Journal articles on the topic 'Shuffling back'

Gondwanan Neoproterozoic tectonothermal events (Pan-African and Brasiliano) are represented in northern mainland of Nova Scotia by volcanic and sedimentary rocks assigned to the Jeffers and Georgeville groups and by gabbroic to granitoid plutons. These rocks comprise part of Avalonia, an exotic terrane in the Appalachian orogen that was deposited in an arc-related environment along the periphery of Gondwana prior to accretion to Laurentia. Lavas sampled in the basal units of the Jeffers and Georgeville groups yielded slightly discordant U–Pb zircon and monazite data that fall on chords with upper intercept ages of 628 Ma and 617.7±1.6 Ma, respectively. Syntectonic to late syntectonic plutons intruded into these groups yielded U–Pb zircon ages of 606.6±1.6 Ma and 603+9−5 Ma. The former intrusion also yielded a concordant titanite age of 607±3 Ma. When combined with previously published ages, these data indicate that the back-arc deposition recorded in these groups lasted 10–15 million years (628–613 Ma) and was closely followed by c. 613–595 Ma metamorphism, intrusion and heterogeneous strike-slip related deformation. Assuming no significant shuffling of fault blocks, the relative locations of the Cobequid–Antigonish back-arc basin and the southern Cape Breton Island volcanic arc are consistent with their genesis above a north-west-dipping subduction zone. The age range of arc-related magmatism in Nova Scotia is similar to that of Avalonian rocks in southeastern Newfoundland and Britain, lending support to hypotheses of Neoproterozoic linkages.

Changes in gene expression patterns represent an essential source of evolutionary innovation. A striking case of neofunctionalization is the acquisition of neuronal specificity by immune formyl peptide receptors (Fprs). In mammals, Fprs are expressed by immune cells, where they detect pathogenic and inflammatory chemical cues. In rodents, these receptors are also expressed by sensory neurons of the vomeronasal organ, an olfactory structure mediating innate avoidance behaviors. Here we show that two gene shuffling events led to two independent acquisitions of neuronal specificity by Fprs. The first event targeted the promoter of a V1R receptor gene. This was followed some 30 million years later by a second genomic accident targeting the promoter of a V2R gene. Finally, we show that expression of a vomeronasal Fpr can reverse back to the immune system under inflammatory conditions via the production of an intergenic transcript linking neuronal and immune Fpr genes. Thus, three hijackings of regulatory elements are sufficient to explain all aspects of the complex expression patterns acquired by a receptor family that switched from sensing pathogens inside the organism to sensing the outside world through the nose.

The annotated dataset is an essential requirement to develop an artificial intelligence (AI) system effectively and expect the generalization of the predictive models and to avoid overfitting. Lack of the training data is a big barrier so that AI systems can broaden in several domains which have no or missing training data. Building these datasets is a tedious and expensive task and depends on the domains and languages. This is especially a big challenge for low-resource languages. In this paper, we experiment and evaluate many various approaches on sentiment analysis problems so that they can still obtain high performances under limited training data. This paper uses the preprocessing techniques to clean and normalize the data and generate the new samples from the limited training dataset based on many text augmentation techniques such as lexicon substitution, sentence shuffling, back translation, syntax-tree transformation, and embedding mixup. Several experiments have been performed for both well-known machine learning-based classifiers and deep learning models. We compare, analyze, and evaluate the results to indicate the advantage and disadvantage points of the techniques for each approach. The experimental results show that the data augmentation techniques enhance the accuracy of the predictive models; this promises that smart systems can be applied widely in several domains under limited training data.

This study aims to improve students' understanding of the material on the periodic system of elements through OK KETUK learning media. OK KETUK is a learning medium for the periodic system of elements that combines element cards and the periodic table. This medium is played by shuffling the cards, determining the electron configuration, period, and group of elements on the front of the card, doing problems on the back of the card, and placing the elements on the periodic table. This research is classroom action research conducted in two cycles. Each cycle consists of planning, implementing, observing, and reflecting. The research subjects were students of class X IPA 1 SMA Santo Yakobus Jakarta for the academic year 2019/2020, with 24 students, consisting of 12 male and 12 female students. The instruments used in this study consisted of learning outcomes tests, teacher and student activity observation sheets, interviews, and field notes. The results showed that OK KETUK learning media could improve students' understanding of the material on the periodic system of elements. The average score increased from 64.79 with 37.50% learning completeness in the first cycle to 83.44 with 91.67% learning completeness in the second cycle at KKM 70.00. Based on the results of the study, the use of OK KETUK learning media can improve students' understanding of the material for the periodic system of elements.

The process of generating question papers for educational assessments is a crucial task in the field of academia. The traditional manual approach to question paper creation is time-consuming and prone to human error. In response to this challenge, the Question Paper Generation System (QPGS) has emerged as a powerful solution that leverages technology to automate and streamline the question paper generation process. The Question Paper Generation System has a profound impact on the education sector by enhancing the quality and efficiency of assessments. It empowers educators to create assessments that align with educational goals and standards, ultimately benefiting both teachers and students. Moreover, it contributes to the overall modernization of educational practices by integrating technology seamlessly into the assessment process. This paper provides an overview of the Question Paper Generation System, highlighting its key features, benefits, and impact on educational institutions. QPGS combines advanced algorithms, database management, and user-friendly interfaces to efficiently produce high-quality question papers tailored to specific subjects, courses, and assessment levels. For efficient randomization and shuffling of the questions in the question bank, the Fisher-Yates shuffle algorithm, also known as the Knuth shuffle or the Durstenfeld shuffle, was used. A hybrid of the Object-Oriented Analysis and Design (OOAD) together with the Structured System Analysis Methodology (SSADM) with Unified Modeling Language (UML) was adopted for the design of the system. The system was implemented using HTML, CSS and JavaScript as the front end, while the back end which deals with the system’s logic was implemented using PHP and MySQL. The results obtained were tested using several test strategies.

AbstractThis study aimed to identify behaviours that could be used to assess post-operative pain and analgesic efficacy in male rabbits. In consideration of the ‘Three Rs’, behavioural data were collected on seven male New Zealand White rabbits in an ethically approved experiment requiring abdominal implantation of a telemetric device for purposes other than behavioural assessment. Prior to surgery, rabbits were anaesthetised using an isoflurane/oxygen mix and given Carprofen (2 mg kg−1) as a peri-operative analgesic. Rabbits were housed individually in standard laboratory cages throughout. Data were collected at three time periods: 24-21 h prior to surgery (T1) and, post-surgery, 0-3 h (T2) and 3-6 h (T3). Behavioural changes were identified using Observer XT, significance of which was assessed using a Friedman's test for several related samples. The frequency or duration of numerous pre-operative behaviours was significantly reduced in T2 and T3, as compared to T1. Conversely, novel or rare behaviours had either first occurrence or significant increase in T2 into T3 as compared to T1, these include ‘full-body-flexing’, ‘tight-huddling’, ‘hind-leg-shuffling’. We conclude that reduced expression of common pre-operative behaviours and the appearance of certain novel post-operative behaviours may be indicative of pain in rabbits. Behaviours identified as increased in T2 as compared to T1 but not consistently elevated into T3 were considered separately due to the potentially confounding effect of anaesthesia recovery. These included lateral lying, ‘drawing-back’, ‘staggering’ and ‘closed eyes’. We postulate that for effective application of best-practice post-operative care, informed behavioural observation can provide routes by which carers may identify requirements for additional post-operative analgesia. Additionally, improvement of the peri-operative pain management regimen may be required to ameliorate the immediate effects of abdominal surgery. Comparisons with other studies into post-operative pain expression in rabbits suggest behavioural indicators of pain may differ, depending on housing and surgical procedure.

For endless hours, I endure the cacophony of piercing young voices, shuffling metal chairs and shrieking speaker feedback. I accept that one of the microphones mysteriously shattered, that an important light shines in the wrong direction and that the knob fell off the main entrance door. I tolerate the countless antics: Louis now wants to be a firefighter and not a police officer, Becky is being picked up hours too early by her parents and six-year-old Matthew declares that he will not perform if Christopher looks at him. My composure erodes when I discover Roxanne, one of the principal characters, loudly weeping in the corner, proclaiming that she never would have agreed to all this if it meant not getting to see her “boyfriend” for the session’s closing days. Appreciative of the fact that one instant of rest is one instant too long for anything not inscribed in the rigid schedule for the day, I walk outside into the midday sun. I lean over a rustic bridge’s wooden railing, letting a cool breeze from the lake sooth my exhausted body. Thin birch trees sway restlessly back and forth. The outdoor scenery — so stereotypical of northern Ontario in the warm months — provides a moment of calm solace. My friends are lounging on patios, playing softball or tramping Europe. I, on the other hand, have spent virtually every minute in the past month at a summer camp, frantically directing a theatre production, which is less than two days from being presented to a packed audience. The experience begins to sound like the set-up for a joke when I contemplate the fact that the cast includes the entire camp community of 230 young people. In case the situation is not overwhelmingly comic enough, the punchline comes when I appreciate that this is not any summer camp, but Camp Kodiak, a place that features a program for young people with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, Learning Disabilities, Non-verbal Learning Disorders and Asperger Syndrome.

Pathological images are crucial for tumor diagnosis; however, due to their extremely high resolution, pathologists often spend considerable time and effort analyzing them. Moreover, diagnostic outcomes can be significantly influenced by subjective judgment. With the rapid advancement of artificial intelligence technologies, deep learning models offer new possibilities for pathological image diagnostics, enabling pathologists to diagnose more quickly, accurately, and reliably, thereby improving work efficiency. This paper proposes a novel Global Channel Spatial Attention (GCSA) module aimed at enhancing the representational capability of input feature maps. The module combines channel attention, channel shuffling, and spatial attention to capture global dependencies within feature maps. By integrating the GCSA module into the SegFormer architecture, the network, named GCSA-SegFormer, can more accurately capture global information and detailed features in complex scenarios. The proposed network was evaluated on a liver dataset and the publicly available ICIAR 2018 BACH dataset. On the liver dataset, the GCSA-SegFormer achieved a 1.12% increase in MIoU and a 1.15% increase in MPA compared to baseline models. On the BACH dataset, it improved MIoU by 1.26% and MPA by 0.39% compared to baseline models. Additionally, the performance metrics of this network were compared with seven different types of semantic segmentation, showing good results in all comparisons.

An efficient and highly secure method of secret message cryptography will be presented which based on the principle of playing cards shuffling. The method will be implemented in a selected number of layers, each layer will encrypt-decrypt the input message using its own private key (PK), the output of any layer can be taken as a final encrypted-decrypted message, increasing the number of layers will increase the security level of the massage, making the hacking attacks impossible. In the encryption function a key generation and a message blocks shuffling will be executed, while in the decryption function the key generation and the message blocks reverse shuffling will be executed. The PK used in this method will be complicated and it will contain for each layer 2 chaotic parameters (r and x) and the block size (BS), utilizing these parameters, a chaotic logistic map model is run to produce a chaotic key, which is sorted to produce the layer's index key. Applying 4 layers the length of confidential key will be 768 bits, this length will be able to generate a large key space which is robust to hacking attempts. The speed parameters and throughput of the proposed will be calculated and compared with those of other methods.

IntroductionHumanization is typically adopted to reduce the immunogenicity of murine antibodies generated by hybridoma technology when used in humans.MethodsTwo different strategies of antibody humanization are popularly employed, including “complementarity determining region (CDR) grafting” and “framework (FR) shuffling” to humanize a murine antibody against human programmed death-1 (PD-1), XM PD1. In CDR-grafting humanization, the CDRs of XM PD-1, were grafted into the human FR regions with high homology to the murine FR counterparts, and back mutations of key residues were performed to retain the antigen-binding affinities. While in FR-shuffling humanization, a combinatorial library of the six murine CDRs in-frame of XM PD-1 was constructed to a pool of human germline FRs for high-throughput screening for the most favorable variants. We evaluated many aspects which were important during antibody development of the molecules obtained by the two methods, including antibody purity, thermal stability, binding efficacy, predicted humanness, and immunogenicity, along with T cell epitope prediction for the humanized antibodies.ResultsWhile the ideal molecule was not achieved through CDR grafting in this particular instance, FR-shuffling proved successful in identifying a suitable candidate. The study highlights FR-shuffling as an effective complementary approach that potentially increases the success rate of antibody humanization. It is particularly noted for its accessibility to those with a biological rather than a computational background. DiscussionThe insights from this comparison are intended to assist other researchers in selecting appropriate humanization strategies for drug development, contributing to broader application and understanding in the field.

