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Journal articles on the topic 'Shipping – History'

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Published: 4 June 2021
Last updated: 29 July 2024

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1

Sandberg, Lars G., and Yrjo Kaukiainen. "A History of Finnish Shipping." American Historical Review 99, no. 4 (October 1994): 1338. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2168859.

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2

Paulsen, Reinhard. "History of the 'Hanse Cog'." Hansische Geschichtsblätter 133 (May 30, 2020): 99–114. http://dx.doi.org/10.21248/hgbll.2015.81.

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Contents1. Municipl cogs: “Germany at Sea”2. From a state-like to a völkisch-Nordic Hanse3. The invention of a “Hanse cog” in NS-times4. The “Economic Miracle Hanse”5. “Hanse cog” : setting the post-war course6. The discovery of the Bremen ship in 19627. A Frisian-cog- and a Hanse-cog-legend8. Gradual retreat of the Hanse and shipping research9. The state of medieval shipping research10. Outlook
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3

Kim, S. June. "The expansion of private shipping and entrepreneurship in Korea, 1960-1981." International Journal of Maritime History 32, no. 1 (February 2020): 101–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0843871420904534.

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The Korean shipping industry has developed swiftly since the 1960s, and by 2018 Korea had become one of the world’s top seven shipowning countries. From 1945 to the 1960s, the Korea Shipping Corporation, as a national shipping company, played a crucial role in leading the development of the shipping industry. Since the privatization of this national shipping company in 1968, Korean shipping has been led by private companies. This article analyzes the forces that drove the rapid expansion of private shipping companies between 1960 and 1981, and contends that government policy and the entrepreneurship of merchant marine officers were the main causal factors.
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4

Lennerfors, Thomas Taro. "An involuntary ship owner: Swedish state involvement in shipping during the 1970s and 1980s." International Journal of Maritime History 26, no. 4 (November 2014): 702–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0843871414552610.

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This article contributes to modern shipping history by analysing the Swedish state’s role as a ship owner in the 1970s and 1980s, when it at most controlled a fleet of 47 ships of six million deadweight tonnes, making it one of the world’s largest ship owners. The article, departing from a theoretical framework of the ‘state as entrepreneur’, describes the conception, functioning and dismantling of two state-owned shipping companies, Zenit and Uddevalla (UV) Shipping, and throws light on a hitherto undocumented aspect of modern Swedish maritime history. It argues that Zenit and UV Shipping had a significant impact on the development of the Swedish shipping industry in the 1970s and the 1980s.
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5

eka, Sn, Blessing Antony, Promoth Mahajan, and Nithya kalyani. "Shipping Management System." International Academic Journal of Innovative Research 9, no. 2 (August 17, 2022): 31–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.9756/iajir/v9i2/iajir0915.

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The SHIPPING MANAGEMENT SYSTEM is the subject of this project. The system is utilised for routine tasks including scheduling a courier, tracking courier history, and maintaining employee and branch details. The Shipping management system is the subject of this project. Daily tasks like booking, booking history, employee information, branch information, and pickup centres are handled by the system. To carry out this procedure manually is really challenging. Since the world is becoming more and more dependent on technology and information, it is therefore advised to computerise the process by creating the appropriate software. Utilizing the right technology to assist administrators in managing information is known as computerization of the shipping management system. When technology uses the most plentiful domestic resources and saves money and skilled labour, it is deemed acceptable. This project deals with the upkeep of booking information, incoming courier information, courier non-delivery information, and courier return information, among other things. The primary goal of this project is to automate shipping management maintenance. This projects front end and back end code are both written in PHP.
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6

Olukoju, Ayodeji. "Elder Dempster and the Shipping Trade of Nigeria during the First World War." Journal of African History 33, no. 2 (July 1992): 255–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021853700032230.

