Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Sika Deer (Cervus nippon yesoensis)'

This thesis examines the genetic and ecological consequences of the introduction of exotic Japanese sika deer (<I>Cervus nippon nippon</I> Temminck. 1838) to the range of congeneric red deer (<I>Cervus elaphus scoticus</I> L. 1758) in Scotland. Sika were introduced as result of escapes and deliberate releases of park deer around the turn of the century and have since established feral populations in several locations. Most of these populations are achieving high reproductive rates, are currently expanding their range and are hybridising with red deer. These circumstances are of practical concern as red deer have considerable economic importance in Scotland, both for the positive values of stag stalking and leisure use of the hills and through the negative effect of damage to crops and forestry. The situation is also of biological importance as it provides a rare opportunity to assess the genetic structure of a hybrid population after an introduction and to examine the functional significance of hybridisation affecting quantitative traits. Sampling transects were established across two sympatric sika-red population ranges, in Argyll and Invernesshire. Genotypes of 235 deer from nine forests in Argyll and 136 deer from 7 forests in the Great Glen, Invernesshire, were scored at 2 isozyme, 2 microsatellite and 3 mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) marker loci. The species-specific mtDNA markers were generated within this study. Clines in sika allele frequency were found across both transects, with sika frequency reaching 0.8 in Argyll and fixation (1.0) in Invernesshire. Sika are assumed to have at least one and probably several selectively advantaged genes to account for this consistent and rapid increase in frequency. There were significant heterozygote deficits and linkage disequilibria in the centre of the clines, even though samples in the Great Glen were small. MtDNA clines were steeper than nuclear clines, indicating the role of sika or hybrid stags in propagating the advance, but patterns of cytonuclear disequilibrium were not informative about mating pattern, due to the possibility of hybrid immigration and the influence of heterozygote deficit reducing sample sizes. There was no evidence of directionality in the F1 cross, though assortative mating in the backcross could contribute to the linkage disequilibrium observed, as could selection against hybrids.

Sika deer (Cervus nippon) has become an invasive species in many parts of the world. In the south of England large populations appear to be concentrated in landscapes comprising of mosaics of lowland heath, woodlands and grassland. Despite the association between the distribution of Sika deer and that of lowland heath, little is known regarding the extent to which Sika deer utilize lowland heath and their impacts on its plant and animal communities. The aim of this thesis was to investigate the ecological interaction of Sika deer with lowland heath set in a mosaic of other habitats. Specifically, the main three objectives of this thesis were: i) to investigate the different ecological factors affecting the distribution and habitat use by Sika deer; iii) to explore consistency in Sika deer habitat associations as a potential tool to predict the distribution and abundance ofSika deer; iii) to investigate the ecological impacts of the usage of areas of lowland heath by Sika deer upon plant and animal communities oflowland heath. Results showed that Sika deer distribution and habitat use are affected by the availability of habitats, landscape structure and human disturbance at both the landscape and home range scale (i.e. few hundred of hectares and few dozens of hectares respectively). At the landscape scale, Sika deer seemed to use the requirement for safe access to pastures as the main criteria for their habitat selection. At the home range scale, the criteria of choice in the use of resources by Sika deer seemed to be related to a requirement for an appropriate balance of food and cover as the selection of pastures and cover were inversely related to their availability. However, human disturbance, as a form of perceived risk, was also a limiting factor of habitat use at the home range scale. Consistencies in the habitat selection by Sika deer at the landscape scale between areas with similar landscape were detected, which could potentially be used to develop models to predict the distribution and abundance of Sika deer and their subsequent impacts in areas of lowland heath. This study has found a different response of plant and animal communities between dry and wet heath to levels in usage of areas of heath by Sika deer. The existence of a threshold in the local density of Sika deer on areas of heath above which dry lowland heath showed signs of decline in quality has also been identified.

