduction in photoactive radiation and drop in red/far-red light ratios) and evoke a suite of adaptative responses (such as stem elongation, reduced branching, hyponastic leaf orientation, early flowering and accelerated senescence) collectively termed shade avoidance syndrome (SAS). Over the past few decades, much progress has been made in identifying the various photoreceptor systems and light signaling components implicated in regulating SAS, and in elucidating the underlying molecular mechanisms, based on extensive molecular genetic studies with the model dicotyledonous plant Arabidopsis thaliana. Moreover, an emerging synthesis of the field is that light signaling integrates with the signaling pathways of various phytohormones to coordinately regulate different aspects of SAS. In this review, we present a brief summary of the various cross-talks between light and hormone signaling in regulating SAS. We also present a perspective of manipulating SAS to tailor crop architecture for breeding high-density tolerant crop cultivars.

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Li, Chunmei, Kazunari Nozue, and Julin N. Maloof. "MYCs and PIFs Act Independently in Arabidopsis Growth Regulation." G3: Genes|Genomes|Genetics 10, no. 5 (March 27, 2020): 1797–807. http://dx.doi.org/10.1534/g3.120.401188.

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Plants have a variety of strategies to avoid canopy shade and compete with their neighbors for light, collectively called the shade avoidance syndrome (SAS). Plants also have extensive systems to defend themselves against pathogens and herbivores. Defense and shade avoidance are two fundamental components of plant survival and productivity, and there are often tradeoffs between growth and defense. Recently, MYC2, a major positive regulator of defense, was reported to inhibit elongation during shade avoidance. Here, we further investigate the role of MYC2 and the related MYC3 and MYC4 in shade avoidance, and we examine the relationship between MYC2/3/4 and the PIF family of light-regulated transcription factors. We demonstrate that MYC2/3/4 inhibit both elongation and flowering. Furthermore, using both genetic and transcriptomic analysis we find that MYCs and PIFs generally function independently in growth regulation. However, surprisingly, the pif4/5/7 triple mutant restored the petiole shade avoidance response of myc2 (jin1-2) and myc2/3/4. We theorize that increased petiole elongation in myc2/3/4 could be more due to resource tradeoffs or post-translational modifications rather than interactions with PIF4/5/7 affecting gene regulation.

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3

Michaud, Olivier, Anne-Sophie Fiorucci, Ioannis Xenarios, and Christian Fankhauser. "Local auxin production underlies a spatially restricted neighbor-detection response in Arabidopsis." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 114, no. 28 (June 26, 2017): 7444–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1702276114.

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Competition for light triggers numerous developmental adaptations known as the “shade-avoidance syndrome” (SAS). Important molecular events underlying specific SAS responses have been identified. However, in natural environments light is often heterogeneous, and it is currently unknown how shading affecting part of a plant leads to local responses. To study this question, we analyzed upwards leaf movement (hyponasty), a rapid adaptation to neighbor proximity, in Arabidopsis. We show that manipulation of the light environment at the leaf tip triggers a hyponastic response that is restricted to the treated leaf. This response is mediated by auxin synthesized in the blade and transported to the petiole. Our results suggest that a strong auxin response in the vasculature of the treated leaf and auxin signaling in the epidermis mediate leaf elevation. Moreover, the analysis of an auxin-signaling mutant reveals signaling bifurcation in the control of petiole elongation versus hyponasty. Our work identifies a mechanism for a local shade response that may pertain to other plant adaptations to heterogeneous environments.

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4

Ballaré, Carlos L., and Amy T. Austin. "Recalculating growth and defense strategies under competition: key roles of photoreceptors and jasmonates." Journal of Experimental Botany 70, no. 13 (May 16, 2019): 3425–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erz237.