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Shipping, a vital element of maritime trade, has not hitherto received adequate attention in studies on Nigerian colonial economic history. This article therefore fills a gap in the literature by studying aspects of the shipping trade during the First World War, when shipping was indispensable for maintaining economic links between Britain and her colonies. Shipping in Nigeria revolved around the practices of the Elder Dempster Shipping Company, which enjoyed an undisputed monopoly of the trade throughout the war, and the reactions of the colonial government and private shippers to them.Scarcity of tonnage and higher freights were the chief features of shipping during the war. The allocation of shipping space, however, ranged the colonial government, the shipping company and the Combine (that is, big European) firms against non-Combine shippers. While Elder Dempster's allocation formula suited the government and the Combine firms, it was considered inequitable by other shippers. This arrangement reflected the community of interests between the colonial state and Big Business vis-à-vis smaller traders.The interests of the government and Elder Dempster were, however, incompatible on the question of ocean freights. Thus, high freights which boosted the firm's turnover were detrimental to the economic interests of the colonial state. The company's monopoly and the non-intervention of the Imperial government enabled it to have its way. Consequently, despite losses at sea, requisition by the Imperial government and rising running costs, Elder Dempster conducted a profitable business during the war. In achieving this, it also served the Imperial interest by effectively linking Nigeria with the metropolis.On the whole, wartime shipping conditions, particularly Elder Dempster's practical monopoly, were a departure from pre-war trends. There was a gradual return to normality in the early 1920s but the firm remained pre-eminent in the West African shipping trade.
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7

Nygaard, Knut Michael. "Two conferences in the natural-ice trade." International Journal of Maritime History 34, no. 1 (February 2022): 133–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/08438714221080284.

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A conference in shipping can be understood as a cartel-like association of competing shipping companies. The purpose is to ensure stable framework conditions in the form of ‘sensible’ freight rates. Conferences were first used in the second half of the nineteenth century by liner shipping companies. In tramp shipping, conferences became relevant at the beginning of the twentieth century. This article tells the story of two conferences in the tramp-shipping segment of the ice-transport business, both of which were active in the early twentieth century. Two groups of shipping companies, inspired by international developments, were established. One grouping was organized as most conferences were, while the other was organized more broadly. The former was a conference for shipping companies with wooden steamships, while the latter was for shipping companies with sailing ships. The development of these two organizations is followed in relation to the export of Norwegian natural ice. The article assesses the significance of ice freight for Norwegian shipping during the early twentieth century, the extent to which the two conferences were able to establish minimum rates for the transport of ice, and why the two conferences developed differently.
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8

Boček, Martin. "Cunard Line and its operations within the Habsburg Monarchy." Zgodovinski časopis 75, no. 3-4 (December 28, 2021): 423–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.56420/zgodovinskicasopis.2021.3-4.05.

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The article depicts and analyses shipping in the Habsburg Monarchy. It is closely related to the overseas companies, one of which was Cunard Line. This shipping company was founded in the 19th century and as one of the fi rst with other shipping companies occupied an important position in emigration traffi c from the European continent. Thanks to the established shipping lines to North American ports, especially to New York, the company soon began the focus on the transport of migrants from Austria-Hungary and could also build large steamboats designed for migration transport.
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9

Palmer, Sarah. "Book Review: A History of Finnish Shipping." International Journal of Maritime History 6, no. 2 (December 1994): 286–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/084387149400600216.

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10

Marriner, Sheila. "Book Review: A History of Finnish Shipping." Journal of Transport History 15, no. 2 (September 1994): 206–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/002252669401500211.

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11

French, Christopher J. "Seamen's Sixpences and Eighteenth-Century Shipping Records: An Exercise in Shipping Reconstitution." International Journal of Maritime History 7, no. 1 (June 1995): 57–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/084387149500700104.

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12

Ojala, Jari, and Stig Tenold. "Maritime trade and merchant shipping: The shipping/trade ratio since the 1870s." International Journal of Maritime History 29, no. 4 (October 30, 2017): 838–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0843871417724692.

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13

Müller, Leos. "Sweden’s Early-Modern Neutrality: Neutral Vessels, Prize Cases and Diplomatic Actors in London in the Late Eighteenth Century." Journal of Early Modern History 23, no. 5 (October 2, 2019): 475–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15700658-12342650.

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Abstract Early modern shipping under neutral flags was an activity that required many capacities, combining practices from three different fields: commerce and shipping, diplomacy, and international law. This complexity of neutral shipping is the reason why traditional diplomatic history paid limited attention to it, despite the fact that shipping and prize cases consumed much of the attention and time of diplomats of neutral nations. The neutral agents had to be able to understand, communicate and move between all three fields. This article studies seizures of Swedish neutral vessels by British privateers and the Royal Navy between 1770 and 1800, including the years of the War of American Independence and the French Revolutionary Wars. It provides examples of how exchanges between different field actors—e.g. shipmasters, ship-owners, merchants, agents, lawyers, naval officers and diplomats—were communicated and understood from the perspective of Sweden’s representatives in London.
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14

Wray, William D. "Japan's Shipping and Trading History: A Short Bibliography." International Journal of Maritime History 4, no. 2 (December 1992): 257–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/084387149200400214.