We study sorting by queues that can rearrange their content by applying permutations from a predefined set. These new sorting devices are called shuffle queues and we investigate those of them corresponding to sets of permutations defining some well-known shuffling methods. If $\mathbb{Q}_{\Sigma}$ is the shuffle queue corresponding to the shuffling method $\Sigma$, then we find a number of surprising results related to two natural variations of shuffle queues denoted by $\mathbb{Q}_{\Sigma}^{\prime}$ and $\mathbb{Q}_{\Sigma}^{\textsf{pop}}$. These require the entire content of the device to be unloaded after a permutation is applied or unloaded by each pop operation, respectively.
 First, we show that sorting by a deque is equivalent to sorting by a shuffle queue that can reverse its content. Next, we focus on sorting by cuts. We prove that the set of permutations that one can sort by using $\mathbb{Q}_{\text{cuts}}^{\prime}$ is the set of the $321$-avoiding separable permutations. We give lower and upper bounds to the maximum number of times the device must be used to sort a permutation. Furthermore, we give a formula for the number of $n$-permutations, $p_{n}(\mathbb{Q}_{\Sigma}^{\prime})$, that one can sort by using $\mathbb{Q}_{\Sigma}^{\prime}$, for any shuffling method $\Sigma$, corresponding to a set of irreducible permutations.
 We also show that $p_{n}(\mathbb{Q}_{\Sigma}^{\textsf{pop}})$ is given by the odd indexed Fibonacci numbers $F_{2n-1}$, for any shuffling method $\Sigma$ having a specific \say{back-front} property. The rest of the work is dedicated to a surprising conjecture inspired by Diaconis and Graham, which states that one can sort the same number of permutations of any given size by using the devices $\mathbb{Q}_{\text{In-sh}}^{\textsf{pop}}$ and $\mathbb{Q}_{\text{Monge}}^{\textsf{pop}}$, corresponding to the popular \emph{In-shuffle} and \emph{Monge} shuffling methods.

This paper developed Arabic text encryption and compression based on dictionary indexing algorithm. The proposed algorithm includes encoding the Arabic text utilizing Arabic words dictionary, mapping encoded binary stream to a two-dimensional binary matrix, utilizing randomized variable size encryption key, applying randomly binary shuffling functions on the two-dimensional matrix, and mapping back the two-dimensional binary matrix into a sequential binary stream. The decryption algorithm at the receiver side implements the encryption steps reversely, utilizing the encryption key and the shared Arabic word dictionary. In this dictionary, the words of the formal Arabic language are classified into four categories according to the word length and sorted alphabetically. Each dictionary category is given an index size that is large enough to fit all words in that category. The proposed algorithm shuffles adjacent bits away from each other in random fashion through utilizing randomized variable length encryption key, two-dimensional shuffling functions, and repetition loop. Moreover, the index size is selected not to be multiple bytes to destroy any statistical feature that may be utilized to break the algorithm. The proposed algorithm analysis concluded that it could be broken after 3.215∗109 years. Moreover, the proposed algorithm achieved a less than 30% compression ratio.

SUMMARYPlants use nucleotide‐binding leucine‐rich repeat receptors (NLRs) to sense pathogen effectors, initiating effector‐triggered immunity (ETI). NLRs containing RESISTANCE TO POWDERY MILDEW 8 domain (RNLs) function as “helper” NLRs in flowering plants and support the immune responses mediated by “sensor” NLRs in cooperation with lipase‐EP domain fused proteins (EP proteins). Despite their crucial roles in ETI, much remains unclear about the evolutionary trajectories of RNLs and their functional partners EP proteins. Here, we perform phylogenomic analyses of RNLs in 90 plants, covering the major diversity of plants, and identify the presence of RNLs in land plants and green algae, expanding the distribution of RNLs. We uncover a neglected major RNL group in gymnosperms, besides the canonical major group with NRG1s and ADR1s, and observe a drastic increase in RNL repertoire size in conifers. Phylogenetic analyses indicate that RNLs originated multiple times through domain shuffling, and the evolution of RNLs underwent a birth‐and‐death process. Moreover, we trace the origin of EP proteins back to the last common ancestor of vascular plants. We find that both RNLs and EP proteins evolve mainly under negative selection, revealing strong constraints on their function. Concerted losses and positive correlation in copy number are observed between RNL and EP sublineages, suggesting their cooperation in function. Together, our findings provide insights into the origin and evolution of plant helper NLRs, with implications for predicting novel innate immune signaling modules.

Fundus images play an important role in the diagnosis and treatment of ophthalmic diseases (such as hypertension, arteriosclerosis and diabetic retinopathy), and the morphological in-for-mation of retinal blood vessels can be used as an important index for the diagnosis of these dis-eases, so it is very important for accurate segmentation of retinal blood vessels. With the con-tinuous development of computer technology, deep learning method provides a new idea for medical image segmentation. Due to the complex structure and different scales of retinal blood vessels, the existing U-Net model still faces significant challenges in dealing with these tasks. To solve these problems, we propose a retinal vascular segmentation network MDA-Net based on multidimensional attention mechanism. Based on the U-Net structure, this method op-timizes the network design by reducing the number of encoder-decoder layers to three layers, and intro-duces the Coordinate Grouped Feature Fusion (CGFF), multi-dimensional feature en-hancement (MDFE) and multi-scale convolution enhancement (MSCE). Firstly, CGFF module in-tegrates mul-ti-scale features by grouping convolution and multi-dimensional pooling, which improves the adaptability of the model to uneven distribution of blood vessels. Secondly, MDFE module com-bines channel shuffling, multi-dimensional attention and pooling operation to en-hance the ex-traction ability of micro-vessel features, especially in low contrast and complex back-ground.Experimental results show that the accuracy (ACC), sensitivity (SE) and specificity (SP) of this method DRIVE 0.9825, 0.9842 and 0.9895, 0.8211, 0.8342 and 0.8452 respectively, and 0.9840, 0.9872 and 0.992 respectively. MDA-Net proposed in this paper provides a new idea and scheme for improving the performance of retinal blood vessel segmentation.


 
 
 Truth be told, the “Y2K bug” was quite a disappointment. While the technopundits wooed us with visions of network failures worthy of millennial fervor, Jan. 1, 2000, came and went without even a glimmer of the catastrophic. Yet the Y2K “bug” did reveal the degree to which the American apocalypse now took the form of the network itself. The spaces of everyday life in America and elsewhere in a developed world produce and are produced by network structures that Manuel Castells has called “spaces of flow.” As such, Catastrophe today is marked more by dispersion and dissipation, rather than breakdown — a dis-strophe of social forms, structures, and experience. The dissipation of enactive networks does not, however, equate with a system failure. With the Internet “bubble burst” of March, 2000, the very exuberance of market flows were very much the conditions of possibility for both the irruption of a new economy and its sudden evaporation. It is not the ephemerality of these social forms and structures that disorients activities of everyday life in a network society, but rather our lack of control over distributed processes. The bubble burst, then, by no means sounded a death knell for distributed network functions. Rather, it marked a moment of increased misrecognition of the forms, structures, and practices that were the conditions of possibility for the event itself, as an ideology of authentication eclipsed a rhetoric of emergence and flow. Billions in capital disappeared in a matter of weeks, but the network forms and structures that allowed individual users “direct access” to the flows of capital remained in place for a normative virtual class, articulated as personalized and privatized spaces of control. As the bubble burst signaled an instance of digital dis-strophe, the 9/11 attacks on the World Trade Center marked a similar dissipative moment, articulated in the material terror of over 1,300 feet of skyscraper steel and human bodies turned to wreckage and dust. Much as the market crash of 2000 represented a collapse from within of the same network processes that enabled the market’s phenomenal growth, for all the “foreignness” of the terrorists, al Qaeda as an organization appeared decidedly at home in the globalized network society that it threatened to destroy. In an instance of Baudrillardian “ironic revenge,” terrorism appropriated all the trappings of a global space of flows in the name of subverting that same social structure (Baudrillard, “Spirit” 17-19). Only within the conditions of possibility of networked social space could such attacks occur. As such, terrorist cells functioned (the media informed us) as nodes in a distributed network, a human articulation of a space of flows capable of enacting horrifying acts beyond control. While in the years leading up to the market collapse of March, 2000, a growing number of an emerging virtual middle class (from cyberhippy to day-trader manqué) began to understand distributed networks as material expressions of a social revolution, the image of a distributed network changed after 9/11, becoming a global spatiality of fear and danger. As independent scholar Sam Smith notes on his weblog: I expect the organizing principle of the coming age – the era that began on September 12… – will be the distributed network, and we already have some early indications of what this period might look like. The decentralized potency of the Internet is a perfect metaphor in so many ways, and al Qaeda itself provides an apt demonstration of the character and power of the distributed network…. As our ill-prepared military has discovered, it’s hard to kill something you can’t find. Thank goodness for the Taliban, eh? Although figured as an anti-modern fundamentalism, the terrorist networks associated with September 11 served as an image of contemporary network structures themselves. The enemy, it seemed, was not some reclusive figurehead, but rather, the spatiality of the network itself, enacted by distributed, autonomous agents. Carl Conetta, writing on the nature of al Qaeda as a distributed network, notes in particular its ability to “[link] subnational elements together in a transnational web,” to thrive in nation-states that have collapsed or are about to collapse; in short, al Qaeda “lives in the interstices” of modern global space (Conetta). As globalization’s ironic revenge, distributed terror maps the interstitial flows that exploit the inability of centralized authority to coordinate emergent, enactive forms of network agency. In response, the US Congress passed the Patriot Act as an attempt to introduce modes of control into distributed networks and place them at the fingertips of state-based agencies. In an era of global flows, the Patriot Act reestablished the homeland as both a concept of social space and a delimited space of practice, articulated through global network structures. As part of President Bush’s “war on terror,” the Patriot Act declared war on the dispersive and dissipative nature of distributed networks by introducing what Deleuze and Guattari would call state-based apparatuses of capture. But as Deleuze notes, in a world of flows, “capture” occurs as a modulation, not an enclosure — a system of distributed control that is itself expressed in flows (4). The Patriot Act acknowledges networks themselves as modes of agency (noted in its frequent reference to an “intelligence service or network of a foreign power”), and as such institutes a legislative structure to “trap and trace” emergent network structures. In effect, the Patriot Act marks a modulation of networked social space that affirms the primacy of global flows in contemporary life at the same time that it initiates state-based systems of distributed control. Apparatuses of capture modulate flows by eliminating the interstitial and regulating transmission as a mode of order. The “homeland security” measures, then, are precisely this sort of effort to modulate the forms, structures, and practices of a space of flows. As the US military force mounted, one heard less and less talk of the distributed network form of terror, as an uncontrollable threat coalesced in the modulated image of a handful of figureheads: a “line up” in its most literal sense connecting bin Laden, Zakawi, and Hussein. The infamous Most Wanted card deck shifted our imagination from the shuffling networks of global terror to a linear ranking of Ba’ath Party players — a chain of command in a “rogue nation,” from ace of spades to the two of clubs. The topology of fear had changed. Within months, the U.S. government’s rhetoric had swayed our attention from terrorist networks to an “Axis of Evil.” Gone were the references to the complex webbings of distributed systems, and in its place, the reassuringly linear, gravitational orientations of good and evil. The “axis” not only revived the relatively clear lines of geopolitics of the Second World War; it also attempted to reestablish a representation of space predicated upon unidirectional movements and centralized control. Meanwhile, back in the homeland, DARPA’s Total Information Awareness (TIA) Program (renamed the Terrorist Information Awareness Program for better PR) promised a means of capturing flows of information through distributed control over the network. Whereas terrorist organizations exploit the interstitial spaces of a global network society, TIA as a state-based apparatus of capture promised to utilize these same networks to modulate a space of flows and extract orderly patterns of information. The agent of the state doesn’t necessarily control the flow of these networks, but rather, extracts mappings of emergent connections enacted by the network itself. Patterns of informatic exchange and transmission, then, provide distributed control over a network environment that can only be defined by flows and virtualities. In contrast to the data mining we are all used to in a commercial setting, where patterns of aggregate data give rise to “meaningful” market analysis, distributed control systems would instead focus on “rare but significant connections” mapped by the relational structures of a situated subject (DARPA A-14). Lines of contact emerge as pattern recognition allows authorized agents to “connect the dots” (a favored expression throughout DARPA’s report to Congress) within an undifferentiated network of data-flow. Distributed control creates a means for modulating what would otherwise appear as abject noise or aberrant links; the very fact that terrorist networks are represented as abject, interstitial social formations (and vice versa) becomes the condition of possibility for their recognition and capture. In a world in which networks of flows shape both state structures of power and the attempts to destroy those same structures, the lines have been drawn — and modulated. Through systems of distributed control, enactive networks now increasingly speak to a social space in which agency itself maps an emergent network. Less than two years after the Patriot Act was signed into law, DARPA lost Congressional funding for TIA. Again, it was the potential for success that induced our visions of digital catastrophe — that such a large body of data subjected to distributed control presented the potential for the network’s ironic revenge. Yet in many ways the modes of distributed control enacted by networks of pattern recognition are already matters of everyday life, misrecognized as “conveniences” in a network society. While spam filters and software agents hardly equate with the sophistication of TIA programs, the goal of each is the same — to modulate flows and cast off or capture the interstitial within programs of order. While information may want to be free, the forms, structures, and practices of everyday life reveal the degree to which a normative virtual class exerts a will to control, and an ironic willingness to distribute that control to the network itself. In a post-9/11 America, distributed controls are all the more implicated in everyday life, and all the more misrecognized as such by a citizenry terrified by middle eastern networks and placated by lines in the sand. References Baudrillard, Jean. The Spirit of Terrorism. Trans. Chris Turner. New York: Verso, 2003. ———. Symbolic Exchange and Death. Trans. Iain Hamilton Grant. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1993. Castells, Manuel. The Rise of the Network Society. Cambridge: Blackwell, 1996. Conetta, Carl. “Dislocating Alcyoneus: How to Combat al-Qaeda and the New Terrorism.” Project on Defense Alternatives. http://www.comw.org/pda/0206dislocate.html>. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). “Report to Congress Regarding the Terrorism Information Awareness Program.” Washington, D.C. 20 May, 2003. http://www.eff.org/Privacy/TIA/TIA-report.pdf>. Deleuze, Gilles. “Postscript on the Societies of Control.” October 59 (Winter 1992): 3-7. Deleuze, Gilles and Felix Guattari. A Thousand Plateaus. Trans. Brian Massumi. Minneapolis: U Minnesota P, 1984. Trippi, Laura. “More Signs of 911’s Complex Effects.” Netvironments. http://www.netvironments.org/blog/archives/2001_09_01_archives1_html>. Smith, Sam. “Weblog: July/August 2002.” http://www.lullabypit.com/blog/02.jul_aug.html>. United States. Cong. Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism (USA PATRIOT Act) Act of 2001. Washington: GPO, 2001. http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=107_cong_public_laws&docid=f:publ056.107.pdf>. 
 