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AbstractThe growth–defense trade-off in plant biology has gained enormous traction in the last two decades, highlighting the importance of understanding how plants deal with two of the greatest challenges for their survival and reproduction. It has been well established that in response to competition signals perceived by informational photoreceptors, shade-intolerant plants typically activate the shade-avoidance syndrome (SAS). In turn, in response to signals of biotic attack, plants activate a suite of defense responses, many of which are directed to minimize the loss of plant tissue to the attacking agent (broadly defined, the defense syndrome, DS). We argue that components of the SAS, including increased elongation, apical dominance, reduced leaf mass per area (LMA), and allocation to roots, are in direct conflict with configurational changes that plants require to maximize defense. We hypothesize that these configurational trade-offs provide a functional explanation for the suppression of components of the DS in response to competition cues. Based on this premise, we discuss recent advances in the understanding of the mechanisms by which informational photoreceptors, by interacting with jasmonic acid (JA) signaling, help the plant to make intelligent allocation and developmental decisions that optimize its configuration in complex biotic contexts.

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5

Romanowski, Andrés, James J. Furniss, Ejaz Hussain, and Karen J. Halliday. "Phytochrome regulates cellular response plasticity and the basic molecular machinery of leaf development." Plant Physiology 186, no. 2 (March 9, 2021): 1220–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/plphys/kiab112.

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Abstract Plants are plastic organisms that optimize growth in response to a changing environment. This adaptive capability is regulated by external cues, including light, which provides vital information about the habitat. Phytochrome photoreceptors detect far-red light, indicative of nearby vegetation, and elicit the adaptive shade-avoidance syndrome (SAS), which is critical for plant survival. Plants exhibiting SAS are typically more elongated, with distinctive, small, narrow leaf blades. By applying SAS-inducing end-of-day far-red (EoD FR) treatments at different times during Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) leaf 3 development, we have shown that SAS restricts leaf blade size through two distinct cellular strategies. Early SAS induction limits cell division, while later exposure limits cell expansion. This flexible strategy enables phytochromes to maintain control of leaf size through the proliferative and expansion phases of leaf growth. mRNAseq time course data, accessible through a community resource, coupled to a bioinformatics pipeline, identified pathways that underlie these dramatic changes in leaf growth. Phytochrome regulates a suite of major development pathways that control cell division, expansion, and cell fate. Further, phytochromes control cell proliferation through synchronous regulation of the cell cycle, DNA replication, DNA repair, and cytokinesis, and play an important role in sustaining ribosome biogenesis and translation throughout leaf development.

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6

Ballaré, Carlos L., and Ronald Pierik. "The shade-avoidance syndrome: multiple signals and ecological consequences." Plant, Cell & Environment 40, no. 11 (March 1, 2017): 2530–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/pce.12914.

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7

Veglio, Andrea. "The shade avoidance syndrome: A non-Markovian stochastic growth model." Journal of Theoretical Biology 264, no. 3 (June 2010): 722–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jtbi.2010.02.039.

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8

SMITH, H., and G. C. WHITELAM. "The shade avoidance syndrome: multiple responses mediated by multiple phytochromes." Plant, Cell and Environment 20, no. 6 (June 1997): 840–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-3040.1997.d01-104.x.

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9

Tucic, B., and B. Stojkovic. "Shade avoidance syndrome in Picea omorika seedlings: a growth-room experiment." Journal of Evolutionary Biology 14, no. 3 (May 9, 2001): 444–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1420-9101.2001.00291.x.

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10

Kebrom, T. H., and T. P. Brutnell. "The molecular analysis of the shade avoidance syndrome in the grasses has begun." Journal of Experimental Botany 58, no. 12 (July 13, 2007): 3079–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erm205.

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11

Martínez-García, Jaime F., Marçal Gallemí, María José Molina-Contreras, Briardo Llorente, Maycon R. R. Bevilaqua, and Peter H. Quail. "The Shade Avoidance Syndrome in Arabidopsis: The Antagonistic Role of Phytochrome A and B Differentiates Vegetation Proximity and Canopy Shade." PLoS ONE 9, no. 10 (October 21, 2014): e109275. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0109275.

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12

Barisic-Klisaric, Natasa, Danijela Miljkovic, S. Avramov, U. Zivkovic, and A. Tarasjev. "Stages of flower bud development in Iris pumila and between-habitat morphological differences." Archives of Biological Sciences 64, no. 1 (2012): 77–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/abs1201077l.