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15

Palmer, Sarah. "Book Review: A New History of British Shipping." Journal of Transport History 13, no. 2 (September 1992): 194–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/002252669201300214.

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16

Jamieson, Alan G. "Book Review: Shipping in China." International Journal of Maritime History 15, no. 2 (December 2003): 435–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/084387140301500261.

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17

Harlaftis, Gelina. "Maritime history: A new version of the old version and the true history of the sea." International Journal of Maritime History 32, no. 2 (May 2020): 383–402. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0843871420924243.

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The article provides a new version of Frank Broeze’s definition of maritime history by putting it in a framework of a sea. It gives a critical approach to the various histories of the seas and oceans that use the sea as a setting and not as a dynamic agent of change. It argues that the true history of the sea is a maritime history that entails maritime activities: on the sea (seamen, ships, navigation, sea trade, war, piracy); around the sea (maritime communities, islands, port cities, shipping, shipping-related, fishing and touristic businesses); in the sea (fishing, maritime resources, environment); because of the sea (maritime transport systems and entrepreneurial networks, maritime empires, international and national maritime institutions and policy); and about the sea (maritime culture and heritage, the ideology, myths and poems of a sea, the impact of the sea on art).
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18

Stanivuk, Tatjana, Stipe Galić, and Mia Bojanić. "Mathematics as a Science and Marine Activity Follow Each Other Throughout History." Transactions on Maritime Science 6, no. 1 (April 20, 2017): 55–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.7225/toms.v06.n01.006.

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From the earliest beginnings to the present day, there has always been a strong link between mathematics and shipping. Both started developing at about the same time, fulfilling the basic human needs to act and to be creative. The shipping industry has developed throughout the history relatively in line with the development of science, but there have been periods of stagnation in times of great crises and wars. Mathematics, as one of the oldest sciences, is used for various calculations in shipping from shipbuilding to trade, transportation, and management. The safety of navigation, improvement of accuracy in navigation, optimization of costs, higher earnings and profits for ship owners and employees pose only a fraction of maritime affairs, hardly accessible without the knowledge and application of mathematics. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to examine closely the historical development of mathematics and maritime affairs, and to show how the knowledge of mathematics can become a powerful tool in the hands of a seafarer.
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19

Kim, S. June. "Government policy and the rise of a national shipping industry: Korea’s experience, 1967–1999." International Journal of Maritime History 31, no. 2 (May 2019): 285–307. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0843871419841968.

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In 2017, Koreans controlled 1,656 vessels with an aggregate tonnage of 80,976,874 deadweight (dwt), placing Korea as the world’s seventh largest shipowning country. Given that Korean-owned tonnage stood at just 1.3m dwt in 1970, this represented a remarkable rate of growth over less than half a century. This article focuses on the years from 1967 to 1999 and aims to prove that government policy was one of the key causal factors in the rapid increase in Korean shipping. The paper is organised into four main parts. In the first section, the role of the government in the development of the economy is assessed, while Section 2 focuses on state policies designed to promote the shipping industry in Korea. Section 3 highlights the rise of Korean shipping from 1967 to 1999, and the final part considers the wider implications of the role of government policy in the development of the shipping industry.
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20

BUSHEY, ARTHUR C. "CONDENSED WORLD WAR II HISTORY OF NEW ZEALAND SHIPPING." Journal of the American Society for Naval Engineers 67, no. 2 (March 18, 2009): 499–504. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-3584.1955.tb03114.x.

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21

Miller, Michael. "Book Review: Odfjell: The History of a Shipping Company." International Journal of Maritime History 19, no. 1 (June 2007): 382–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/084387140701900141.

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22

Harlaftis, Gelina. "Merchant Shipping in the International Journal of Maritime History." International Journal of Maritime History 26, no. 1 (February 2014): 139–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0843871413517978.

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23

Kennerley, Alston. "Book Review: A New History of British Merchant Shipping." International Journal of Maritime History 3, no. 1 (June 1991): 219–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/084387149100300112.