 
 
 Citation reference for this article
 
 MLA Style
 Nunes, Mark. "Distributed Terror and the Ordering of Networked Social Space." M/C Journal 7.6 (2005). echo date('d M. Y'); ?> <http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0501/01-nunes.php>. APA Style
 Nunes, M. (Jan. 2005) "Distributed Terror and the Ordering of Networked Social Space," M/C Journal, 7(6). Retrieved echo date('d M. Y'); ?> from <http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0501/01-nunes.php>. 

The first home video-gaming console, the Magnavox Odyssey, was released in 1972. Its limited graphical capacities led Magnavox to ship it with a number of plastic overlays for the user's television that would admit a little variety into the then relatively crude gaming experience, limited to a built-in, Pong-like game. Computer and video games have come a long way since then, but it often seems as if critical approaches to gaming have continued shuffling through these plastic films, taking transformations of the screen, or on-screen events, for the whole of the gaming experience. It seems to me that reflection has been paralysed, becoming a discourse of regulation as it revolves around anxieties about gender, violence and narrative. I'd like to explore these anxieties as they've emerged in a few places, and then see if I can articulate the beginnings of an approach that might afford us a more complex, less pessimistic aesthetics of gaming. Anxieties around gender are partly premised upon an evident difference in the types, frequency and extent of gameplay on the part of boys and girls. Recent Australian research suggests that while 76% of boys use home computers for gameplay, the proportion of girls who do the same is around 60% (Cuppitt and Stockbridge 1996). In addition, similar Australian research suggests that while 98% of 12-17 year old boys play games regularly, only around 89% of girls do (Durkin and Aisbett 2000). There is evidence that girls and boys favour different gaming genres (Durkin and Aisbett 2000), and there is little doubt that the magazines and Websites that operate so integrally within gaming cultures tend to hail and attract a mostly male audience. Evidence of this kind of gender split can be seen across the extant research, and from it the argument is often made that this gender imbalance implies a lifelong advantage for boys proceeding from an early pleasurable familiarity with computers. In addressing this problem, rather than confronting questions of access, and parental or teacherly responsibilities to guarantee equity of access for boys and girls, or even looking at issues of gender representation, many critics have instead argued that most games are fundamentally unsuited to the way girls play. In a recent anthology, From Barbie To Mortal Kombat (1998), essentialist discourses of gender are deployed in assembling a consensus around what is termed the 'girls games movement'. Time and again in most of the assembled articles and interviews, claims are made that girls' and boys' interests and styles of play are fundamentally different. While boys allegedly favour destructive play, with an emphasis on mastery, control and competition, girls -- it's constantly asserted -- require collaboration and co-operation, an emphasis on feelings and discussion, a less competitive framework for play, and, above all, narrative. Repeatedly in the anthology, its impugned that games now do not encompass the narrative complexity or richness that girls need, and that girls are alienated from the violent 'twitch and kill' dynamic that pervades gaming. Apart from the thoroughgoing essentialism -- which is brilliantly interrogated by the game-grrlz featured at the end of the anthology -- what troubles me about much of the anthology and much contemporary critical work on games is the implied moral demand that young people's game-culture begin to measure up to another generation's notions of 'appropriate' cultural experiences. A persistent trope in critical work on games -- from Jenkins's piece in the anthology (Jenkins 1998) to works like Marsha Kinder's Playing with Power (1991) -- is the parent-critic watching their children playing video games and becoming perplexed and worried about what is going on. The panic around the lack of 'girls games' -- apart from affording a lucrative opportunity to produce and market worthy material to concerned parents -- serves to authorise the 'correction' of young people's culture. The move from a critique of gaming -- one which rarely engages sympathetically with its pleasures -- to an attempt to inject strong, adult-devised narrative content into games is a move from speaking about gamers ('over their heads') to speaking for gamers. This speaking-for, this flutter of panic has, I think, more than a little to do with an anxiety around the dissipation of cultural power. Theorists of moral panic like John Springhall tell us that moral panics function as attempts to preserve the intergenerational status quo and the cultural-critical hierarchy of a particular period (Springhall 1998). Catharine Lumby argues that new media are like force-fields that reorganise social relations in their wake, and that the anxieties they can inspire can tell us a lot about who feels threatened by such re-organisations, and why (Lumby 1997). Gaming is disturbing in that although it shares some features with other, more familiar visual media, it seems finally, stubbornly unassimilable to the modes of criticism that have developed in relation to those forms. Entrenched critical narratives of spectatorship, or the relationship between viewers, texts, meaning and the economies of cultural production don't seem to find any useful or lasting purchase here. No-one would now argue that televisual or cinematic experiences are passive, but gaming's requirement in principle for the player's direct physical participation in the production of cultural experience means that the old separations underpinning mechanisms of identification or notions of consuming audiences seem irritatingly awkward. Faced with these and other difficulties, criticism has tended to become mesmerised with what is shared -- the screen -- and to be at once frustrated and provoked by the enormous differences still inscribed there. While the close scrutiny of gender representations in gaming has uncovered some serious problems, alongside the demand for narrative we can also see it as part of an older generation's attempt to adapt familiar, free-floating critical modes and models to a group of media with which it has no apparent deep or pleasurable engagement. Faced with a radical analytical and critical failure, the lack of any pleasure to account for or recover, and the need to preserve a cultural and critical hierarchy premised upon the study of other media, it is perhaps inevitable that a desire to alter gaming -- to make it more familiar -- has arisen, and with it a critical discourse of regulation. If we move beyond the screen, if we simply attend to what happens when we and others play games, we allow the possibility of a new aesthetics of gaming to emerge that moves beyond such desires for control. When we realise that what is almost never talked about in current critical work is the body of the player or the nature of machine-mediated play, a field begins to open that might allow us to talk about the uses and pleasures of gaming, and to see its various forms in a wider network of interactions. Paradigm-cases for beginning the sorts of investigations I'm thinking of are those amazing arcade games, like Dance Dance Revolution, that enable and even require public performance and public display. Often positioned at the street entrances of arcades, these games usually attract passing crowds to stop and watch (male and female) players dancing in time with thumping tunes and on-screen instructions. Points are scored by closely matching foot placement with the directional arrows thrown up onto the small screen, but what really attracts the onlookers is the undeniable, individual -- and, strictly, unnecessary -- flair with which the dancers often execute their moves. What at the level of programming, and from an analysis of the screen alone, is the most rudimentary of narratives nevertheless mediates a thrilling and spectacular playful-performative display. And this is where we begin to see that gaming pleasures do not, perhaps cannot, rely on finished or closed narratives. It seems to me that the undeniable popularity of gaming comes from the provision of endlessly recursive grammars and vocabularies for cyborg players to narrate performance, play and self. While many gaming genres and titles do include chunks of traditional narrative storytelling, it seems to me that these often simply embellish the distinctive pleasures of gaming, which require and enact the fundamental redistribution of authorial and narrative power. Gaming establishes a new relationship between perceptual fields and bodies -- a relationship fundamentally different from cinematic or televisual relationships. Associated with these pleasures and relationships is gaming's demand for an ontology -- a series of ontologies -- that can conceive of the moment of play as simultaneously social, mechanical, neither, both. Code and performance, programming and improvised play, when seen together in this way, make the demand for narrative -- ultimately premised upon the separation of consumer and product, spectator and image -- empty of any force. This is to say that when we begin to see the moment of gameplay as a hybrid one -- one where human and machine, play and code, text and reading, producer and consumer cannot be meaningfully distinguished -- we can then begin to see that its unfixed, unstriated forms of play demand a hybrid aesthetics. Such a hybrid aesthetics would move beyond the screen alone to consider gaming's involvement in multiple networks, and thus come to a consideration of its pleasures and possibilities that avoided discourses of morality and control. What it would consider is not only the relationship between gaming and other forms of 'visual culture', but simultaneously its technological artefacts, its involvement with transnational industry, the physical dexterities and epistemologies it demands, the differing shapes of its collectives as it proliferates, its interactions with urban spaces, and its production of different kinds and mixtures of spectators, players, narratives and machines. This kind of Latourean anthropology, with its refusal to bracket gaming as another form of 'soft' culture, is a critical approach that will allow us some traction on gaming's slippery surface, as it allows us to talk about its complexity all at once. If we begin to see games as 'mediators -- that is, actors endowed with the ability to translate what they transport', who in turn 'associate, combine and redeploy countless actors' (Latour 1993), if we look beyond the screen and instead, following Wittgenstein, look for the meaning of games in their everyday social use, we will have begun to look at games in a way that is more interested in what they do, than in what they allegedly do not do. Carrying out this kind of aesthetic project will require not only an attention to the involvement of players' bodies in gaming, but to the patterns of games' dissemination, and to what players themselves say about the games they play. Such an approach need not, in opposing the pessimism that goes with screen-fetishism, veer toward the utopianism of so much cyber-rhetoric. If we take arguments like Latour's seriously, we will say not that gaming represents a revolutionary moment, but that there has always been a deep involvement between humans and our technologies, such that machines and humans constitute collectives for social action. An aesthetics of gaming that takes cognisance of this will short-circuit conveniently polarised debates, and clear space for a more interesting consideration of the networks and uses of gaming. Perhaps those of us who have keenly felt the pleasures and possibilities of gaming can extend a conversation that is no longer sifting through the Odyssey's yellowing transparencies. References Cassell, Justine and Henry Jenkins, eds. From Barbie to Mortal Kombat. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1998. Cuppitt, Margaret, and Sally Stockbridge. Families and Electronic Entertainment. Sydney: Office of Film and Literature Classification, 1997. Douglas, Nikki, et al. "Voices from the Combat Zone: Game Grrlz Talk Back." In Cassell and Jenkins. Durkin, Kevin, and Kate Aisbett. Computer Games and Australians Today. Sydney: Office of Film and Literature Classification, 2000. Haraway, Donna J. Simians, Cyborgs and Women: The Reinvention of Nature. New York: Routledge, 1991. Jenkins, Henry. "'Complete Freedom of Movement': Video Games as Gendered Play Spaces." In Cassell and Jenkins. Kinder, Marsha. Playing with Power in Movies, Television and Video Games: From Muppet Babies to Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles. Berkeley: U of California P, 1991. Latour, Bruno. We Have Never Been Modern. Trans. Catherine Porter. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard UP, 1993. Lumby, Catharine. "Panic Attacks: Old Fears in a New Media Era." Media International Australia, 85 (1997): 40-6. Springhall, John. Youth, Popular Culture and Moral Panic. Houndmills: MacMillan, 1998. Wittgenstein, Ludwig. Philosophical Investigations. Oxford: Blackwell, 1951. Citation reference for this article MLA style: Jason A. Wilson. "Odyssey Renewed: Towards a New Aesthetics of Video-Gaming." M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 3.5 (2000). [your date of access] <http://www.api-network.com/mc/0010/odyssey.php>. Chicago style: Jason A. Wilson, "Odyssey Renewed: Towards a New Aesthetics of Video-Gaming," M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 3, no. 5 (2000), <http://www.api-network.com/mc/0010/odyssey.php> ([your date of access]). APA style: Jason A. Wilson. (2000) Odyssey renewed: towards a new aesthetics of video-gaming. M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 3(5). <http://www.api-network.com/mc/0010/odyssey.php> ([your date of access]).

