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Journal articles on the topic 'Shona language – Spoken Shona'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 15 February 2022

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1

Mhute, Isaac. "Typical Phrases For Shona Syntactic Subjecthood." European Scientific Journal, ESJ 12, no. 5 (2016): 340. http://dx.doi.org/10.19044/esj.2016.v12n5p340.

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This paper presents findings from a qualitative research that focused on providing a comprehensive description of the Shona subject relation. Shona is a Bantu language spoken by around 75% of the over 13million people making up the Zimbabwean population plus the other speakers in neighbouring countries like Zambia, Botswana and South Africa. The paper reveals the types of phrases that typically perform the subject role in the language. The research concentrated mainly on the language as used by speakers of the dialect spoken by the Karanga people of Masvingo Province (the region around Great Zimbabwe) and the Zezuru dialect spoken by people of central and northern Zimbabwe (the area around Harare Province).

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2

Mushangwe, Herbert. "Challenges and Strategies in Translating Chinese and English Prepositions into Standard Shona." TranscUlturAl: A Journal of Translation and Cultural Studies 9, no. 1 (2017): 157. http://dx.doi.org/10.21992/t9192f.

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The present study focuses on the challenges and strategies in translating Chinese or English prepositions into Shona. These two languages were chosen mainly because Chinese is becoming one of the most influential foreign language in Zimbabwe while, English is also one of the widely spoken foreign language in many countries. As already observed in some previous research, English and Chinese prepositions are captured in Shona phrases as morphemes. Words are the smallest elements that may be uttered in isolation with semantic or pragmatic content. This differs from morphemes which are defined as smallest units of meaning which cannot necessarily stand on their own. Research shows that Chinese and English prepositions do not have direct equivalent prepositions in Shona. We observed that Shona employs substitutes for Chinese and English prepositions, making translation of prepositions from other languages into Shona challenging.   Keywords: Prepositions; Shona; cross language comparison; Chinese and English, translation

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3

Mutasa, David. "The Problems of Standardizing Spoken Dialects: The Shona Experience." Language Matters 27, no. 1 (1996): 79–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10228199608566104.

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4

Mlambo, Muzi. "A survey of the language situation in Zimbabwe." English Today 25, no. 2 (2009): 18–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0266078409000145.

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ABSTRACTIs there a Zimbabwean variety of English? If so, who speaks it? Although Zimbabwe is a multilingual speech community, the Shona language, which is composed of dialects and sub-dialects, enjoys numerical dominance because it is spoken by the majority of the Zimbabweans. On the other hand, English, the official language, enjoys status dominance and it occupies a special position in the lives of many Zimbabweans. There is dispute, however, whether English in Zimbabwe is an interlanguage, and its speakers have adopted the native variety as a model, or whether it is better to observe that there are many varieties of English in Zimbabwe which are pragmatically identifiable as Zimbabwean, and that the vast majority of Zimbabweans appear to speak an English which reflects the linguistic characteristics of Shona.

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5

Lunga, Violet Bridget. "Mapping African Postcoloniality: Linguistic and Cultural Spaces of Hybridity." Perspectives on Global Development and Technology 3, no. 3 (2004): 291–326. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1569150042442502.

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AbstractThis paper discusses hybridity as a strategy of survival for those caught between the languages of their colonization and their indigenous languages and also illustrates how, through hybridization, postcolonial subjects use colonial languages without privileging colonial languages. Drawing on Bakhtinian notions of hybridization, this paper shows colonial and indigenous languages contesting each other's authority, challenging and unmasking the hegemony of English and to some extent Shona. Ndebele and Shona are indigenous languages spoken in Zimbabwe, Africa. However, this paper conceives the relationship of English and Ndebele as not always contestatory but as accomodating. Using Ogunyemi's (1996) notion of palaver, the paper extends our understanding of hybridity as marking both contestation and communion. Of particular significance is the way in which English is criticized even in the using of it in Amakhosi plays. This analysis of hybridity highlights the contradictoriness of colonized identity and establishes and confirms the idea of a hybridized postcolonial cultural and linguistic identity.