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24

Ellmers, Detlev. "AWaterfront Witness to History: The German Museum of Shipping." Museum International 49, no. 1 (January 1997): 27–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1468-0033.00071.

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25

Runyan, Timothy J. "Book Review: Medieval Ships and Shipping." International Journal of Maritime History 8, no. 2 (December 1996): 229–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/084387149600800214.

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26

Hill, Carol. "The Kirkcudbright Shipping Company, 1811–1817." International Journal of Maritime History 9, no. 1 (June 1997): 69–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/084387149700900106.

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27

Feldbæk, Ole. "Danish North Atlantic Shipping, 1720–1814." International Journal of Maritime History 10, no. 1 (June 1998): 105–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/084387149801000106.

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28

Sloan, Edward W. "Book Review: Shipping, Technology and Imperialism." International Journal of Maritime History 11, no. 1 (June 1999): 225–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/084387149901100115.

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29

Salmon, M. Stephen. "Book Review: Polish Shipping under Communism." International Journal of Maritime History 15, no. 2 (December 2003): 433–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/084387140301500260.

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30

Chida, Tomohei, and Peter N. Davies. "The Japanese Shipping and Shipbuilding Industries." International Journal of Maritime History 2, no. 2 (December 1990): 241–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/084387149000200213.

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31

Kaukiainen, Yrjö. "A “Minor Player” in World Shipping." International Journal of Maritime History 3, no. 2 (December 1991): 157–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/084387149100300209.

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32

Murphy, Hugh. "Graig: One hundred years in shipping." Mariner's Mirror 106, no. 2 (April 2, 2020): 240–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00253359.2020.1740448.

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33

Robinson, M. J. "COASTAL SHIPPING IN CUMBERLAND, 1680–1740." Mariner's Mirror 92, no. 3 (January 2006): 270–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00253359.2006.10657002.

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34

Goss, R. O. "Strategies in British Shipping 1945–1970." Mariner's Mirror 97, no. 1 (January 2011): 243–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00253359.2011.10709043.

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35

Antunes, Cátia. "Shipping & Economic Growth 1350–1850." Mariner's Mirror 99, no. 1 (February 2013): 95–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00253359.2013.767548.

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36

Ojala, Jari, and Antti Räihä. "Navigation Acts and the integration of North Baltic shipping in the early nineteenth century." International Journal of Maritime History 29, no. 1 (February 2017): 26–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0843871416678166.

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This article discusses how Navigation Acts affected shipping and commodity trade from and to the Northern Baltic during the early nineteenth century. We use Finnish shipping and foreign trade as an example of trade integration at the time. Finland can be used as a ‘laboratory case’ to study the importance of the Navigation Acts, as the eastern part of the area followed Russian legislation without the Navigation Act to restrict shipping to domestic vessels, while the western part followed Swedish legislation with strict protection through the Swedish version of the Act ( Produktplakat). The article argues that the role played by foreign vessels in shipments of Finnish export goods was far more significant during the period than has been noted before. Also, we argue that British shipping was of decisive importance in these trades, especially from the south-eastern parts of Finland, most notably the city of Vyborg. The literature so far has emphasised both endogenous causes (e.g. structural change in the Finnish economy, the role played by Swedish and Russian legislation in Finland) and exogenous causes (e.g. changes in British customs duties and the repeal of the Navigation Acts) for changes in shipping and trade patterns. Until recently, the big picture of this trade has been rather difficult to form due to shortcomings in the sources. This study overcomes these challenges by using both Danish Sound Toll data and local archival sources to trace patterns of trade.
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37

Allamuratov, Sh. "History of Amu Darya Shipbuilding." Bulletin of Science and Practice 6, no. 10 (October 15, 2020): 422–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.33619/2414-2948/59/38.

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This article describes the history of the emergence and development of water transport on the Amu Darya waterway, their importance on the waterway, as well as the role of these vehicles in the transportation of commercial goods on the banks of the Amu Darya. In addition, the article analyzes such issues as the development of shipping, the construction of ships in the Bukhara Emirate and Khiva Khanates.
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38

Ville, Simon, and Valerie Burton. "Liverpool Shipping, Trade and Industry." Economic History Review 43, no. 2 (May 1990): 309. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2596805.