Bracketed by a quotation from famed 1950s West German soccer coach S. Herberger and the word "Ende", the running length of the 1998 film Run Lola Run, directed by Tom Tykwer, is 9 minutes short of the official duration of a soccer match. Berlin has often been represented, in visual art and in cinematic imagery, as the modern metropolis: the Expressionist and Dadaist painters, Walter Ruttmann, Fritz Lang and Rainer Werner Fassbinder all depicted it as the modernising city. Since the '60s artists have staged artworks and performances in the public space of the city which critiqued the cold war order of that space, its institutions, and the hysterical attempt by the German government to erase a divided past after 1990. Run Lola Run depicts its setting, Berlin, as a cyberspace obstacle course or environment usually associated with interactive video and computer games. The eerie emptiness of the Berlin of Run Lola Run -- a fantasy projected onto a city which has been called the single biggest construction site in Europe -- is necessary to keep the protagonist Lola moving at high speed from the West to the East part of town and back again -- another fantasy which is only possible when the city is recast as a virtual environment. In Run Lola Run Berlin is represented as an idealised space of bodily and psychic mobility where the instantaneous technology of cyberspace is physically realised as a utopia of speed. The setting of Run Lola Run is not a playing field but a playing level, to use the parlance of video game technology. Underscored by other filmic devices and technologies, Run Lola Run emulates the kinetics and structures of a virtual, quasi-interactive environment: the Berlin setting of the film is paradoxically rendered as an indeterminate, but also site specific, entertainment complex which hinges upon the high-speed functioning of multiple networks of auto-mobility. Urban mobility as circuitry is performed by the film's super-athletic Lola. Lola is a cyber character; she recalls the 'cyberbabe' Lara Croft, heroine of the Sega Tomb Raider video game series. In Tomb Raider the Croft figure is controlled and manipulated by the interactive player to go through as many levels of play, or virtual environments, as possible. In order for the cyber figure to get to the next level of play she must successfully negotiate as many trap and puzzle mechanisms as possible. Speed in this interactive virtual game results from the skill of an experienced player who has practiced coordinating keyboard commands with figure movements and who is familiar with the obstacles the various environments can present. As is the case with Lara Croft, the figure of Lola in Run Lola Run reverses the traditional gender relations of the action/adventure game and of 'damsel in distress' narratives. Run Lola Run focusses on Lola's race to save her boyfriend from a certain death by obtaining DM 100,000 and delivering it across town in twenty minutes. The film adds the element of the race to the game, a variable not included in Tomb Raider. Tykwer repeats Lola's trajectory from home to the location of her boyfriend Manni thrice in the film, each time ending her quest with a different outcome. As in a video game, Lola can therefore be killed as the game unwinds during one turn of play, and on the next attempt she, and also we as viewers or would-be interactive players, would have learned from her previous 'mistakes' and adjust her actions accordingly. The soundtrack of Run Lola Run underscores the speed and mobility of Berlin by means of the fast/slow/fast rhythm of the film, which proceeds primarily at the pace of techno music. This quick rhythm is syncopated with pauses in the forward-moving action brought on by Lola's superhuman screams or by the death of a protagonist. These events mark the end of one turn of 'play' and the restart of Lola's route. Tykwer visually contrasts Lola's linear mobility and her physical and mental capacity for speed with her boyfriend Manni's centripetal fixity, a marker of his helplessness, throughout the film. Manni, a bagman-in-training for a local mafioso, has to make his desperate phone calls from a single phone booth in the borough of Charlottenburg after he bungles a hand-off of payment money by forgetting it on the U-Bahn (the subway). In a black and white flashback sequence, viewers learn about Manni's ill-fated trip to the Polish border with a shipment of stolen cars. In contrast to his earlier mobility, Manni becomes entrapped in the phone booth as a result of his ineptitude. A spiral store sign close to the phone booth symbolizes Manni's entrapment. Tykwer contrasts this circular form with the lines and grids Lola transverses throughout the film. Where at first Lola is also immobilised after her moped is stolen by an 'unbelieveably fast' thief, her quasi-cybernetic thought process soon restores her movement. Tykwer visualizes Lola's frantic thinking in a series of photographic portraits which indicates her consideration of who she can contact to supply a large sum of money. Lola not only moves but thinks with the fast, even pace of a computer working through a database. Tykwer then repeats overhead shots of gridded pavement which Lola follows as she runs through the filmic frame. The grid, emblem of modernity and structure of the metropolis, the semiconductor, and the puzzles of a virtual environment, is necessary for mobility and speed, and is performed by the figure of Lola. The grid is also apparent in the trajectories of traffic of speeding bikes, subway trains,and airplanes passing overhead, which all parallel Lola's movements in the film. The city/virtual environment is thus an idealised nexus of local, national and global lines of mobility and communication.: -- OR -- Tykwer emphasised the arbitrariness of the setting of Run Lola Run, insisting it could easily have been set in any other urban centre such as New York City or Beijing. At no point does the film make explicit that the space of action is Berlin; in fact the setting of the film is far less significant than the filmic self-reflexivity Tykwer explores in Run Lola Run. Berlin becomes a postmodernist filmic text in which earlier films by Lang, Schlöndorff, von Sternberg and Wenders are cited in intertextual fashion. It is not by chance that the protagonist of Run Lola Run shares the name of Marlene Dietrich's legendary character in von Sternberg's The Blue Angel. The running, late-20th-century Lola reconnects with and gains power from the originary Lola Lola as ur-Star of German cinema. The high overhead shots of Run Lola Run technologically exceed those used by Lang in M in 1931 but still quote his filmic text; the spiral form, placed in a shop window in M, becomes a central image of Run Lola Run in marking the immobile spot that Manni occupies. Repeated several times in the film, Lola's scream bends events, characters and chance to her will and slows the relentless pace of the narrative. This vocal punctuation recalls the equally willful vocalisations of Oskar Matzerath in Schlöndorff's Tin Drum (1979). Tykwer's radical expansions and compressions of time in Run Lola Run rely on the temporal exploitation of the filmic medium. The film stretches 20 minutes of 'real time' in the lives of its two protagonists into the 84 minutes of the film. Tykwer also distills the lives of the film's incidental or secondary characters into a few still images and a few seconds of filmic time in the 'und dann...' [and then...] sequences of all three episodes. For example, Lola's momentary encounter with an employee of her father's bank spins off into two completely different life stories for this woman, both of which are told through four or five staged 'snapshots' which are edited together into a rapid sequence. The higher-speed photography of the snapshot keeps up the frenetic pace of Run Lola Run and causes the narrative to move forward even faster, if only for a few seconds. Tykwer also celebrates the technology of 35 mm film in juxtaposing it to the fuzzy imprecision of video in Run Lola Run. The viewer not only notes how scenes shot on video are less visually beautiful than the 35 mm scenes which feature Lola or Manni, but also that they seem to move at a snail's pace. For example, the video-shot scene in Lola's banker-father's office also represents the boredom of his well-paid but stagnant life; another video sequence visually parallels the slow, shuffling movement of the homeless man Norbert as he discovers Manni's forgotten moneybag on the U-Bahn. Comically, he breaks into a run when he realises what he's found. Where Wim Wenders's Wings of Desire made beautiful cinematographic use of Berlin landmarks like the Siegessäule in black and white 35 mm, Tykwer relegates black and white to flashback sequences within the narrative and rejects the relatively meandering contemplation of Wenders's film in favour of the linear dynamism of urban space in Run Lola Run. -- OR -- Tykwer emphasised the arbitrariness of the setting of Run Lola Run, insisting it could easily have been set in any other urban centre such as New York City or Beijing. Nevertheless he establishes the united Berlin as the specific setting of the film. While Run Lola Run does not explicitly indicate that the space of action is Berlin, viewers are clear of the setting: a repeated establishing shot of the Friedrichstrasse U-Bahn stop, a central commuting street near the Brandenburg Gate in the former East Berlin which has undergone extensive reconstruction since 1990, begins each episode of the film. The play between the locality of Berlin and its role as the universal modernist metropolis is a trope of German cinema famously deployed by Fritz Lang in M, where the setting is also never explicitly revealed but implied by means of the use of the Berlin dialect in the dialogue of the film1. The soundtrack of Run Lola Run underscores the speed and mobility of Berlin by means of the fast/slow/fast rhythm of the film which proceeds primarily at the pace of techno music. Techno is also closely identified with the city of Berlin through its annual Techno Festival, which seems to grow larger with each passing year. Quick techno rhythm is syncopated with pauses in the forward-moving action brought on by Lola's superhuman screams or by the death of a protagonist. Berlin is also made explicit as Tykwer often stages scenes at clearly-marked street intersections which identify particular locations or boroughs thoughout east and west Berlin. The viewer notes that Lola escapes her father's bank during one episode and faces Unter den Linden; several scenes unfold on the banks of the river Spree; Lola sprints between the Altes Museum and the Berlin Cathedral. Manni's participation in a car-theft ring points to the Berlin-focussed activity of actual Eastern European and Russian crime syndicates; the film features an interlude at the Polish border where Manni delivers a shipment of stolen Mercedes to underworld buyers, which has to do with the actual geographic proximity of Berlin to Eastern European countries. Tykwer emphasised the arbitrariness of the setting of Run Lola Run, insisting it could easily have been set in any other urban centre such as New York City or Beijing. Nevertheless he establishes the united Berlin as the specific setting of the film. While Run Lola Run does not explicitly indicate that the space of action is Berlin, viewers are clear of the setting: a repeated establishing shot of the Friedrichstrasse U-Bahn stop, a central commuting street near the Brandenburg Gate in the former East Berlin which has undergone extensive reconstruction since 1990, begins each episode of the film. The play between the locality of Berlin and its role as the universal modernist metropolis is a trope of German cinema famously deployed by Fritz Lang in M, where the setting is also never explicitly revealed but implied by means of the use of the Berlin dialect in the dialogue of the film1. The soundtrack of Run Lola Run underscores the speed and mobility of Berlin by means of the fast/slow/fast rhythm of the film which proceeds primarily at the pace of techno music. Techno is also closely identified with the city of Berlin through its annual Techno Festival, which seems to grow larger with each passing year. Quick techno rhythm is syncopated with pauses in the forward-moving action brought on by Lola's superhuman screams or by the death of a protagonist. Berlin is also made explicit as Tykwer often stages scenes at clearly-marked street intersections which identify particular locations or boroughs thoughout east and west Berlin. The viewer notes that Lola escapes her father's bank during one episode and faces Unter den Linden; several scenes unfold on the banks of the river Spree; Lola sprints between the Altes Museum and the Berlin Cathedral. Manni's participation in a car-theft ring points to the Berlin-focussed activity of actual Eastern European and Russian crime syndicates; the film features an interlude at the Polish border where Manni delivers a shipment of stolen Mercedes to underworld buyers, which has to do with the actual geographic proximity of Berlin to Eastern European countries. Yet the speed of purposeful mobility is demanded in the contemporary united and globalised Berlin; lines of action or direction must be chosen and followed and chance encounters become traps or interruptions. Chance must therefore be minimised in the pursuit of urban speed, mobility, and commications access. In the globalised Berlin, Tykwer compresses chance encounters into individual snapshots of visual data which are viewed in quick succession by the viewer. Where artists such Christo and Sophie Calle had investigated the initial chaos of German reunification in Berlin, Run Lola Run rejects the hyper-contemplative and past-obsessed mood demanded by Christo's wrapping of the Reichstag, or Calle's documentation of the artistic destructions of unification3. Run Lola Run recasts Berlin as a network of fast connections, lines of uninterrupted movement, and productive output. It is therefore perhaps not surprising that Tykwer's idealised and embodied representation of Berlin as Lola has been politically appropriated as a convenient icon by the city's status quo: an icon of the successful reconstruction and rewiring of a united Berlin into a fast global broadband digital telecommunications network4. Footnotes See Edward Dimendberg's excellent discussion of filmic representations of the metropolis in "From Berlin to Bunker Hill: Urban Space, Late Modernity, and Film Noir in Fritz Lang's and Joseph Losey's M." Wide Angle 19.4 (1997): 62-93. This is despite the fact that the temporal parameters of the plot of Run Lola Run forbid the aimlessness central to spazieren (strolling). See Walter Benjamin, "A Berlin Chronicle", in Reflections. Ed. Peter Demetz. Trans. Edmund Jephcott. New York: Schocken, 1986. 3-60. See Sophie Calle, The Detachment. London: G+B Arts International and Arndt & Partner Gallery, n.d. The huge success of Tykwer's film in Germany spawned many red-hair-coiffed Lola imitators in the Berlin populace. The mayor of Berlin sported Lola-esque red hair in a poster which imitated the one for the film, but legal intercession put an end to this trendy political statement. Brian Pendreigh. "The Lolaness of the Long-Distance Runner." The Guardian 15 Oct. 1999. I've relied on William J. Mitchell's cultural history of the late 20th century 'rebuilding' of major cities into connection points in the global telecommunications network, City of Bits: Space, Place, and the Infobahn. Cambridge: MIT P, 1995. Citation reference for this article MLA style: Claudia Mesch. "Racing Berlin: The Games of Run Lola Run." M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 3.3 (2000). [your date of access] <http://www.api-network.com/mc/0006/speed.php>. Chicago style: Claudia Mesch, "Racing Berlin: The Games of Run Lola Run," M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 3, no. 3 (2000), <http://www.api-network.com/mc/0006/speed.php> ([your date of access]). APA style: Claudia Mesch. (2000) Racing Berlin: the games of Run Lola run. M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 3(3). <http://www.api-network.com/mc/0006/speed.php> ([your date of access]).