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Previous studies revealed significant phenotypic plasticity and between-population differentiation in flower morphometric traits of Iris pumila in response to environmental variability between natural shade and exposed habitats. Since these habitats differed in flowering times as well, in this work we investigated at which stages of flower bud development differences between open and shaded habitats start to appear. Our analysis detected several groups of trait development patterns through the I. pumila bud development in two contrasting habitats, with stem length being the most suitable trait for application in further analyses of so-called ?shade avoidance syndrome?.

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13

Gallemí, Marçal, Anahit Galstyan, Sandi Paulišić, Christiane Then, Almudena Ferrández-Ayela, Laura Lorenzo-Orts, Irma Roig-Villanova, et al. "DRACULA2 is a dynamic nucleoporin with a role in regulating the shade avoidance syndrome inArabidopsis." Development 143, no. 9 (March 17, 2016): 1623–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dev.130211.

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14

Cifuentes-Esquivel, Nicolás, Jordi Bou-Torrent, Anahit Galstyan, Marçal Gallemí, Giovanna Sessa, Mercè Salla Martret, Irma Roig-Villanova, Ida Ruberti, and Jaime F. Martínez-García. "The bHLH proteins BEE and BIM positively modulate the shade avoidance syndrome in Arabidopsis seedlings." Plant Journal 75, no. 6 (July 26, 2013): 989–1002. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/tpj.12264.

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15

Moreno, Javier Edgardo. "Shade avoidance syndrome in 4D: illuminating a role for transcriptional repression of protein biogenesis genes." Plant Physiology 186, no. 3 (July 1, 2021): 1375–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/plphys/kiab212.

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16

Kasulin, Luciana, Yamila Agrofoglio, and Javier F. Botto. "The receptor-like kinase ERECTA contributes to the shade-avoidance syndrome in a background-dependent manner." Annals of Botany 111, no. 5 (February 26, 2013): 811–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aob/mct038.

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17

Devlin, Paul F., Paul R. H. Robson, Samita R. Patel, Lynn Goosey, Robert A. Sharrock, and Garry C. Whitelam. "Phytochrome D Acts in the Shade-Avoidance Syndrome in Arabidopsis by Controlling Elongation Growth and Flowering Time." Plant Physiology 119, no. 3 (March 1, 1999): 909–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1104/pp.119.3.909.

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18

Galstyan, Anahit, Nicolás Cifuentes-Esquivel, Jordi Bou-Torrent, and Jaime F. Martinez-Garcia. "The shade avoidance syndrome in Arabidopsis: a fundamental role for atypical basic helix-loop-helix proteins as transcriptional cofactors." Plant Journal 66, no. 2 (February 16, 2011): 258–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-313x.2011.04485.x.

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19

Gourcilleau, Delphine, Mathilde Mousset, Mathieu Latutrie, Sara Marin, Alain Delaunay, Stéphane Maury, and Benoît Pujol. "Assessing Global DNA Methylation Changes Associated with Plasticity in Seven Highly Inbred Lines of Snapdragon Plants (Antirrhinum majus)." Genes 10, no. 4 (March 28, 2019): 256. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/genes10040256.

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Genetic and epigenetic variations are commonly known to underlie phenotypic plastic responses to environmental cues. However, the role of epigenetic variation in plastic responses harboring ecological significance in nature remains to be assessed. The shade avoidance response (SAR) of plants is one of the most prevalent examples of phenotypic plasticity. It is a phenotypic syndrome including stem elongation and multiple other traits. Its ecological significance is widely acknowledged, and it can be adaptive in the presence of competition for light. Underlying genes and pathways were identified, but evidence for its epigenetic basis remains scarce. We used a proven and accessible approach at the population level and compared global DNA methylation between plants exposed to regular light and three different magnitudes of shade in seven highly inbred lines of snapdragon plants (Antirrhinum majus) grown in a greenhouse. Our results brought evidence of a strong SAR syndrome for which magnitude did not vary between lines. They also brought evidence that its magnitude was not associated with the global DNA methylation percentage for five of the six traits under study. The magnitude of stem elongation was significantly associated with global DNA demethylation. We discuss the limits of this approach and why caution must be taken with such results. In-depth approaches at the DNA sequence level will be necessary to better understand the molecular basis of the SAR syndrome.