Europe’s largest population of wild red deer (Cervus elaphus) resides in the British Isles and has been present since the end of the last ice age, c. 11,000BP. Since the mid-19th century, multiple introductions of Japanese sika (Cervus nippon) and wapiti (Cervus canadensis) have taken place across the British Isles. While wapiti introductions have generally gone extinct, sika have thrived and expanded and now often live in sympatry with red deer. Hybridisation between these species has been demonstrated in captivity and in the wild. This study sought to determine the extent of hybridisation and introgression between red and sika across large parts of the British Isles and elucidate some of its potential consequences. Chapter 2 addresses the extent of hybridisation and introgression across Scotland and NW England. A total of 2984 samples from the North Highlands, the central Highlands, the Hebrides, Kintyre and the English Lake District were genotyped at 22 microsatellite loci, which are highly diagnostic for red and sika and strongly diagnostic for red and wapiti and a mitochondrial marker that is diagnostic for red and sika, alongside 49 wapiti samples from Canada. Microsatellite data was analysed using the Bayesian clustering program Structure 2.3 to determine the extent of admixture between species. There was some evidence for very low-level introgression by wapiti into a small number of Scottish red deer (<0.2% of total). Only two areas (both in Kintyre, Argyll) showed extensive introgression with collapse of assortative mating between red and sika (50.4% and 61.8% of sampled individuals were hybrid in West Loch Awe and South Kintyre, respectively). However, rare and widely scattered individuals with low-level sika introgression or cytonuclear disequilibrium suggest hybridisation has occurred in several other places in mainland Scotland and Cumbria in the past without subsequent loss of assortative mating. Chapter 3 addresses the extent of hybridisation in Ireland. There are now an estimated 4,000 red deer in Ireland and their numbers are increasing. It has recently been determined that the red deer in Killarney, County Kerry are descended from an ancient (c. 5,000BP) introduction and therefore merit genetic conservation. Introduction of exotic species, including Japanese sika and North America wapiti, since the 19th century have primarily occurred via the now defunct Powerscourt Park, County Wicklow, which was the source of many translocations to the rest of Ireland as well as to the UK. 374 deer samples from across Ireland were analysed as in Chapter 2. Wapiti introgression was again very low, with trace amounts of introgression detected in a small proportion of samples (0.53%), whilst 41% of 197 deer sampled in Co. Wicklow and 47% of 15 deer sampled in Co. Cork were red-sika hybrids according to either their nuclear genome or mitochondrial haplotype. No pure red deer were detected in Co. Wicklow, suggesting that in this region the red deer has disappeared following hybridisation. Whilst no hybrids were detected among 37 red samples and 77 sika samples in Co. Kerry, the Co. Cork hybrids pose a threat to the Killarney populations due to their proximity. Chapter 4 investigates population genetic structure within red and sika populations across the British Isles and investigates whether low-level introgression by the other species influences the resolved population structure. Structure analysis was conducted separately using 2307 ‘pure’ red deer individuals and 752 ‘pure’ sika animals from the British Isles (defined as Q > 0.95 for red and Q < 0.05 for sika) and then on reduced sample sizes using more stringent purity criteria (Q ≥ 0.99 and Q ≤ 0.01). As might be predicted, the more stringent criteria removed individuals in areas known to contain advanced backcrosses. In red deer, there was some evidence for a loss of within-species population structure under the more stringent criteria, while for sika there was not. Datasets were also analysed using Discriminate Analysis of Principal Components; a multivariate method designed to infer and describe genetic population structure. In red deer, both analytical approaches confirmed the strong separation of the deer on Harris and Lewis from others, and there is support for clusters typified by the other Hebridean islands, Kintyre, central and North Scotland and the English sites. Among sika, both approaches supported the likelihood of three clusters which are presumably the result of bottleneck events as each introduction was made. Chapter 5 investigates the phenotypic consequences of hybridisation by three approaches. Firstly, carcass weight was regressed against genetically-determined hybrid scores (at two stringency levels, see Chapter 4) and heterozygosity (in terms of red and sika alleles). Among hybrids, carcass weight is linearly related to hybrid score (Q) and there is some evidence for a positive relationship with heterozygosity. This suggests that additive genetic variation explains variation in carcass weight to a greater extent than heterosis. Secondly, analysis of five case studies representing individual putative hybrids submitted by stalkers from areas without known hybridisation, two proved to be hybrids, while the other three were pure sika. Lastly, in regions known to contain hybrids, the accuracy of ranger-assigned phenotype averaged 78% and revealed that in Scotland accuracy tends to decline as an individual becomes more genetically intermediate; whilst in Co. Wicklow it is the identification of pure parental animals that is more challenging. In conclusion, the existence of rare and widely scattered advanced red-sika backcrosses with low-level nuclear introgression and/or mitochondrial introgression (e.g. in North of Scotland, Cumbria) highlight that some hybridisation events are followed by extensive backcrossing without the breakdown of assortative mating, while others are followed by the generation of a hybrid swarm (e.g. in South Kintyre, West Loch Awe, Co. Wicklow, Co. Cork). Phenotypic traits can become intermediate due to hybridisation and this may facilitate further gene flow and hybridisation. New molecular tools including next generation sequencing (NGS) will enable better understanding the hybridisation process and its phenotypic consequences in this and other systems.