IntroductionIn this article, I discuss the potential of sound to construct fictional spaces and build relations between bodies using two performance installations as case studies. The first is Invisible Flock’s 105+dB, a site-specific sound work which transports crowd recordings of a soccer match to alternative geographical locations. The second is Atelier Bildraum’s Bildraum, an installation performance using live photography, architectural models, and ambient sound. By writing through these two works, I question how sound builds relations between bodies and across space as well as questioning the role of site within sound installation works. The potential for sound to create shared space and foster relationships between bodies, objects, and the surrounding environment is evident in recent contemporary art exhibitions. For MOMA’s Soundings: A Contemporary Score, curator Barbara London, sought to create a series of “tuned environments” rather than use headphones, emphasising the potential of sound works to envelop the gallery goer. Similarly, Sam Belinafante’s Listening, aimed to capture a sense of how sound can influence attention by choreographing the visitors’ experience towards the artworks. By using motorised technology to stagger each installation, gallery goers were led by their ears. Both London’s and Belinafante’s curatorial approaches highlight the current awareness and interest in aural space and its influence on bodies, an area I aim to contribute to with this article.Audio-based performance works consisting of narration or instructions received through headphones feature as a dominant trend within the field of theatre and performance studies. Well-known examples from the past decade include: Janet Cardiff’s The Missing Case Study B; Graeme Miller’s Linked; and Lavinia Greenlaw’s Audio Obscura. The use of sound in these works offers several possibilities: the layering of fiction onto site, the intensification, or contradiction of existing atmospheres and, in most cases, the direction of audience attention. Misha Myers uses the term ‘percipient’ to articulate this mode of engagement that relies on the active attendance of the participant to their surroundings. She states that it is the participant “whose active, embodied and sensorial engagement alters and determines [an artistic] process and its outcomes” (172-23). Indeed, audio-based works provide invaluable ways of considering how the body of the audience member might be engaged, raising important issues in relation to sound, embodiment and presence. Yet the question remains, outside of individual acoustic environments, how does sound build physical relations between bodies and across space? Within sound studies the World Soundscape Project, founded in the 1970s by R. Murray Schafer, documents the acoustic properties of cities, nature, technology and work. Collaborations between sound engineers and musicians indicated the musicality inherent in the world encouraging attunement to the acoustic characteristics of our environment. Gernot Böhme indicates the importance of personal and emotional impressions of space, experienced as atmosphere. Atmosphere, rather than being an accumulation of individual acoustic characteristics, is a total experience. In relation to sound, sensitivity to this mode of engagement is understood as a need to shift from hearing in “an instrumental sense—hearing something—into a way of taking part in the world” (221). Böhme highlights the importance of the less tangible, emotional consistency of our surrounding environment. Brandon Labelle further indicates the social potential of sound by foregrounding the emotional and psychological charges which support “event-architecture, participatory productions, and related performative aspects of space” (Acoustic Spatiality 2) these, Labelle claims enable sound to catalyse both the material world and our imaginations. Sound as felt experience and the emotional construction of space form the key focus here. Within architectural discourse, both Juhani Pallasmaa and Peter Zumthor point to atmospheric nuances and flows of energy which can cause events to furnish the more rigid physical constructs we exist between, influencing spatial quality. However, it is sensorial experience Jean-Paul Thibaud claims, including attention to light, sound, smell and texture that informs much of how we situate ourselves, contributing to the way we imaginatively construct the world we inhabit, even if only of temporary duration. To expand on this, Thibaud locates the sensorial appreciation of site between “the lived experience of people as well as the built environment of the place” (Three Dynamics 37) hinting at the presence of energetic flows. Such insights into how relations are built between bodies and objects inform the approach taken in this article, as I focus on sensorial modes of engagement to write through my own experience as listener-spectator. George Home-Cook uses the term listener-spectator to describe “an ongoing, intersensorial bodily engagement with the affordances of the theatrical environment” (147) and a mode of attending that privileges phenomenal engagement. Here, I occupy the position of the listener-spectator to attend to two installations, Invisible Flock’s 105+dB and Atelier Bildraum’s Bildraum. The first is a large-scale sound installation produced for Hull UK city of culture, 2017. The piece uses audio recordings from 16 shotgun microphones positioned at the periphery of Hull City’s soccer pitch during a match on 28 November 2016. The piece relocates the recordings in public space, replaying a twenty-minute edited version through 36 speakers. The second, Bildraum, is an installation performance consisting of photographer Charlotte Bouckaert, architect Steve Salembier with sound by Duncan Speakman. The piece, with a running time of 40-minutes uses architectural models, live photography, sound and lighting to explore narrative, memory, and space. In writing through these two case studies, I aim to emphasise sensorial engagement. To do so I recognise, as Salomé Voegelin does, the limits of critical discourse to account for relations built through sound. Voegelin indicates the rift critical discourse creates between what is described and its description. In her own writing, Voegelin attempts to counteract this by using the subjective “I” to foreground the experience of a sound work as a writer-listener. Similarly, here I foreground my position as a listener-spectator and aim to evidence the criticality within the work by writing through my experience of attending thereby bringing out mood, texture, atmosphere to foreground how relations are built across space and between bodies.105+dB Invisible Flock January 2017, I arrive in Hull for Invisible Flock’s 105+dB programmed as part of Made in Hull, a series of cultural activities happening across the city. The piece takes place in Zebedee’s Yard, a pedestrianised area located between Princes Dock Street and Whitefriargate in the grounds of the former Trinity House School. From several streets, I can already hear a crowd. Sound, porous in its very nature, flows through the city expanding beyond its immediate geography bringing the notion of a fictional event into being. I look in pub windows to see which teams are playing, yet the visual clues defy what my ears tell me. Listening, as Labelle suggests is relational, it brings us into proximity with nearby occurrences, bodies and objects. Sound and in turn listening, by both an intended and unsuspecting public, lures bodies into proximity aurally bound by the promise of an event. The use of sound, combined with the physical sensation implied by the surrounding architecture serves to construct us as a group of attendees to a soccer match. This is evident as I continue my approach, passing through an archway with cobbled stones underfoot. The narrow entrance rapidly fills up with bodies and objects; push chairs, wheelchairs, umbrellas, and thick winter coats bringing us into close physical contact with one another. Individuals are reduced to a sea of heads bobbing towards the bright stadium lights now visible in the distance. The title 105+dB, refers to the volume at which the sound of an individual voice is lost amongst a crowd, accordingly my experience of being at the site of the piece further echoes this theme. The physical structure of the archway combined with the volume of bodies contributes to what Pallasmaa describes as “atmospheric perception” (231), a mode of attending to experience that engages all the senses as well as time, memory and imagination. Sound here contributes to the atmosphere provoking a shift in my listening. The importance of the listener-spectator experience is underscored by the absence of architectural structures habitually found in stadiums. The piece is staged using the bare minimum: four metal scaffolding structures on each side of the Yard support stadium lights and a high-visibility clad figure patrols the periphery. These trappings serve to evoke an essence of the original site of the recordings, the rest is furnished by the audio track played through 36 speakers situated at intervals around the space as well as the movement of other bodies. As Böhme notes: “Space is genuinely experienced by being in it, through physical presence” (179) similarly, here, it is necessary to be in the space, aurally immersed in sound and in physical proximity to other bodies moving across the Yard. Image 1: The piece is staged using the bare minimum, the rest is furnished by the audio track and movement of bodies. Image courtesy of the artists.The absence of visual clues draws attention to the importance of presence and mood, as Böhme claims: “By feeling our own presence, we feel the space in which we are present” (179). Listening-spectators actively contribute to the event-architecture as physical sensations build and are tangibly felt amongst those present, influenced by the dramaturgical structure of the audio recording. Sounds of jeering, applause and the referees’ whistle combine with occasional chants such as “come on city, come on city” marking a shared rhythm. Specific moments, such as the sound of a leather ball hitting a foot creates a sense of expectation amongst the crowd, and disappointed “ohhs” make a near-miss audibly palpable. Yet, more important than a singular sound event is the sustained sensation of being in a situation, a distinction Pallasmaa makes, foregrounding the “ephemeral and dynamic experiential fields” (235) offered by music, an argument I wish to consider in relation to this sound installation.The detail of the recording makes it possible to imagine, and almost accurately chart, the movement of the ball around the pitch. A “yeah” erupts, making it acoustically evident that a goal is scored as the sound of elation erupts through the speakers. In turn, this sensation much like Thibaud’s concept of intercorporeality, spreads amongst the bodies of the listening-spectators who fist bump, smile, clap, jeer and jump about sharing and occupying Zebedee’s Yard with physical manifestations of triumph. Through sound comes an invitation to be both physically and emotionally in the space, indicating the potential to understand, as Pallasmaa suggests, how “spaces and true architectural experiences are verbs” (231). By physically engaging with the peaks and troughs of the game, a temporary community of sorts forms. After twenty minutes, the main lights dim creating an amber glow in the space, sound is reduced to shuffling noises as the stadium fills up, or empties out (it is impossible to tell). Accordingly, Zebedee’s Yard also begins to empty. It is unclear if I am listening to the sounds in the space around me, or those on the recording as they overlap. People turn to leave, or stand and shuffle evidencing an attitude of receptiveness towards their surrounding environment and underscoring what Thibaud describes as “tuned ambiance” where a resemblance emerges “between what is felt and what is produced” (Three Dynamics 44). The piece, by replaying the crowd sounds of a soccer match across the space of Zebedee’s Yard, stages atmospheric perception. In the absence of further architectural structures, it is the sound of the crowd in the stadium and in turn an attention to our hearing and physical presence that constitutes the event. Bildraum Atelier BildraumAugust 2016, I am in Edinburgh to see Bildraum. The German word “bildraum” roughly translates as image room, and specifically relates to the part of the camera where the image is constructed. Bouckaert takes high definition images live onstage that project immediately onto the screen at the back of the space. The audience see the architectural model, the taking of the photograph, the projected image and hear both pre-recorded ambient sounds by Speakman, and live music played by Salembier generating the sensation that they are inhabiting a bildraum. Here I explore how both sound and image projection can encourage the listener-spectator to construct multiple narratives of possible events and engage their spatial imagination. Image 2: The audience see the architectural model, the taking of the photograph, the projected image and hear both live and pre-recorded sounds. Image courtesy of the artists.In Bildraum, the combination of elements (photographic, acoustic, architectural) serve to create provocative scenes which (quite literally) build multiple spaces for potential narratives. As Bouckaert asserts, “when we speak with people after the performance, they all have a different story”. The piece always begins with a scale model of the actual space. It then evolves to show other spaces such as a ‘social’ scene located in a restaurant, a ‘relaxation’ scene featuring sun loungers, an oversize palm tree and a pool as well as a ‘domestic’ scene with a staircase to another room. The use of architectural models makes the spaces presented appear as homogenous, neutral containers yet layers of sound including footsteps, people chatting, doors opening and closing, objects dropping, and an eerie soundscape serve to expand and incite the construction of imaginative possibilities. In relation to spatial imagination, Pallasmaa discusses the novel and our ability, when reading, to build all the settings of the story, as though they already existed in pre-formed realities. These imagined scenes are not experienced in two dimensions, as pictures, but in three dimensions and include both atmosphere and a sense of spatiality (239). Here, the clean, slick lines of the rooms, devoid of colour and personal clutter become personalised, yet also troubled through the sounds and shadows which appear in the photographs, adding ambiance and serving to highlight the pluralisation of space. As the piece progresses, these neat lines suffer disruption giving insight into the relations between bodies and across space. As Martin Heidegger notes, space and our occupation of space are not mutually exclusive but intertwined. Pallasmaa further reminds us that when we enter a space, space enters us and the experience is a reciprocal exchange and fusion of both subject and object (232).One image shows a table with several chairs neatly arranged around the outside. The distance between the chairs and the table is sufficient to imagine the presence of several bodies. The first image, though visually devoid of any living presence is layered with chattering sounds suggesting the presence of bodies. In the following image, the chairs have shifted position and there is a light haze, I envisage familiar social scenes where conversations with friends last long into the night. In the next image, one chair appears on top of the table, another lies tilted on the floor with raucous noise to accompany the image. Despite the absence of bodies, the minimal audio-visual provocations activate my spatial imagination and serve to suggest a correlation between physical behaviour and ambiance in everyday settings. As discussed in the previous paragraph, this highlights how space is far from a disinterested, or separate container for physical relations, rather, it underscores how social energy, sound and mood can build a dynamic presence within the built environment, one that is not in isolation but indeed in dialogue with surrounding structures. In a further scene, the seemingly fixed, stable nature of the models undergoes a sudden influx of materials as a barrage of tiny polystyrene balls appears. The image, combined with the sound suggests a large-scale disaster, or freak weather incident. The ambiguity created by the combination of sound and image indicates a hidden mobility beneath what is seen. Sound here does not announce the presence of an object, or indicate the taking place of a specific event, instead it acts as an invitation, as Voegelin notes, “not to confirm and preserve actuality but to explore possibilities” (Sonic 13). The use of sound which accompanies the image helps to underscore an exchange between the material and immaterial elements occurring within everyday life, leaving a gap for the listener-spectator to build their own narrative whilst also indicating further on goings in the depth of the visual. Image 3: The minimal audio-visual provocations serve to activate my spatial imagination. Image courtesy of the artists.The piece advances at a slow pace as each model is adjusted while lighting and objects are arranged. The previous image lingers on the projector screen, animated by the sound track which uses simple but evocative chords. This lulls me into an attentive, almost meditative state as I tune into and construct my own memories prompted by the spaces shown. The pace and rhythm that this establishes in Summerhall’s Old Lab creates a productive imaginative space. Böhme argues that atmosphere is a combination of both subjective and objective perceptions of space (16). Here, stimulated by the shifting arrangements Bouckaert and Salembier propose, I create short-lived geographies charting my lived experience and memories across a plurality of possible environments. As listener-spectator I am individually implicated as the producer of a series of invisible maps. The invitation to engage with the process of the work over 40-minutes as the building and dismantling of models and objects takes place draws attention to the sensorial flows and what Voegelin denotes as a “semantic materiality” (Sonic 53), one that might penetrate our sensibility and accompany us beyond the immediate timeframe of the work itself. The timeframe and rhythm of the piece encourages me, as listener-spectator to focus on the ambient sound track, not just as sound, but to consider the material realities of the here and now, to attend to vibrational milieus which operate beyond the surface of the visible. In doing so, I become aware of constructed actualities and of sound as a medium to get me beyond what is merely presented. ConclusionThe dynamic experiential potential of sound installations discussed from the perspective of a listener-spectator indicate how emotion is a key composite of spatial construction. Beyond the closed acoustic environments of audio-based performance works, aural space, physical proximity, and the importance of ambiance are foregrounded. Such intangible, ephemeral experiences can benefit from a writing practice that attends to these aesthetic concerns. By writing through both case studies from the position of listener-spectator, my lived experience of each work, manifested through attention to sensorial experience, have indicated how relations are built between bodies and across space. In Invisible Flock´s 105+dB sound featured as a social material binding listener-spectators to each other and catalysing a fictional relation to space. Here, sound formed temporal communities bringing bodies into contact to share in constructing and further shaping the parameters of a fictional event.In Atelier Bildraum’s Bildraum the construction of architectural models combined with ambient and live sound indicated a depth of engagement to the visual, one not confined to how things might appear on the surface. The seemingly given, stable nature of familiar environments can be questioned hinting at the presence of further layers within the vibrational or atmospheric properties operating across space that might bring new or alternative realities to the forefront.In both, the correlation between the environment and emotional impressions of bodies that occupy it emerged as key in underscoring and engaging in a dialogue between ambiance and lived experience.ReferencesBildraum, Atelier. Bildraum. Old Lab, Summer Hall, Edinburgh. 18 Aug. 2016.Böhme, Gernot, and Jean-Paul Thibaud (eds.). The Aesthetics of Atmospheres. New York: Routledge, 2017.Cardiff, Janet. The Missing Case Study B. Art Angel, 1999.Home-Cook, George. Theatre and Aural Attention. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015.Greenlaw, Lavinia. Audio Obscura. 2011.Bouckaert, Charlotte, and Steve Salembier. Bildraum. Brussels. 8 Oct. 2014. 18 Jan. 2017 <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eueeAaIuMo0>.Daemen, Merel. “Steve Salembier & Charlotte Bouckaert.” 1 Jul. 2015. 18 Jan. 2017 <http://thissurroundingusall.com/post/122886489993/steve-salembier-charlotte-bouckaert-an-architect>. Haydon, Andrew. “Bildraum – Summerhall, Edinburgh.” Postcards from the Gods 20 Aug. 2016. 18 Jan. 2017 <http://postcardsgods.blogspot.co.uk/2016/08/bildraum-summerhall-edinburgh.html>. Heidegger, Martin. “Building, Dwelling, Thinking.” Basic Writings. Ed. David Farrell Krell. Oxford: Routledge, 1978. 239-57.Hutchins, Roy. 27 Aug. 2016. 18 Jan. 2017 <http://fringereview.co.uk/review/edinburgh-fringe/2016/bildraum/>.Invisible Flock. 105+dB. Zebedee’s Yard, Made in Hull. Hull. 7 Jan. 2017. Labelle, Brandon. “Acoustic Spatiality.” SIC – Journal of Literature, Culture and Literary Translation (2012). 18 Jan. 2017 <http://hrcak.srce.hr/file/127338>.———. “Other Acoustics” OASE: Immersed - Sound & Architecture 78 (2009): 14-24.———. “Sharing Architecture: Space, Time and the Aesthetics of Pressure.” Journal of Visual Culture 10.2 (2011): 177-89.Miller, Graeme. Linked. 2003.Myers, Misha. “Situations for Living: Performing Emplacement.” Research in Drama Education 13.2 (2008): 171-80.Pallasmaa, Juhani. “Space, Place and Atmosphere. Emotion and Peripheral Perception in Architectural Experience.” Lebenswelt 4.1 (2014): 230-45.Schafer, R. Murray. The Soundscape: Our Sonic Environment and the Tuning of the World. Vermont: Destiny Books, 1994.Schevers, Bas. Bildraum (trailer) by Charlotte Bouckaert and Steve Salembier. Dec. 2014. 18 Jan. 2017 <https://vimeo.com/126676951>.Taylor, N. “Made in Hull Artists: Invisible Flock.” 6 Jan. 2017. 9 Jan. 2017 <https://www.hull2017.co.uk/discover/article/made-hull-artists-invisible-flock/>. Thibaud, Jean-Paul. “The Three Dynamics of Urban Ambiances.” Sites of Sound: of Architecture and the Ear Vol. II. Eds. B. Labelle and C. Martinho. Berlin: Errant Bodies P, 2011. 45-53.———. “Urban Ambiances as Common Ground?” 4.1 (2014): 282-95.Voegelin, Salomé. Listening to Sound and Silence: Toward a Philosophy of Sound Art. New York: Continuum, 2010.———. Sonic Possible Worlds. London: Bloomsbury, 2014.Zumthor, Peter. Thinking Architecture. Basel: Birkhäuser, 1998.———. Atmosphere: Architectural Environments – Surrounding Objects. Basel: Birkhäuser, 2006.