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39

Ville, Simon, and S. Fisher. "Innovations in Shipping and Trade." Economic History Review 43, no. 3 (August 1990): 504. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2596963.

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40

June Kim, S. "How can higher maritime education lead shipping growth? Korea’s experience, 1948–1982." International Journal of Maritime History 33, no. 1 (March 2021): 90–117. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0843871420974062.

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In January 2019, Koreans controlled 1,647 vessels and 76,701,517 deadweight, placing Korea as the world’s seventh largest shipowning country. In this article, the author reviews the contribution of the education of upper-class marine officers to the development of Korean shipping industry during the period 1948–1982. This study is organized into four main parts. In the first section, the role of human capital in economic development is reviewed, while Section 2 focuses on change in the education for merchant marine officers from 1948 to 1982. Section 3 analyzes the role of marine officers in the development of Korea’s shipping industry, while the final part considers the wider implications of the education of marine officers in the development of shipping.
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41

Spaulding, Robert Mark. "Revolutionary France and the Transformation of the Rhine." Central European History 44, no. 2 (May 23, 2011): 203–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s000893891100001x.

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As one of the world's busiest rivers the Rhine carries about 300 million tons of freight annually, upriver and down, between Switzerland and the Dutch ports on the North Sea. Heavy shipping traffic on the Rhine, including ocean vessels reaching Mannheim and barges reaching Basel, has been an integral part of the Rhine valley landscape for the past 150 years. But a bounty of commercial shipping on the Rhine has not always been part of the river's history. Despite the Rhineland's growing population and increasingly productive economy at the end of the early modern period, long-distance shipping activity along the river gradually declined during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. River commerce revived and expanded only in the early nineteenth century, stimulated in part by new developments in transportation technology, business organization, industrial development, and an unprecedented civil engineering assault on the river's natural contours. These material components of the nineteenth century transportation revolution as it unfolded along the Rhine are generally well known.
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42

Bowen, H. V. "The shipping losses of the British East India Company, 1750–1813." International Journal of Maritime History 32, no. 2 (May 2020): 323–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0843871420920963.

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This article establishes and examines the shipping losses of the British East India Company between the middle of the eighteenth century and 1813 when it lost its trade monopoly with India. This was the most important period in the history of the East India Company because it greatly expanded its trade with India and China and established what became a very large territorial empire on the subcontinent. It was also a time when Britain was often at war with France. This is the first publication to present full information on all of the East India Company’s shipping losses. They are set out in the Appendix, which presents details of the names of every ship lost, the date of loss, the cause, and whether the ship was sailing to or from Asia. This information, discussed in the article, shows that 105 ships were lost on 2,171 voyages, a rate of loss that stood at just under 5%. The causes were primarily wrecking, foundering and enemy action, which contributed to far higher shipping losses on voyages outward to Asia than homeward. The East India Company did little itself to rectify this situation because the ships they used were hired from private owners, but some specialists within the Company did take it upon themselves to improve some navigational aids and shipbuilding techniques, although with little overall effect upon the rate of shipping losses. This meant that the East India Company was plagued by shipping losses throughout the period, and this had a very negative effect upon its commercial affairs and profitability.
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43

McWatters, Cheryl S. "A counter-example in the development of Great Lakes shipping: the case of Kingston Shipping Company Limited." Accounting History 7, no. 2 (November 2002): 59–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/103237320200700204.

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44

Kornoukhova, Gadilya, and Marina Moseykina. "Commercial activity of the Russian shipping company “Caucasus and Mercury” in Persia in the context of public-private partnership in the second half of the 19th — early 20th centuries." OOO "Zhurnal "Voprosy Istorii" 2021, no. 04-1 (April 1, 2021): 94–108. http://dx.doi.org/10.31166/voprosyistorii202104statyi07.

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The article analyzes the activities of the joint-stock shipping company «Caucasus and Mercury» in the Persian market, reveals its place in trade and economic operations in the Caspian region as a whole. The authors aim to find out the degree of effectiveness of public-private cooperation in the development of a separate transport company, «Caucasus and Mercury», as well as the nature of the impact of this partnership on the development of commercial shipping in the Caspian Sea. The authors analyzed the processes that took place in Russian government and private business circles in the field of merchant shipping in the Caspian Sea.
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45

Munro, J. Forbes. "Shipping Subsidies and Railway Guarantees: William Mackinnon, Eastern Africa and the Indian Ocean, 1860–93." Journal of African History 28, no. 2 (July 1987): 209–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021853700029753.