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6

Jelsma, J., V. Chivaura, W. De Weerdt, and P. De Cock. "A bridge between cultures: A report on the process of translating the EQ-5D instrument into Shona." South African Journal of Physiotherapy 56, no. 4 (2000): 3–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/sajp.v56i4.526.

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There is an increasing need in medical research for outcome measures that are both locally applicable and internationally recognised. The European Quality of Life 5-dimensions (EQ-5D) has been found to be a valid and reliable instrument for describing health related quality of life in Western societies. The paper describes the process of translating the EQ-5D into Shona, the language spoken by the majority of Zimbabweans. The EuroQoL group has developed a protocol for translation that was followed rigorously. Issues such as conceptualisation of health concepts cross-culturally, semantic equivalence (the transfer of meaning across languages) and specific idiomatic expressions are discussed. It is concluded that if the translation process is not adequately addressed, researchers may be guilty of simply imposing notions of health and quality of life across cultures. Consequently, the results will not provide meaningful insights into the cultures under study.

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7

Letsholo, Rose. "The forgotten structure of Ikalanga relatives." Studies in African Linguistics 38, no. 2 (2009): 131–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.32473/sal.v38i2.107290.

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Demuth and Harford (1999) contend that in Bantu relatives, the verb raises from I-C if the relative morpheme is a bound morpheme while the subject remains in spec-IP resulting in subject –verb inversion. Ikalanga, a Bantu language spoken in Botswana has no subject verb inversion in relatives although the relative morpheme appears to be a bound morpheme. This observation challenges the conclusion reached in Demuth and Harford (1999). This raises the question, What then is the structure of the relative clause in languages like Ikalanga and Luganda? This paper argues that Ikalanga relative clauses differ from other Bantu relative clauses in that the projection that houses the relative feature (RelP) projects below TP while in Bantu languages where subject verb inversion is observed such as Shona it projects higher than TP. Thus, the variation in the structures of Bantu relative clauses can be accounted for if we understand that there is a parametric variation in the position in which RelP projects; lower than TP or higher than TP.

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8

Carter, Hazel. "Two Shona verbal infixes." South African Journal of African Languages 10, no. 4 (1990): 365–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02572117.1990.10586870.

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9

Dembetembe, N. C. "Aspects of negation in Shona." South African Journal of African Languages 6, no. 1 (1986): 1–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02572117.1986.10586642.

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10

BERNSTEN, JAN. "English and Shona in Zimbabwe." World Englishes 13, no. 3 (1994): 411–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-971x.1994.tb00326.x.

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11

Sithole, Emmanuel. "Is Ndau a Dialect of Shona?" Language Matters 50, no. 2 (2019): 29–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10228195.2018.1536161.

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12

Mudzingwa, Calisto. "Hiatus resolution strategies in Karanga (Shona)." Southern African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies 31, no. 1 (2013): 1–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.2989/16073614.2013.793953.

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13

Manuel, Sharon Y. "Studies in Shona Phonetics: An Analytic Review." Journal of Phonetics 20, no. 2 (1992): 271–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0095-4470(19)30627-8.

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14

Storoshenko, Dennis Ryan. "The Shona reflexive as covert anaphora." Canadian Journal of Linguistics/Revue canadienne de linguistique 61, no. 2 (2016): 156–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cnj.2016.13.

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AbstractThis paper presents an analysis of reflexives in Shona. Taking seriously the observation that the reflexive morpheme zvi- is homophonous with one of Shona's object markers, I argue that this homophony is not accidental. Rather, the morpheme that emerges in reflexive contexts is object marking triggered by a covert anaphor. The analysis rests on two planks: first, establishing that zvi- is the default agreement form in the language generally; and second, establishing that a covert anaphor may trigger such an agreement. In so doing, a treatment of object marking as the exponence of discourse-givenness is advanced. The analysis is compatible with treatments of object marking in Shona as either an agreement affix or a clitic. Theoretical issues related to default agreement, covert anaphors, and distinctions between discourse-givenness and topicality are also discussed, along with an alternative account treating zvi- as a valence-reducing derivational affix.