<strong>Article on ataxia &ndash; classification and management</strong> <em>Abhinav Kumar Sharma</em> &nbsp; Under the guidance of <em>Abdikyimova G</em><em>ulzat Mam (Faculty of Neurology)</em> Professor - Osh State University,&nbsp; IMF&nbsp; Kyrgyzstan&nbsp; &nbsp; <strong>Abstract</strong> <em>Ataxia has been described as incoordination of voluntary movements and abnormal postural control. There are many different statements concerning the definition, range and nomenclature of ataxia. Different clinical findings, exposure to different neurological structures and different causes lead to the occurrence of each ataxia type. In most cases, treatment of ataxia is not available and supportive treatment should be applied for the management of ataxia symptoms. Ataxia usually follows a trauma to the cerebellum and its tracts like the vestibular, proprioceptive and visual systems.</em> <em>Clinically, the ataxias can be further classified into cerebellar, vestibular, sensory, frontal, optic, visual, mixed ataxia and ataxic-hemiparesis.</em> <em>Etiologically, the ataxias can be categorized into hereditary ataxias, sporadic degenerative ataxias and acquired ataxias.</em> <em>Genetic forms of ataxia must be distinguished from the acquired ataxias like chronic alcoholism, cerebrovascular disease, various toxins agents, immune-mediated inflammation, vitamin deficiency, and persistent central nervous system infections. Once the acquired causes are treated, as ataxia is generally resistant to therapy, the treatment is supportive but may involve physical, occupational, and speech therapy.</em> &nbsp; <strong><u>Introduction</u></strong> The word ataxia is greek in origin (a- negative prefix and taxia to set in order), meaning "Not in order." In medicine, it is utilized to describe loss of coordination and poor postural control. It's an inexact clinical indicator of dysfunction of the cerebellum and/or its connections such as the proprioceptive, visual, vestibular systems and interrelationships between the systems. There are numerous possible causes for these patterns of neurological dysfunction (1, 2). In this review, the neuroanatomic foundation, forms &nbsp;etiologies, and management of ataxia are detailed in the light of the literature. &nbsp; <strong><u>Pathogenesis </u></strong> Ataxia is an impairment of muscle coordination during voluntary movement and impaired postural control. Ataxia usually results from an injury to the cerebellum and its tracts. The main function of the cerebellum is to obtain balance and coordination. Based on the information presented by the vestibular, visual, somatosensory systems and cerebral cortex, the cerebellum generates postural control, balanced and coordinated movement by adjusting accordingly. The vestibulocerebellum acquires eye movements and balance by way of vestibuloocular, vestibulospinal and reticulospinal tracts through the regulation&nbsp;of information in the vestibular and the reticular nuclei. Spinocerebellum receives proprioceptive sensory inputs from the periphery, and regulates movement of body and limb, and is also responsible for locomotion, balance and tonus. Cerebrocerebellum is connected to the cerebral cortex, and is involved in the planning of movement and in evaluating sensory information for action, allowing for precise, coordinated distal movement. In contrast, the cerebrocerebellum has a role in motor control as well as in emotion and cognition. Therefore, the cerebellum is involved with balance and posture maintenance, control of eye movement, planning and execution of coordinated limb movements, motor performance adjustments, learning of new motor tasks, cognitive function and neuroimmunomodulation. Lesion of the cerebellum and/or its connections results in ataxia, oculomotor disturbances, dysmetria,&nbsp;dyssynergia, dysarthria, tremor, hypotonia,&nbsp;prolonged reaction time, and cognitive deficit&nbsp;termed &ldquo;dysmetria of thought&rdquo; (2-5). &nbsp; <strong><u>Types of ataxia</u></strong> Ataxia can result from damage to the cerebellum,&nbsp;proprioceptive, vestibular and visual pathways, and/or&nbsp;any interconnection between these pathways. Although&nbsp;there has been no consensus concerning classification of ataxias in&nbsp;literature, depending on system involvement, ataaxias are classified into following: <em>1. Cerebellar ataxia</em> <em>2. Vestibular ataxia</em> <em>3. Sensory ataxia</em> <em>4. Frontal ataxia</em> <em>5. Ataxic-hemiparesis</em> <em>6. Optic ataxia</em> <em>7. Visual ataxia</em> <em>8. Mixed ataxia</em> <strong>&nbsp;</strong> <strong>Cerebellar ataxia</strong> The designation cerebellar ataxia is employed to describe&nbsp;ataxia due to&nbsp;malfunction of the cerebellum.&nbsp;Ataxia, hypotonia, asynergy, dysmetria, dyschronometria,&nbsp;nystagmus, dysdiadochokinesia, tremor, and cognitive malfunction are features of cerebellar dysfunctions. Where and how these abnormalities&nbsp;manifest themselves will depend on which of the cerebellar structures, i.e.,&nbsp;vestibulocerebellum, spinocerebellum or cerebrocerebellum, have been damaged(6). &nbsp; Vestibulocerebellum (flocculonodular lobe) malfunction is marked by vertigo&nbsp;imbalance and abnormal eye movements. This&nbsp;appears as postural instability in an attempt&nbsp;to increase the base. Instability is thus aggravated&nbsp;while standing with the feet together, whether&nbsp;the eyes are open or closed. Some of the eye&nbsp;movement abnormalities like gaze-evoked&nbsp;nystagmus, rebound nystagmus, ocular dysmetria, inability to inhibit the vestibulo-ocular reflex and&nbsp;abnormalities of optokinetic nystagmus are also&nbsp;observed (7). Spinocerebellar (vermis and paravermis)&nbsp;dysfunction manifests as a broad-based "Drunken&nbsp;sailor" Gait referred to as truncal ataxia,&nbsp;characterized by uncertain starts and stops, lateral&nbsp;deviations, and unequal steps, and gait ataxia (8). Cerebrocerebellar dysfunction manifests as&nbsp;disturbances in the execution of voluntary, planned&nbsp;movements by the extremities. These include:&nbsp;Intentional tremor, writing difficulty, dysarthria,&nbsp;dysmetria, abnormality of alternating movements,&nbsp;loss of check reflex, and hypotonia. Intention&nbsp;tremor is a kinetic tremor that appears as a broad,&nbsp;course, and low frequency (less than 5 hz) tremor. The amplitude of an intention tremor increases as anextremity approaches the endpoint of voluntary and&nbsp;visually guided movement. Intention tremor is caused by&nbsp;dysfunction of the lateral zone of the&nbsp;cerebellum, and superior cerebellar peduncle. Intention tremors can also be seen as a result of &nbsp;damage to the brainstem or thalamus. Depending on the location of cerebellar damage, these tremors can be either unilateral or&nbsp;bilateral. Kinetic and postural tremors or titubations also occur in cerebellar diseases. There are also writing abnormalities in cerebellar ataxia characterized by large, unequal letters, and&nbsp;irregular underlining. Cerebellar&nbsp;dysarthria is characterized by slurred, monotonous&nbsp;or scanning&nbsp;speech. Dysmetria is inability to judge&nbsp;distances or ranges of movement, as undershooting&nbsp;(hypometria), or overshooting (hypermetria), the&nbsp;required distance or range to reach a target. Breakdown of alternating movements known as&nbsp;asynergia or dyssynergia characterizes defects&nbsp;in the&nbsp;sequence and timing of the constituent parts of a&nbsp;movement. Dysdiadochokinesia can entail rapid&nbsp;altering between pronation and supination of the&nbsp;forearm. Bradyteleokinesia is terminal&nbsp;slowing in reaching the target. Rebound&nbsp;phenomenon is also sometimes seen in&nbsp;patients with cerebellar ataxia. Hypotonia and&nbsp;hyporeflexia, pendular tendon reflexes are also&nbsp;seen in acute cerebellar lesion (2,6,8). &nbsp; <strong>Vestibular ataxia </strong> Vestibular ataxia follows as a result of&nbsp;vestibular dysfunction. Its clinical presentation is&nbsp;based on the speed of lesion development, extent&nbsp;of the lesion such as unilateral or bilateral, and&nbsp;the state of vestibular compensation. Vestibular&nbsp;dysfunction caused by acute-onset unilateral lesion&nbsp;is characterized by severe vertigo, nausea,&nbsp;vomiting, blurred vision and nystagmus. In&nbsp;slow-onset, chronic bilateral vestibular&nbsp;dysfunction cases, these symptoms are absent&nbsp;and dysequilibrium may be the sole presentation (6). Vestibular ataxia produces gross difficulties&nbsp;with gait and balance reactions in sitting and standing. Sudden vertigo may be&nbsp;associated with an inability to walk or even to stand.&nbsp;The patient stumbles on walking, has a&nbsp;broad base support and can lean backwards or&nbsp;to the side of the lesion. Head and trunk motion&nbsp;and subsequently arm motion are often diminished&nbsp;because of vertigo (9). The equilibrium in vestibular ataxia&nbsp;is perturbed when performing a head or eye&nbsp;movement. Ataxia may be provoked by asking them&nbsp;to move the head from side to side while walking. Balance on one foot or walking parallel&nbsp;with open or closed eyes may also be disrupted&nbsp;(10). In addition, the patient with vestibular&nbsp;dysfunction depend to a large degree on visual input,&nbsp;so shutting the eyes highlights the gait disorder.&nbsp;Since vestibular ataxia is gravity-dependent,&nbsp;limb movement incoordination cannot be&nbsp;elicited when the patient is tested in the recumbent&nbsp;position but appears when the patient attempts to stand or walk. Extremity ataxia is by no&nbsp;means evident in vestibular ataxia (11). Vestibular dysfunction also includes&nbsp;spontaneous or positional nystagmus, robotic gait&nbsp;ataxia with head turning, and on difficulty in balancing on one foot or on a complaint surface with eyes closed. Nystagmus is often encountered in unilateral peripheral vestibular lesion, typically&nbsp;unidirectional, and mostly most prominent on gaze away from the side of vestibular lesion. Head-shaking nystagmus is another helpful finding to diagnose patients with unilateral&nbsp;vestibular hypofunction. The head-thrust test is positive in peripheral Vestibular disorders. Dix-hallpike test is important,particularly when paroxysmal positional vertigois being tested. Central vestibular disorders also result indeficits in eye movement conjugation, saccadic pursuitand horizontal optokinetic abnormalities, spontaneous or positional central nystagmus,failure of suppression of fixation, slowing of thenystagmus fast phases, slowing of the nystagmus slow phases,retraction of nystagmus, perverted nystagmus, verticaloptokinetic abnormalities, and retraction Nystagmus. Deep tendon reflexes are normal, and romberg test is also negative in vestibular disorders (12). Vestibular ataxia can occur because of central vestibular lesions such as medullar stroke (wallenberg&rsquo;s syndrome), migraine, and multiple sclerosis; and peripheral vestibular diseases such as meniere&rsquo;s disease, benign paroxysmal positional vertigo, or vestibular neuronitis (1). &nbsp; <strong>Sensory ataxia</strong> The term sensory ataxia refers to ataxia due to&nbsp;loss of proprioception, loss of response to the&nbsp;positions of body and joint parts. The latter