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This article reassesses Sir William Mackinnon's role in the evolution of Victorian imperialism in Eastern Africa. It rejects the view that Mackinnon's activities in Eastern Africa were motivated by a desire for self-glorification and attempts, by contrast, to demonstrate the relevance of business considerations. A search for shipping subsidies and railway guarantees, spreading out from British India, accompanied the Mackinnon Group's development of steamshipping and mercantile interests in Africa, in support of investments in the Persian Gulf and western India. Promotion of these interests drew Mackinnon into schemes to lease the Sultan of Zanzibar's mainland territories and to consolidate British rule in the Transvaal by the construction of a railway from Delagoa Bay. During the 1880s the Group's shipping and commercial operations were threatened by the rise of foreign competition. Behind the formation of the Imperial British East Africa Company lay the hopes of Mackinnon and his business associates that public funds could be attracted to the defence of the Group's interests in Eastern Africa and to the reconstruction of its shipping services in the western Indian Ocean.
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46

Iversen, Martin Jes, and Stig Tenold. "The two regimes of postwar shipping: Denmark and Norway as case studies, 1960–2010." International Journal of Maritime History 26, no. 4 (November 2014): 720–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0843871414552611.

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The aim of this article is to illustrate the most important changes in the regulatory framework of the shipping sector from the 1960s to 2010, and to analyse the basis for, and effects of, these changes. In order to explain how the transformation has occurred, we use two traditional maritime nations—Denmark and Norway—as case studies. First, we introduce the two regimes of Danish and Norwegian shipping: ‘the national regime’ from the early 1960s to the mid-1970s; and ‘the competitive regime’, which was fully established by the middle of the 1990s and still persists. Then, we briefly sketch the bargaining that accompanied the shift from the national regime to the competitive regime. Specifically, we show that the new regime primarily accommodated the interests of private actors such as shipping companies, rather than the interests of the authorities and the trade unions.
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47

Sulistiyono, Singgih Tri. "The Expulsion of KPM and its Impact on the Inter-island Shipping and Trade in Indonesia, 1957–1964." Itinerario 30, no. 2 (July 2006): 104–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s016511530001398x.

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Some historians think that the expulsion of the KPM (Koninklijke Paketvaart Maatschappij/Royal Packet Company) from Indonesian waters in 1957 had a disastrous impact on the inter-island shipping and trade in this largest insular region in the world. It is assumed that the Indonesian people did not have the capacity to overcome such serious problems generated by the absence of KPM from their waters, as financial inadequacy in buying new ships to replace the KPM fleet, the non-existence of experience and managerial skill in operating a modern, big shipping company and the like. Considering how big the role of KPM in the Indonesian inter-island shipping was, it is also imagined that the expulsion of this company would be a precondition of economic stagnation in Indonesia, because there was no shipping which had adequate experience to take over the role of KPM. As Dick states ‘Suspension of KPM sailing in December 1957 was the end of an efficient inter-island shipping (in Indonesia)’.
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48

Konvitz, Josef W. "The Crises of Atlantic Port Cities 1880 to 1920." Comparative Studies in Society and History 36, no. 2 (April 1994): 293–318. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s001041750001906x.

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The industrialization of shipping, a process which accelerated rapidly between the 1870s and 1910s, induced and accompanied dramatic changes in European and American port cities. Never before or since have so few cities on both sides of the Atlantic concentrated such a large proportion of the world's commerce. Thanks to the expansion of shipping, the great port cities of the Atlantic world acquired a significant manufacturing sector, including shipbuilding, and met the needs of their growing population for food and energy supplies. The reduction of freight rates and the expansion of shipping capacity and services brought considerable benefits to the urban economy. But the growth of shipping was also a factor in waves of migration, environmental and public health problems, traffic congestion, substandard housing, strikes, and conflict over strategies for development.
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49

Drent, Jan. "Commercial Shipping on the Northern Sea Route." Northern Mariner / Le marin du nord 3, no. 2 (April 1, 1993): 1–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.25071/2561-5467.770.

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50

Syrett, David. "The Victualling Board Charters Shipping, 1739–1748." International Journal of Maritime History 9, no. 1 (June 1997): 57–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/084387149700900105.

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