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20

Vidal, R. A., M. M. Trezzi, L. A. Kozlowski, M. V. B. Prates, L. F. Cieslik, and A. Merotto Jr. "Initialism as a mechanism of weed interference: can a crop plant be blinded?" Planta Daninha 30, no. 3 (September 2012): 469–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s0100-83582012000300002.

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Initialism is a new word proposed to indicate the "shade-avoidance syndrome". Plants detect the presence of neighbor plants very early in the growing season through changes in light quality. They modify the allocation of photosynthesis products privileging shoot growth over the roots. One of the hypotheses of the authors is that, when weed management is timely scheduled, a "blind" crop could be more productive because it would avoid an imbalance on the shoot:root ratio (S:R). Two strategies were developed to test this hypothesis: a) to use the classical Yoda's Law to screen several crops for insensitivity to S:R imbalance; b) to evaluate several growth regulators to control the plant responses to crowding. Experimental results confirm that both strategies can yield insensitive plants. The possibilities of the use of this knowledge are discussed.

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21

Sebastiani, Federico, Sara Torre, Antonella Gori, Cecilia Brunetti, Mauro Centritto, Francesco Ferrini, and Massimiliano Tattini. "Dissecting Adaptation Mechanisms to Contrasting Solar Irradiance in the Mediterranean Shrub Cistus incanus." International Journal of Molecular Sciences 20, no. 14 (July 23, 2019): 3599. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms20143599.

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Molecular mechanisms that are the base of the strategies adopted by Mediterranean plants to cope with the challenges imposed by limited or excessive solar radiation during the summer season have received limited attention. In our study, conducted on C. incanus plants growing in the shade or in full sunlight, we performed measurements of relevant physiological traits, such as leaf water potential, gas exchange and PSII photochemistry, RNA-Seq with de-novo assembly, and the analysis of differentially expressed genes. We also identified and quantified photosynthetic pigments, abscisic acid, and flavonoids. Here, we show major mechanisms regulating light perception and signaling which, in turn, sustain the shade avoidance syndrome displayed by the ‘sun loving’ C. incanus. We offer clear evidence of the detrimental effects of excessive light on both the assembly and the stability of PSII, and the activation of a suite of both repair and effective antioxidant mechanisms in sun-adapted leaves. For instance, our study supports the view of major antioxidant functions of zeaxanthin in sunny plants concomitantly challenged by severe drought stress. Finally, our study confirms the multiple functions served by flavonoids, both flavonols and flavanols, in the adaptive mechanisms of plants to the environmental pressures associated to Mediterranean climate.

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22

Robson, PRH, G. C. Whitelam, and H. Smith. "Selected Components of the Shade-Avoidance Syndrome Are Displayed in a Normal Manner in Mutants of Arabidopsis thaliana and Brassica rapa Deficient in Phytochrome B." Plant Physiology 102, no. 4 (August 1, 1993): 1179–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1104/pp.102.4.1179.

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23

Grierson, Donald. "Harry Smith. 19 September 1935—9 February 2015." Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 64 (March 21, 2018): 387–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbm.2017.0045.

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Harry Smith was a botanist with a driving passion to understand how plant growth, development and responses to the environment are regulated. He was a true experimentalist with a restless mind, a determination to question and the commitment to follow through. Harry valued achievement over background, and his research combined biochemical, molecular and physiological approaches aimed at understanding the behaviour of plants in the real world. This led him to a series of classical experiments, begun at the University of Nottingham and continued at the University of Leicester, studying how plants detect proximity and shading by other plants. This work transformed our understanding of the role of the red/far-red light-absorbing phytochrome pigments in the perception of and response to vegetative shading. Harry defined the mechanism of the shade avoidance syndrome, and this work, taught to students worldwide, is of fundamental importance in understanding plant behaviour in the natural environment and agriculture. Harry was a truly inspirational teacher, research leader and head of department, and also a visionary founder and editor of successful journals such as Plant, Cell and Environment , Molecular Ecology and Global Change Biology , as well as being a veteran gardener, tree planter, artist and car lover.