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15

Makondo, Livingstone. "An exploration of prerequisite Shona naming factors." South African Journal of African Languages 30, no. 2 (2010): 154–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02572117.2010.10587343.

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16

Dlali, Mawande, and Jack Mutsvairo. "Compliance-gaining messages between married Shona couples." South African Journal of African Languages 40, no. 2 (2020): 148–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02572117.2020.1804208.

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17

Childs, G. Tucker, and Siegmund Brauner. "A Grammatical Sketch of Shona, Including Historical Notes." Language 73, no. 4 (1997): 890. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/417359.

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18

Houghton, David. "Relinearizing phonology : an edge feature account of shona." Recherches linguistiques de Vincennes, no. 28 (May 1, 1999): 41–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.4000/rlv.1213.

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19

Hussain, Qandeel. "Fundamental Frequency and Phonation Differences in the Production of Stop Laryngeal Contrasts of Endangered Shina." Languages 6, no. 3 (2021): 139. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/languages6030139.

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Shina is an endangered Indo-Aryan (Dardic) language spoken in Gilgit, Northern Pakistan. The present study investigates the acoustic correlates of Shina’s three-way stop laryngeal contrast across five places of articulation. A wide range of acoustic correlates were measured including fundamental frequency (F0), spectral tilt (H1*-H2*, H1*-A1*, H1*-A2*, and H1*-A3*), and cepstral peak prominence (CPP). Voiceless aspirated stops were characterized by higher fundamental frequency, spectral tilt, and cepstral peak prominence, compared to voiceless unaspirated and voiced unaspirated stops. These results suggest that Shina is among those languages which have a raising effect of aspiration on the pitch and spectral tilt onsets of the following vowels. Positive correlations among fundamental frequency, spectral tilt, and cepstral peak prominence were observed. The findings of this study will contribute to the phonetic documentation of endangered Dardic languages.

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20

Bladon, Anthony, Christopher Clark, and Katrina Mickey. "Production and perception of sibilant fricatives: Shona data." Journal of the International Phonetic Association 17, no. 1 (1987): 39–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0025100300003248.

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This research began out of two overlapping motives. First, we have been observing what have impressionistically been termed ‘whistling’ fricatives in Shona (and also, though not reported here, in another language, Jibbali); we felt that there was room for a fuller analysis of some aspects of their production characteristics. Second, sibilance in general offers plenty of scope for what Delattre called the ‘quest of the Holy Grail’ in phonetics: the search for features of relevance to perception. More background to both the production and the perception issues will be given as we proceed.

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21

Mushangwe, Herbert, and Muchinei Musona. "A critique of the Shona–Chinese bilingual dictionary as a reference material in teaching and learning of Shona/Chinese language." Lexicography 4, no. 2 (2018): 135–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40607-018-0032-3.

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22

Mutasa, David. "Modern Shona Poets and their Art: A Preliminary Survey." Language Matters 28, no. 1 (1997): 142–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10228199708566124.

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23

Mamvura, Zvinashe, and Shumirai Nyota. "The Form and Communicative Impact of Shona Postproverbials." Matatu 51, no. 2 (2020): 282–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/18757421-05102005.

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Abstract This article explores the syntax-semantics nexus of Shona postproverbials in the contemporary Zimbabwean society. In terms of syntax, Shona postproverbials are aligned to the following types of sentences found in the Shona language; substantival, verbal, and a combination of both. Like traditional proverbs, there is no postproverbial that takes the form of the ideophonic sentence. The communicative power of postproverbials is an inherent, inbuilt, and internal property stemming from their syntactic and lexical properties. The postproverbial forms, studied in this article, exhibit innovation and ingenuity of the users. The communicative force of the postproverbials arises from the correspondence and cross-correspondence of the structures and grammatical items that constitute them. Congruence and contrast of the lexical items found in the postproverbials also contribute to meanings. The study established that, just like the traditional proverbs, postproverbials are pithy and terse philosophical statements that resonate with a people’s collective experience. In most cases, the postproverbials provide a conduit for people to comment on issues regarded as politically ‘taboo’ and sensitive in a society where the state does not tolerate open criticism.