is&nbsp;generally due to an impairment of posterior&nbsp;columns&nbsp;of spinal cord. At times etiology of sensory&nbsp;ataxia would be impairment of cerebellum, thalamus,&nbsp;parietal lobes, and sensory peripheral nerves (1,13). Sensory ataxia presents itself with a clumsy&nbsp;&ldquo;stomping&rdquo; Gait with heavy heel strike, and a&nbsp;postural instability that is usually exacerbated when the&nbsp;insufficiency of proprioceptive input&nbsp;cannot be substituted&nbsp;by visual input. In sensory ataxic patients, they usually&nbsp;complain of loss of balance in darkness. With their eyes closed,&nbsp;instability is significantly increased, leading to large oscillations and possibly&nbsp;a fall (positive romberg&rsquo;s test). Aggravation of&nbsp;finger-pointing test with closed eyes is another&nbsp;feature of sensory ataxia. Further, when the patient stands&nbsp;arms and hands held out in the direction&nbsp;of the doctor, if the eyes are closed, the patient&rsquo;s finger will have a&nbsp;habit of &ldquo;dropping down&rdquo; And then coming back to&nbsp;the horizontal outstretched position by sudden&nbsp;muscular spasm, it is known as ataxic hand (2,3). Sensory&nbsp;ataxia differs from cerebellar ataxia by&nbsp;presence of near-normal coordination, and marked worsening of&nbsp;. Coordination when the eyes are closed. Sensory ataxia, on the other hand, likewise lacks the characteristic features of cerebellar ataxia&nbsp;such as&nbsp;pendular reflexes, cerebellar dysarthria, nystagmus and abnormal pursuit/saccadic eye movements (14). <strong>&nbsp;</strong> <strong>Frontal ataxia</strong> Frontal ataxia is also known as gait apraxia, and is observed in frontal lobe lesions such as tumors, abscesses, cerebrovascular disease and normal pressure hydrocephalus. Frontal ataxia patients exhibit inability to stand erect. Widened stance base, enhanced body sway and falls, truncal motion control loss, locomotor disability with gait ignition failure, hesitation in&nbsp;initiating, shuffling, short steps, and freezing are also observed in frontal Ataxia. A patient will still tend to hyperextend even with the use of support. Patients with frontal ataxia most frequently will push their foot rather than lift and place normally. This has also been described as a &ldquo;glue-footed&rdquo; Or &ldquo;magnetic&rdquo; Gait. Patient&rsquo;s legs are scissors-cross position while walking and there is incoordination between the trunk and legs. Frontal ataxia will be accompanied by dementia, urinary&nbsp;incontinence, and frontal release signs such as grasp,&nbsp;snout, palmomental and glabellar responses (1,15). Classically, normal pressure hydrocephalus is&nbsp;characterized by frontal gait disturbance, dementia&nbsp;and/or urinary incontinence, and ventricular&nbsp;enlargement. Broad-based, short-step, magnetic gait&nbsp;with start hesitation and increased instability on&nbsp;turning, which is commonly&nbsp;called apraxic/ataxic gait,&nbsp;are the cardinal signs of normal pressure&nbsp;hydrocephalus. The&nbsp;cerebrospinal fluid tap test is a&nbsp;primary diagnostic instrument because of the convenience&nbsp;and lower invasiveness. The programmable valves used in&nbsp;shunt surgeries are utilized in the&nbsp;treatment of normal&nbsp;pressure hydrocephalus (16). In differential diagnosis of frontal ataxia; the&nbsp;slowness of walking, lack of upper limb ataxia,&nbsp;dysarthria or nystagmus discriminates the wide&nbsp;stance base from cerebellar ataxia. A vibrant facial&nbsp;expression, normal voluntary movements of the&nbsp;upper limbs, upper motor neuron findings, and the&nbsp;lacks a rest tremor differentiate from parkinson&rsquo;s disease (17). &nbsp; <strong>Ataxia hemiparesis</strong>&nbsp; Ataxic-hemiparesis is a well-known clinical syndrome&nbsp;of homolateral ataxia with associated impairment&nbsp;of the corticospinal tract. Ataxia is typically a more&nbsp;bothersome symptom than weakness of the affected&nbsp;arm or leg. The face is spared. Since the fronto-ponto-cerebellar fibers may originate from the&nbsp;frontal cortex, including the precentral gyrus,&nbsp;most likely near the cortico-spinal tract, damage&nbsp;at this location could lead to ataxic-hemiparesis. Though&nbsp;ataxic- hemiparesis results from pontine &nbsp;or internal capsule/corona radiata lesions mainly, it also &nbsp;has been reported to result in the midbrain, diencephalic-mesencephalic &nbsp;junction, thalamus, parietal lobe, and the precentral &nbsp;gyrus lesions. Ischemic infarct is the most prevalent &nbsp;cause of the syndrome, although hemorrhagic, neoplastic&nbsp;and demyelinating disorders have also been noted (18,19). &nbsp; <strong>Optic ataxia</strong> Optic ataxia usually results from damage to the &nbsp;posterior parietal cortex, and is the inability to&nbsp;execute purposeful movement or movement to command in the absence of paralysis or other&nbsp;sensory and cerebellar impairments. Optic ataxia occurs when the patient has a deficit in reaching to visual command that cannot be explained by cerebellar, motor, somatosensory, visual field defect or loss of acuity. Optic ataxia patients execute an inaccurate reaching&nbsp;movement towards a target or object in space, this is especially true with&nbsp;their non-lesioned hand. Object grasping is also impaired in optic ataxia patients. The lesion also disturbs the proper shaping of the hand as a function of the objects&rsquo; configuration, and thereby creates a serious impairment in tool grasping or movement (20). Optic ataxia is one of the common symptoms of balint&rsquo;s syndrome. This syndrome comprises the clinical symptom triad of simultanagnosia, ocular apraxia and optic ataxia. These symptoms, visual&nbsp;oculus ataxia, an ocular apraxia; a deficit in ocular scanning, or simultanagnosia, or disorientation; optic ataxia, an impairment of pointing and reaching with vision as guidance; or ocular apraxia, a scanning deficit of vision, are rare and highly disabling since they are&nbsp;associated with disturbances of visuospatial ability, visual scanning and attentional operations. Bilateral border zone infarction occipitoparietal in location is the most frequent etiology of total balint&rsquo;s syndrome (20,21). &nbsp; <strong>Visual ataxia</strong>&nbsp; Visual ataxia is instability because of visual disturbances. The human being is very much reliant on vision for gait and balance. Foveal vision seems to be most significant for this purpose, but peripheral vision also plays a role in balance. The central part of the visual field in comparison with the peripheral retina is the one that dominates postural control. Visual acuity results in a linearly increasing postural instability. Visual acuity abnormalities or visual&nbsp;field defects result in exaggerated body sway, equilibrium disturbances, and predispose to the patient toppling over. Hemianopia amplifies lateral oscillations in the standing patient and the projection of the body&rsquo;s centre of gravity is shifted towards the hemianopia. Patients adapting to new bifocals may become unsteady or even topple over. Vision may also be disrupted by abnormalities of eye movement. Limitation of eye movements, particularly&nbsp;downward motion, diplopia or ossilopsia can &not;result in ataxia and falls. Conversely, &not;multisensory disequilibrium is present in deficits of &not;more than one sensory systems like visual, vestibular, &not;and proprioceptive (22,23). &nbsp; <strong>Mixed ataxia</strong>&nbsp; Mixed ataxia is present when the symptoms of two &not;or more ataxias like the presence of&nbsp;symptoms of sensory and cerebellar ataxia, areseen simultaneously. All forms of ataxia may have &not;overlapping etiologies and hence may coexist. In&nbsp;certain neurologic disorders can be frequently combined ataxia. Cerebellar, vestibular and sensory ataxia are combined in multiple sclerosis, for instance, and cerebellar and sensory ataxia are combined in spino-cerebellar ataxias. Vestibular and frontal and cerebellar ataxia can coexist in certain neurologic degenerative conditions such as multiple system atrophy. Cerebellar ataxia, neuropathy, vestibular areflexia syndrome (canvas) is also&nbsp;mixed ataxia syndrome (24). &nbsp; <strong><u>Causes</u></strong> Congenital nonprogressive ataxia occurs early in life, is truly nonprogressive, i.e. The symptoms are not progressively aggravated. Motor development is usually retarded in such instances, and the accompanying mental retardation is common. They are sequelae of prenatal or perinatal injury, arrested hydrocephalus, and other nongenetic and genetic disorders of the cerebellum. Acute onset ataxia is usually due to cerebellar hemorrhage and cerebellar&nbsp;infarction. Diagnosis has to be made as an emergency by ct or mri. Virus or postinfectious cerebellitis, gait and limb ataxia, dysarthria, and pyrexia occurring over days or hours in young children or young adults. Paraneoplastic cerebellar syndromes from neuroblastoma in children, and lung or overian carcinoma in adults are also associated with subacute ataxia, dysarthria, nystagmus, opsoclonus,&nbsp;and myoclonus. Other etiologies of subacute ataxia&nbsp;are hydrocephalus, foramen magnum&nbsp;compression, posterior fossa tumors, abscess,&nbsp;multiple sclerosis, toxins and drugs. The miller-&nbsp;fisher syndrome also features subacute ataxia,&nbsp;ophthalmoplegia, and areflexia. The anti-gq1b igg&nbsp;nantibody titer is most frequently raised in miller-&nbsp;fisher syndrome (21). Chronic progressive ataxias are usually&nbsp;linked with inherited degenerative diseases. Conversely,&nbsp;chronic alcoholism, certain of drugs&nbsp;and toxic agents, chronic rubella panencephalitis,&nbsp;creutzfeldt-jacob disease, severe vitamin e&nbsp;deficiency, primary progressive multiple sclerosis,&nbsp;hypothyroidism, paraneoplastic cerebellar&nbsp;degeneration also are recognized as ataxia with&nbsp;chronic progressive course. Chronic alcoholism is&nbsp;one of the most common causes of cerebellar&nbsp;degeneration in adults (25). Episodic ataxias can be classically caused by drug&nbsp;use, transient vertebrobasilar ischemic attacks,&nbsp;multiple sclerosis, foramen magnum compression,&nbsp;colloid cyst, inherited periodic ataxias, and&nbsp;metabolic disorders such as mitochondrial&nbsp;encephalopathies, aminoacidurias, and leigh&rsquo;s&nbsp;syndrome. The attacks of ataxia in metabolic&nbsp;diseases may be precipitated by infection or diet,&nbsp;and can also be accompanied by lethargy, vomiting&nbsp;and seizures. Blood ammonia, pyruvate, lactate and&nbsp;amino acids are screening tests for metabolic&nbsp;diseases (26). Cerebellar ataxia may be hereditary or non-&nbsp;hereditary. Non-hereditary cerebellar ataxia is&nbsp;also known as sporadic cerebellar ataxia. The genetic&nbsp;forms of ataxia are identified on the basis of&nbsp;family history,&nbsp;physical examination, neuroimaging, and molecular&nbsp;genetic testing. Four patterns of inheritance are present&nbsp;for this genetic disease; <em>A</em><em>) autosomal dominant</em><em>&nbsp;</em><em>inheritance:</em> A faulty gene is received from one parent.