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24

Sng, Benny Jian Rong, Gajendra Pratap Singh, Kien Van Vu, Nam-Hai Chua, Rajeev J. Ram, and In-Cheol Jang. "Rapid metabolite response in leaf blade and petiole as a marker for shade avoidance syndrome." Plant Methods 16, no. 1 (October 27, 2020). http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s13007-020-00688-0.

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Abstract Background Shade avoidance syndrome (SAS) commonly occurs in plants experiencing vegetative shade, causing morphological and physiological changes that are detrimental to plant health and consequently crop yield. As the effects of SAS on plants are irreversible, early detection of SAS in plants is critical for sustainable agriculture. However, conventional methods to assess SAS are restricted to observing for morphological changes and checking the expression of shade-induced genes after homogenization of plant tissues, which makes it difficult to detect SAS early. Results Using the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana, we introduced the use of Raman spectroscopy to measure shade-induced changes of metabolites in vivo. Raman spectroscopy detected a decrease in carotenoid contents in leaf blades and petioles of plants with SAS, which were induced by low Red:Far-red light ratio or high density conditions. Moreover, by measuring the carotenoid Raman peaks, we were able to show that the reduction in carotenoid content under shade was mediated by phytochrome signaling. Carotenoid Raman peaks showed more remarkable response to SAS in petioles than leaf blades of plants, which greatly corresponded to their morphological response under shade or high plant density. Most importantly, carotenoid content decreased shortly after shade induction but before the occurrence of visible morphological changes. We demonstrated this finding to be similar in other plant species. Comprehensive testing of Brassica vegetables showed that carotenoid content decreased during SAS, in both shade and high density conditions. Likewise, carotenoid content responded quickly to shade, in a manner similar to Arabidopsis plants. Conclusions In various plant species tested in this study, quantification of carotenoid Raman peaks correlate to the severity of SAS. Moreover, short-term exposure to shade can induce the carotenoid Raman peaks to decrease. These findings highlight the carotenoid Raman peaks as a biomarker for early diagnosis of SAS in plants.

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25

Wang, Xiaoyan, Xinqiang Gao, Yuling Liu, Shuli Fan, and Qifeng Ma. "Progress of Research on the Regulatory Pathway of the Plant Shade-Avoidance Syndrome." Frontiers in Plant Science 11 (April 15, 2020). http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2020.00439.

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26

Huang, Xu, Qian Zhang, Yupei Jiang, Chuanwei Yang, Qianyue Wang, and Lin Li. "Shade-induced nuclear localization of PIF7 is regulated by phosphorylation and 14-3-3 proteins in Arabidopsis." eLife 7 (June 21, 2018). http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/elife.31636.

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Shade avoidance syndrome enables shaded plants to grow and compete effectively against their neighbors. In Arabidopsis, the shade-induced de-phosphorylation of the transcription factor PIF7 (PHYTOCHROME-INTERACTING FACTOR 7) is the key event linking light perception to stem elongation. However, the mechanism through which phosphorylation regulates the activity of PIF7 is unclear. Here, we show that shade light induces the de-phosphorylation and nuclear accumulation of PIF7. Phosphorylation-resistant site mutations in PIF7 result in increased nuclear localization and shade-induced gene expression, and consequently augment hypocotyl elongation. PIF7 interacts with 14-3-3 proteins. Blocking the interaction between PIF7 and 14-3-3 proteins or reducing the expression of 14-3-3 proteins accelerates shade-induced nuclear localization and de-phosphorylation of PIF7, and enhances the shade phenotype. By contrast, the 14-3-3 overexpressing line displays an attenuated shade phenotype. These studies demonstrate a phosphorylation-dependent translocation of PIF7 when plants are in shade and a novel mechanism involving 14-3-3 proteins, mediated by the retention of PIF7 in the cytoplasm that suppresses the shade response.