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24

Mugari, Victor. "Object marking restrictions on Shona causative and applicative constructions." Southern African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies 31, no. 2 (2013): 151–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.2989/16073614.2013.815836.

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25

Kadyamusuma, McLoddy R., Ria De Bleser, and Joerg Mayer. "Lexical tone disruption in Shona after brain damage." Aphasiology 25, no. 10 (2011): 1239–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02687038.2011.590966.

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26

Chimhundu, Herbert. "Early Missionaries and the Ethnolinguistic Factor During the ‘Invention of Tribalism’ in Zimbabwe." Journal of African History 33, no. 1 (1992): 87–109. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021853700031868.

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There is evidence from across the disciplines that at least some of the contemporary regional names of African tribes, dialects and languages are fairly recent inventions in historical terms. This article offers some evidence from Zimbabwe to show that missionary linguistic politics were an important factor in this process. The South African linguist Clement Doke was brought in to resolve conflicts about the orthography of Shona. His Report on the Unification of the Shona Dialects (1931) shows how the language politics of the Christian denominations, which were also the factions within the umbrella organization the Southern Rhodesia Missionary Conference, contributed quite significantly to the creation and promotion of Zezuru, Karanga and Manyika as the main groupings of dialects in the central area which Doke later accommodated in a unified orthography of a unified language that was given the name Shona. While vocabulary from Ndau was to be incorporated, words from the Korekore group in the north were to be discouraged, and Kalanga in the West was allowed to be subsumed under Ndebele.Writing about sixty years later, Ranger focusses more closely on the Manyika and takes his discussion to the 1940s, but he also mentions that the Rhodesian Front government of the 1960s and 1970s deliberately incited tribalism between the Shona and the Ndebele, while at the same time magnifying the differences between the regional divisions of the Shona, which were, in turn, played against one another as constituent clans. It would appear then that, for the indigenous Africans, the price of Christianity, Western education and a new perception of language unity was the creation of regional ethnic identities that were at least potentially antagonistic and open to political manipulation.Through many decades of rather unnecessary intellectual justification, and as a result of the collective colonial experience through the churches, the schools and the workplaces, these imposed identities, and the myths and sentiments that are associated with them, have become fixed in the collective mind of Africa, and the modern nation states of the continent now seem to be stuck with them. Missionaries played a very significant role in creating this scenario because they were mainly responsible for fixing the ethnolinguistic maps of the African colonies during the early phase of European occupation. To a significant degree, these maps have remained intact and have continued to influence African research scholarship.

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27

Mavesera, Miidzo, and Davie E. Mutasa. "Empowerment through indigenous literature: The case of Shona novels." South African Journal of African Languages 29, no. 1 (2009): 74–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02572117.2009.10587318.

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28

Mushangwe, Herbert, and Muchinei Musona. "Correction to: A critique of the Shona–Chinese bilingual dictionary as a reference material in teaching and learning of Shona/Chinese language." Lexicography 6, no. 2 (2018): 163. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40607-018-0053-y.

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29

Dembetembe, N. C. "Secondary noun prefixes taken further with special reference to Shona." South African Journal of African Languages 15, no. 3 (1995): 100–108. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02572117.1995.10587065.

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30

Palmer, Gary B. "Emotional, evaluative, and ideological subjectification in Tagalog and Shona." International Journal of Language and Culture 1, no. 1 (2014): 5–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/ijolc.1.1.01pal.

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Cross-linguistic studies of emotion language have explored the universality of emotion concepts (Koveces 1990; Wierzbicka 1999), the cultural specificity of emotion concepts (Wierzbicka 1999; Ning Yu 2009), and the sources of emotion in culturally specific discourse practices (Lutz 1988; Rosaldo 1990; Chen 2004). A few have investigated how emotions or feelings are expressed by certain kinds of grammatical constructions such as metaphors with predicate-base clause structure (Occhi 1999; Palmer and Brown 1998; Palmer, Bennett and Stacey 1999; and Palmer 2003b). This paper shows how grammatical constructions that express emotions and evaluations may arise from subjectification. We compare theories of subjectification proposed by Langacker (2000) and Traugott (2010), and we analyze examples from Shona and Tagalog. Our findings have led us to expand Langacker’s cognitive linguistic approach to include cultural scenarios and themes in the discourse ground. This new perspective has potential applications to the study of ideological communications.