&nbsp;Autosomal dominant cerebellar ataxias are also&nbsp;known as spinocerebellar ataxias (scas). Sca1 was&nbsp;initially identified as a dominant ataxia&nbsp;and sca36 was&nbsp;discovered in 2011. B)&nbsp;<em>Autosomal recessive</em><em>&nbsp;</em><em>inheritance:</em>&nbsp; Carriers are the parents. Most common&nbsp;recessive ataxia is friedreich&rsquo;s ataxia. C)&nbsp;<em>Mitochondrial ataxias: </em> These types of ataxias are&nbsp;passed to all offspring in the classical pattern by women. D)&nbsp;<em>X-linked:</em>&nbsp; Males alone are affected and&nbsp;females are carriers. The most common x-linked&nbsp;variant of ataxia is fragile x tremor ataxia syndrome&nbsp;(25,27).&nbsp; Hereditary episodic ataxia (ea) is an autosomal&nbsp;dominant disorder with sporadic spells&nbsp;of ataxia with or without myokymia. Seven inherited episodic ataxias have been identified thus far. Two common types of episodic ataxia syndrome have been described and are known as ea1 and ea2. Stress, startle, or intense exercise may cause ataxia. Progressive cerebellar degenerative illnesses, familial hemiplegic migraine, spinocerebellar ataxia, or familial vestibulopathy in the shape of episodic vertigo and migraine headache develop in some patients with episodic ataxia (26,28). &nbsp; <strong><u>Treatment of ataxia </u></strong> The management of ataxia involves a general assessment by an interdisciplinary team that may consist of neurologists, rehabilitation medicine specialists and physiotherapists. Once known acquired factors are corrected, care is symptomatic but can be supplemented by physical, occupational, and speech therapy. Ataxias that result from intrinsic conditions such as stroke, multiple sclerosis, hypothyroidism, vitamin e and b12 deficiency, wilson&rsquo;s disease, infections and certain tumours or exposure to an offending drug or chemical can&nbsp;be treated. Some examples of ataxia such as hereditary nataxias are treated with no specific treatments (29). However&nbsp;development of ataxia in some of the patients has been&nbsp;treated with decreased rate with the use of amantadine. On the other hand, it is reported that, in case series, riluzole has a range of&nbsp;actions among degenerative cerebellar ataxic patients. Riluzole activates calcium-&nbsp;dependent potassium channels, leading to inhibition of&nbsp;deep cerebellar nuclei and lessening cerebellar&nbsp;hyperexcitabililty. Riluzole administration (100 mg/day)&nbsp;has received level b recommendations from the&nbsp;european federation of neurological societies (30). Physical therapy employed for increasing the&nbsp;strength of muscles is of critical significance in&nbsp;the management of ataxia (29). The patients having ataxia due to&nbsp;vitamin e deficiency should be supplemented with&nbsp;vitamin e (800 mg daily). It leads to the cessation&nbsp;of progression of neurological symptoms and mild&nbsp;improvement in certain patients, especially in the nearly stages of the disease (31). Wilson&rsquo;s disease is an autosomal recessive genetic disorder of copper metabolism with resultant accumulation of copper in many organs. The most characteristic neurologic findings in wilson&rsquo;s disease are ataxia, dysathria, and extrapyramidal signs. Symptoms may be entirely reversible on zinc therapy or on copper chelators (32). Ataxia with coq10 deficiency&nbsp;observed in children and also adults is an&nbsp;apparently autosomal recessive disease with&nbsp;heterogeneous clinical presentation. Patients with&nbsp;this disorder benefit with coq10 supplementation&nbsp;in early stages (33). In friedreich&rsquo;s ataxia, there are&nbsp;oxidative stress damages as well as an accumulation&nbsp;of iron within the mitochondria. Due to these findings,&nbsp;there has been immense interest to assess the effect of&nbsp;antioxidants (eg, idebenone), vitamin e and iron&nbsp;chelators (e.g., deferiprone) and drugs with the ability to increase frataxin levels (34). Gluten ataxia has recently been defined as a sporadic cerebellar ataxia syndrome with the presence of antigliadin or endomysium or transglutaminase antibodies, and has been shown in a one-year controlled trial to be treatable with a gluten-free diet (35). Symptomatic treatment also addresses the treatment of the co-morbid conditions such as muscle&nbsp;cramps, stiffness, tremor, spasticity, dysphagia as well as depression, anxiety, sleep disorders, bowel, bladder, and sexual dysfunction, etc. Baclofen, tizanidine or botulinum toxin are medications for muscle stiffness, spasticity, cramps and pain. On the other hand, in episodic ataxia type 2 patients, relief of symptoms can be obtained by treatment with acetazolamide and aminopyridines, and also by the avoidance of precipitating factors such as stress, alcohol and caffeine (26,28). Oscillopsia and nystagmus can be treated with medications like gabapentin.&nbsp;Depression can be treated with antidepressant medications as well as cognitive-behavioral therapy. Clonazepam, beta-blockers like propranolol, or primidone can decrease the salience of certain&nbsp;cerebellar tremors (29). Surgical ablation or deep brain stimulation of the ventral intermediate nucleus of the thalamus can be beneficial in decreasing cerebellar tremor, however, they most often fail to decrease ataxia much, although there have been some reported cases with advantage (25). <strong><u>Conclusion</u></strong>&nbsp; Ataxia resulting from damage to the cerebellum&nbsp;and its connections, is characterized as incoordination&nbsp;and disturbance of balance in movements, and&nbsp;disturbed control of posture. Clinically, ataxias are&nbsp;subdivided into cerebellar, vestibular, sensory,&nbsp;frontal, optic, visual, mixed ataxia and ataxic-hemiparesis. Etiologically, the ataxias are being divided&nbsp;into hereditary, sporadic degenerative, and acquired&nbsp;ataxias. The genetic forms of ataxia must&nbsp;be distinguished from the acquired ataxias. After the&nbsp;management of established acquired causes, since ataxia&nbsp;is usually unresponsive to medical treatment, the&nbsp;treatment is symptomatic. &nbsp; <strong><u>R</u></strong><strong><u>eferences</u></strong> 1. Schmahmann jd. Disorders of the cerebellum: Ataxia, &nbsp;dysmetria of thought, and the cerebellarcognitive affective &nbsp;syndrome. J neuropsychiatry clin neurosci. 2004; &nbsp;16(3):367-8. 2. Timmann d, diener hc. Coordination and ataxia. In: Goetz &nbsp;cg, pappert ej, eds. Textbook of clinical neurology. 1999; &nbsp;285-300. 1st ed. Philadelphia; wb saunders company. 3. Gordon n. The cerebellum and cognition. Eur j paediatr &nbsp;neurol. 2007; 11(4):232-4. 4. Gottwald b, wilde b, mihajlovic z, mehdorn h. Evidence &nbsp;for distinct cognitive deficits after focal cerebellar lesions. J &nbsp;neurol neurosurg psychiatry. 2004; 75(11):1524-31. 5. Peng yp, qiu yh, qiu j, wang jj. Cerebellar interposed &nbsp;nucleus lesions suppress lymphocyte function in rats. Brain &nbsp;res bull. 2006; 71(1-3):10-17. 6. Ghez c, thach wt .the cerebellum. In. Kandel er, &nbsp;schwartz jh, jessel tm, eds. Principals of neural science. &nbsp;2000; 832-52. 4th ed. New york: Mc graw-hill 7. Baloh rw, yee rd, kimm j, honrubia v. Vestibular-ocular &nbsp;reflex patients with lesions involving the vestibulocerebellum. Exp neurol. 1981;72(1):141-52. 8. Dietrichs e. Clinical manifestation of focal cerebellar disease as related to the organization of neural pathways. Acta neurol scand .suppl. 2008;88:6-11. 9. Borello-france df, gallagher jd, redfern m, furman jm, carvell ge. Voluntary movement strategies of individuals with unilateral peripheral vestibular hypofunction. J vestib res. 1999;9(4):265-75. 10. Horak fb, shupert cl, dietz v, horstmann g. Vestibular and somatosensory contributions to responses to head and body displacements in stance. Exp brain res. 1994;100(1):93-106. 11. Demer jl,viirre es.visual-vestibular interaction during standing, walking, and running. J vestib res. 1996;6(4):295-313. 12. Karatas m. Central vertigo and dizziness: Epidemiology, differential diagnosis, and common causes. Neurologist. 2008;14(6):355-64. 13. Ramnani n, toni i, passingham re, haggard p. The cerebellum and parietal cortex play a specific role in coordination: A pet study. Neuroimage. 2001;14(4):899-911. 14. Mariotti c, fancellu r, di donato s. An overview of the patient with ataxia. Journal of neurology. 2005;252:511-8. 15. Terry jb, rosenberg rn. Frontal lobe ataxia. Surg neurol. 1995;44(6):583-8. 16. Ishikawa m, hashimoto m, kuwana n, et al. Guidelines for management of idiopathic normal pressure hydrocephalus. Neurol med chir (tokyo). 2008; 48 suppl:S1-23. 17. Thompson pd. Frontal lobe ataxia. Handb clin neurol. 2012;103:619-22. 18. Gorman mj, dafer r, levine sr. Ataxic hemiparesis, critical appraisal of a lacunar syndrome. Stroke. 1998;29:2549-55. 19. Rossetti ao, reichhart md, bogousslavsky j. Central horner&rsquo;s syndrome with contralateral ataxic hemiparesis. A diencephalic alternate syndrome. Neurology. 2003;12;61(3):334-8. 20. Cavina-pratesi c, ietswaart m, humphreys gw, lestou v, milner ad. Impaired grasping in a patient with optic ataxia: Primary visuomotor deficit or secondary consequence of misreaching? Neuropsychologia. 2010;48(1):226-34. 21. Karatas m. Internuclear and supranuclear disorders of eye movements: Clinical features and causes. European journal of neurology. 2009;16:1265&ndash;77. 22. Drachman da, hart cw. An approach to the dizzy patient. Neurology.1972;22:323-30. 23. Paulus wm, straube a, brandt t. Visual stabilization of posture: Physiological stimulus characteristics and clinical aspects. Brain. 1984;107:1143-63. 24. Migliaccio aa, halmagyi gm, mcgarvie la, cremer pd. Cerebellar ataxia with bilateral vestibulopathy: Description of a syndrome and its characteristic clinical sign. Brain. 2004;127(pt 2):280-93. 25. Eggers sdz, zee ds. Central vestibular disorders. In: Cummings cw, flint pw, harker la, et al., eds. Otolaryngology, head and neck surgery. 2005; 3254-88. 4st ed. St. Louis: Mosby 26. Riant f, vahedi k, tournier-lasserve e. Hereditary episodic ataxia. Rev neurol (paris). 2011; 67(5):401-7. 27. Tan h, qurashi a, poidevin m, nelson dl, li h, jin p. Retrotransposon activation contributes to fragile x premutation rcgg-mediated neurodegeneration. Hum mol genet. 2012;21(1):57-65. 28. Naik s, pohl k, malik m, siddiqui a, josifova d. Early-onset cerebellar atrophy associated with mutation in the cacna1a gene. Pediatr neurol. 2011;45(5):328-30. 29. Perlman sl. Cerebellar ataxia. Curr treat options neurol. 2000;3:215-24. 30. Van de warrenburg bpc, van gaalen j, boesch s, et al. Efns/ens consensus on the diagnosis and management of chronic ataxias in adulthood. Eur j neurol. 2014;21:552-62. 31. Gabsi s, gouider-khouja n, belal s, et al. Effect of vitamin e supplementation in patients with ataxia with vitamin e deficiency. Eur j neurol. 2001;5:477-81. 32. Lorincz mt. Recognition and treatment of neurologic wilson's disease, semin neurol. 2012;32(5):538-43. 33. Lamperti c, naini a, hirano m, et al. Cerebellar ataxia and coenzyme q10 deficiency. Neurology. 2003;60(7):1206-8. 34. Cooper jm, korlipara lv, hart pe, bradley jl, schapira ah. Coenzyme q10 and vitamin e deficiency in friedreich's ataxia: Predictor of efficacy of vitamin e and coenzyme q10 therapy. Eur j neurol. 2008;12:1371-9. 35. Hadjivassiliou m, sanders ds, woodroofe n, williamson c, gr&uuml;newald ra. Gluten ataxia. Cerebellum. 2008;7(3):494-8.