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27

Xie, Yurong, Yang Liu, Hai Wang, Xiaojing Ma, Baobao Wang, Guangxia Wu, and Haiyang Wang. "Phytochrome-interacting factors directly suppress MIR156 expression to enhance shade-avoidance syndrome in Arabidopsis." Nature Communications 8, no. 1 (August 24, 2017). http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-017-00404-y.

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28

Xu, Mingli, Tieqiang Hu, and R. Scott Poethig. "Low light intensity delays vegetative phase change." Plant Physiology, May 26, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/plphys/kiab243.

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Abstract Plants that develop under low light (LL) intensity often display a phenotype known as the “shade tolerance syndrome (STS)”. This syndrome is similar to the phenotype of plants in the juvenile phase of shoot development, but the basis for this similarity is unknown. We tested the hypothesis that the STS is regulated by the same mechanism that regulates the juvenile vegetative phase by examining the effect of LL on rosette development in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). We found that LL prolonged the juvenile vegetative phase and that this was associated with an increase in the expression of the master regulators of vegetative phase change, miR156 and miR157, and a decrease in the expression of their SQUAMOSA PROMOTER-BINDING PROTEIN-LIKE (SPL) targets. Exogenous sucrose partially corrected the effect of LL on seedling development and miR156 expression. Our results suggest that the response of Arabidopsis to LL is mediated by an increase in miR156/miR157 expression and by factors that repress SPL gene expression independently of miR156/miR157, and is caused in part by a decrease in carbohydrate production. The effect of LL on vegetative phase change does not require the photoreceptors and transcription factors responsible for the shade avoidance syndrome, implying that light intensity and light quality regulate rosette development through different pathways.

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29

Zhang, Li, Xiang Liu, Shurong Zhou, and Bill Shipley. "Explaining variation in productivity requires intraspecific variability in plant height among communities." Journal of Plant Ecology, August 25, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jpe/rtab096.

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Abstract Aims While recent studies have shown the importance of intraspecific trait variation in the processes of community assembly, we still know little about the contributions of intraspecific trait variability to ecosystem functions. Methods Here, we conducted a functional group removal experiment in an alpine meadow in Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau over four years to investigate the relative importance of inter- and intra-specific variability in plant height for productivity. We split total variability in plant height within each of 75 manipulated communities into interspecific variability (TVinter) and intraspecific variability within a community (ITVwithin). Community weighted mean height among communities was decomposed into fixed community weighted mean (CWMfixed) and intraspecific variability among communities (ITVamong). We constructed a series of generalized additive mixed models and piecewise structural equation modelling to determine how trait variability (i.e., TVinter, ITVwithin, CWMfixed and ITVamong) indirectly mediated the changes in productivity in response to functional group removal. Important Findings Community productivity was not only affected directly by treatment manipulations, but also increased with both inter- and intra-specific variability (i.e., CWMfixed, ITVamong) in plant height indirectly. This suggests that both the “selection effect” and a “shade-avoidance syndrome” can incur higher CWMfixed and ITVamong, and may simultaneously operate to regulate productivity. Our findings provide new evidence that, besides interspecific variability, intraspecific trait variability in plant height also plays a role in maintaining net primary productivity.

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Trojak, Magdalena, Ernest Skowron, Tomasz Sobala, Maciej Kocurek, and Jan Pałyga. "Effects of partial replacement of red by green light in the growth spectrum on photomorphogenesis and photosynthesis in tomato plants." Photosynthesis Research, September 27, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11120-021-00879-3.