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31

Makondo, Livingstone. "Ethnicity and Matriarchal Protest: A Case of Dialoguing Shona Personal Names." Names 56, no. 1 (2008): 10–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/175622708x282893.

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32

Lettiah, Gumbo. "Countering the cumbersome: Rethinking the Shona compounding term-creation strategy." Language & Communication 76 (January 2021): 13–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.langcom.2020.09.008.

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33

Kadyamusuma, McLoddy R. "Effect of linguistic experience on the discrimination of Shona lexical tone." Southern African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies 30, no. 4 (2012): 469–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.2989/16073614.2012.750821.

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34

Sylod, Chimhenga, and Dr Ester Chivhanga. "The triglossic relationship of Zezuru, Karanga and other Shona dialects in the speech and writing of Shona as a language in Zimbabwean primary schools." IOSR Journal of Research & Method in Education (IOSRJRME) 4, no. 4 (2014): 44–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.9790/7388-04444450.

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35

Chigidi, Willie, and Tyanai Charamba. "Celebrating traditional medical practice in the Shona novel Ndoitawo Zvakaita Vamwe." South African Journal of African Languages 39, no. 2 (2019): 119–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02572117.2019.1617998.

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36

Nesbeth, Grand, and Michael Mazuru. "The Interface of Language and History: The Case of Shona in Zimbabwe." Greener Journal of Art and Humanities 3, no. 1 (2013): 001–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.15580/gjah.2013.1.011213368.

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37

Ngara, Emmanuel. "Language Influence and Culture: Comments on the Impact of English on Shona." Diogenes 41, no. 161 (1993): 27–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/039219219304116103.

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38

Downing, Laura J. "On pitch lowering not linked to voicing: Nguni and Shona group depressors." Language Sciences 31, no. 2-3 (2009): 179–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.langsci.2008.12.015.

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39

Mangoya, Esau, and Gift Mheta. "A comparative study of operations of liquids in Barwe and Central Shona." Language Matters 47, no. 2 (2016): 151–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10228195.2016.1179779.

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40

Kadenge, Maxwell, Patricia Ruramisai Mabugu, Catherine Ruvimbo Sibanda, and Matron Dhliwayo. "Hypernasality in a Shona child with a cleft palate: A phonological account." South African Journal of African Languages 31, no. 2 (2011): 265–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02572117.2011.10587370.

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41

Musiyiwa, Mickias, and Marianna W. Visser. "The communicative functions of post-2000 Shona popular songs: A typological analysis." South African Journal of African Languages 35, no. 2 (2015): 249–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02572117.2015.1113019.

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42

Liljegren, Henrik, and Naseem Haider. "Palula." Journal of the International Phonetic Association 39, no. 3 (2009): 381–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0025100309990193.

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Palula is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by approximately 10,000 people in the southern part of Chitral District in Pakistan's North-West Frontier Province. It belongs to a group of speech varieties subsumed under the heading Shina (Morgenstierne 1941; Strand 2000–2001). The speech described here is that of Ashret Valley, one of two main dialects of Palula. The transcription is based on a recording of the speech of the second author, Naseem Haider, himself a native speaker of Palula, born in 1978; his speech is typical of Ashreti, or southern, Palula.

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43

Mashiri, Pedzisai. "Shona-English code-mixing in the speech of students at the University of Zimbabwe." Southern African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies 20, no. 4 (2002): 245–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.2989/16073610209486314.

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44

Mashiri, Pedzisai. "A sociolinguistic interpretation of the social meanings of kinship terms in Shona urban interactions." Southern African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies 22, no. 1-2 (2004): 27–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.2989/16073610409486358.