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AbstractThe artificial light used in growth chambers is usually devoid of green (G) light, which is considered to be less photosynthetically efficient than blue (B) or red (R) light. To verify the role of G light supplementation in the spectrum, we modified the RB spectrum by progressively replacing R light with an equal amount of G light. The tomato plants were cultivated under 100 µmol m–2 s–1 of five different combinations of R (35–75%) and G light (0–40%) in the presence of a fixed proportion of B light (25%) provided by light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Substituting G light for R altered the plant’s morphology and partitioning of biomass. We observed a decrease in the dry biomass of leaves, which was associated with increased biomass accumulation and the length of the roots. Moreover, plants previously grown under the RGB spectrum more efficiently utilized the B light that was applied to assess the effective quantum yield of photosystem II, as well as the G light when estimated with CO2 fixation using RB + G light-response curves. At the same time, the inclusion of G light in the growth spectrum reduced stomatal conductance (gs), transpiration (E) and altered stomatal traits, thus improving water-use efficiency. Besides this, the increasing contribution of G light in place of R light in the growth spectrum resulted in the progressive accumulation of phytochrome interacting factor 5, along with a lowered level of chalcone synthase and anthocyanins. However, the plants grown at 40% G light exhibited a decreased net photosynthetic rate (Pn), and consequently, a reduced dry biomass accumulation, accompanied by morphological and molecular traits related to shade-avoidance syndrome.

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Huang, Jing, Ya-liang Xu, Fa-min Duan, Xu Du, Qi-chang Yang, and Yin-jian Zheng. "Improvement of the Growth and Nutritional Quality of Two-leaf-color Pak Choi by Supplemental Alternating Red and Blue Light." HortScience, December 23, 2020, 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.21273/hortsci15180-20.

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The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effects of alternating red (660 nm) and blue (460 nm) light on the growth and nutritional quality of two-leaf-color pak choi (Brassica campestris L. ssp. chinensis var. communis). Four light treatments (supplemental alternating red and blue light with intervals of 0, 1, 2, and 4 hours, with a monochromatic light intensity of 100 μmol·m−2·s−1 and a cumulative lighting time of 16 hours per day) were conducted in a greenhouse under identical ambient light conditions (90 to 120 μmol·m−2·s−1 at 12:00 am) for 10 days before green- and red-leaf pak choi were harvested. The results showed that the two-leaf-color pak choi receiving alternating red and blue light exhibited more compact canopies and wider leaves than those under the control treatment, which was attributed to the shade avoidance syndrome of plants. The present study indicated that the biomass of green-leaf pak choi was much higher than that of red-leaf pak choi, but the nutritional quality of green-leaf pak choi was lower than that of red-leaf pak choi, and seemingly indicating that the regulation of metabolism for pak choi was species specific under light exposure. The trends of both biomass and the soluble sugar content were highest under the 1-hour treatment. The contents of chlorophyll a and total chlorophyll in both cultivars (green- and red-leaf pak choi) were significantly increased compared with control, without significant differences among the 1-, 2-, and 4-hour treatments, whereas chlorophyll b exhibited no significant difference in any treatment. Alternating red- and blue-light treatment significantly affected the carotenoid content, but different trends in green- and red-leaf pak choi were observed, with the highest contents being detected under the 1-hour and 4-hour treatments, respectively. With increasing time intervals, the highest soluble protein contents in two-leaf-color pak choi were observed in the 4-hour treatment, whereas nitrate contents were significantly decreased in the 4-hour treatment. Compared with 0 hours, the contents of vitamin C, phenolic compounds, flavonoids, and anthocyanins in two-leaf-color pak choi were significantly increased, but no significant differences were observed in vitamin C, phenolic compounds, and flavonoids among the 1-, 2-, and 4-hour treatments, similar to what was found for the anthocyanin content of green-leaf pak choi. However, the content of anthocyanins in red-leaf pak choi gradually increased with increasing time intervals, with the highest content being found in the 4-hour treatment. Supplemental alternating red and blue light slightly increased the antioxidant capacity [1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging rate and antioxidant power], but no significant differences were observed after 1, 2, and 4 hours of treatment. Taken together, treatment with an interval of 1 hour was the most effective for increasing the biomass of pak choi in this study, but treatment with a 4-hour interval should be considered to enhance the accumulation of health-promoting compounds.

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