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45

Gumbo, Lettiah, and Davie E. Mutasa. "The inevitability of linguistic change: The motivation of borrowing English terms by Shona speakers." South African Journal of African Languages 40, no. 1 (2020): 53–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02572117.2020.1733825.

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46

Chidarikire, Sherphard, Merylin Cross, Isabelle Skinner, and Michelle Cleary. "Navigating Nuances of Language and Meaning: Challenges of Cross-Language Ethnography Involving Shona Speakers Living With Schizophrenia." Qualitative Health Research 28, no. 6 (2018): 927–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1049732318758645.

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For people living with schizophrenia, their experience is personal and culturally bound. Focused ethnography enables researchers to understand people’s experiences in-context, a prerequisite to providing person-centered care. Data are gathered through observational fieldwork and in-depth interviews with cultural informants. Regardless of the culture, ethnographic research involves resolving issues of language, communication, and meaning. This article discusses the challenges faced by a bilingual, primary mental health nurse researcher when investigating the experiences of people living with schizophrenia in Zimbabwe. Bilingual understanding influenced the research questions, translation of a validated survey instrument and interview transcripts, analysis of the nuances of dialect and local idioms, and confirmation of cultural understanding. When the researcher is a bilingual cultural insider, the insights gained can be more nuanced and culturally enriched. In cross-language research, translation issues are especially challenging when it involves people with a mental illness and requires researcher experience, ethical sensitivity, and cultural awareness.

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47

Ncube, Gibson, and Gugulethu Siziba. "Compelled to Perform in the ‘Oppressor’s’ Language? Ndebele Performing Artists and Zimbabwe’s Shona-Centric Habitus." Journal of Southern African Studies 43, no. 4 (2017): 825–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03057070.2017.1313609.

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48

Voccideo, Chikura, and Seon Jung Kim. "A Contrastive Study on the Interrogative Sentences of Korean and Shona for Korean Language Education." Journal of Multiculture and Education 6, no. 1 (2021): 47–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.31041/jme.2021.6.1.47.

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49

Stump, Gregory T. "How peculiar is evaluative morphology?" Journal of Linguistics 29, no. 1 (1993): 1–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022226700000037.

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Many languages possess morphological rules which serve to express diminution or augmentation, endearment or contempt; examples are the Breton rule relating potr ‘boy’ to potrig ‘little boy’, the Shona rule relating chibikiso ‘cooking tool’ to zichibikiso ‘huge cooking tool’ and the Italian rule relating poeta ‘poet’ to poetastro ‘bad poet’. Because of the possibility of interpreting diminution and augmentation in affective rather than purely objective terms (Wierzbicka, 1980: 53ff.; Szymanek, 1988: 106ff.), morphological expressions of diminution or augmentation are not always discrete from those of endearment or contempt; that is, diminutives and augmentatives are frequently used as expressions of endearment (such as Italian sorella ‘sister’ → sorellina ‘dear little sister’, donna ‘woman’ → donnotta ‘fine, stout woman’) or disdain (Italian uomo ‘man’ → uomicciuolo ‘contemptible little man’, donna → donnona ‘overgrown girl’).

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50

Demolin, Didier, and Bernard Teston. "Labiodental Flaps in Mangbetu." Journal of the International Phonetic Association 26, no. 2 (1996): 103–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0025100300006149.

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Labiodental flaps exist in several African languages, and were first described by Doke (1931) in a study of Shona. Westermann and Ward (1933: 76) quote data from Tucker, who notes labiodental flaps in Kreish, a Central Sudanic language of the Sara-Bongo-Baguirmi group. In the same group of languages, Thomas (1981: 262) claims to find them in Bongo-Gberi and in Binga-Kara. Thomas defines these sounds as “vibrantes labiodentales” (see also Caprile 1981: 238). Hoffman (1963) and Ladefoged (1964) both identify these sounds in Margi. Cloarec-Heiss (1981: 225) reports such sounds in Banda, but describes them as “labiodentales lâches”, transcribed [ǔ]. Maddieson (1984) quotes two sounds of this type in the UPSID data base, one in Margi and the other in Gbeya.

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