The density, patterns of habitat use and diet of sympatric populations of both native red deer (Cervus elaphus Linnaeus 1758) and introduced Japanese sika deer (Cervus nippon nippon Temminck 1836) in southwest Ireland are described. Habitat and dietary overlap between the two species was substantial and the potential for exploitative competition was investigated. Habitat associations and dietary preferences of both species are poorly known. There are also no published estimates of red and sika densities in this area.

Hybridisation between introduced and endemic species causes conservation concerns, but also provides us with an opportunity to study the dynamics of gene flow between two species as they first meet. Japanese sika deer (Cervus nippon) were introduced to the British Isles at a number of locations at the beginning of the 20th century. In the intervening time, sika have spread and their range now extends across approximately 40% of Scotland, where they overlap with that of native red deer (C. elaphus), with which they hybridise. In this study we focus on the consequences of one particular introduction that took place at Carradale, on the Kintyre Peninsula in 1893. First, I assessed the current state of hybridisation using a sample of 735 red and sika deer samples collected in 2006/7 from forestry blocks throughout the Kintyre Peninsula. Genetic analysis was conducted with a panel of 22 highly differentiated microsatellite loci and one mtDNA marker. Population admixture analysis of the microsatellite data was conducted with the Bayesian clustering programme STRUCTURE. Over most of the study area, levels of introgression into red and sika deer were low and were consistent with a scenario of very occasional F1 hybridisation followed by backcrossing. There was, however, one forestry block where 43% of individuals could be defined as hybrids. Second, I developed a branching process model of introgression via backcrossing, to assess whether variation in introgression across microsatellite loci could be interpreted as a signature of selection, or could in fact be attributed to stochastic processes. If only a few hybridisation events have contributed to the hybridising population, the pattern of introgression, even with a large number of genetic markers, will be highly stochastic. This pattern of neutral variation in introgression can have high enough variance that it could be mistaken for selection. Therefore, even if strong selection is acting, it may not be possible to distinguish its effects from neutral variation. Third, I analysed trends in hybridisation and introgression over 15 years on the peninsula, through analysis of a dataset of 1513 red and sika deer samples at 20 microsatellite and a mtDNA marker. There was little evidence of change in the extent of hybridisation and introgression over time. MtDNA introgression was predominantly from red deer into sika. Recent introgression into sika on the peninsula can be explained by a very small number of F1 hybridisation events (~10) via analysis of the number of alleles that have introgressed from polymorphic red deer into the genetically homogenous sika population (a similar analysis cannot be conducted for introgression into red deer). Finally, I conducted a regression analysis of genetic hybrid scores against phenotypic traits to assess the effect of hybridisation on phenotype. Hybridisation has caused changes in the weight of sika-like deer and red-like females. Hybridisation has caused changes in incisor arcade breadth of both populations and jaw length (a proxy for skeletal size) in sika-like females. However, there is no evidence that hybridisation has caused changes in kidney fat (a measure of condition) or pregnancy rates in either population. In conclusion, even a small number of F1 hybridisation events can lead to extensive introgression and the timing and spatial distribution of these events is likely to have a large impact on the structure of a recently hybridising population - stochastic factors dominate both the distribution of hybrid individuals and the distribution of the genes that introgress following a hybridisation event. In red deer and sika deer, increasing phenotypic similarities of the two populations caused by hybridisation are likely to facilitate further breakdown between the two species. It is possible that breakdown in assortative mating between the two species could occur across their range.

The dense and diverse community of microorganisms inhabiting the gastrointestinal tract of ruminant animals plays critical roles in the metabolism and absorption of nutrients, and gut associated immune function. Understanding microbial colonization in the small intestine of new born ruminants is a vital first step toward manipulating gut function through interventions during early life to produce long-term positive effects on host productivity and health. Yet the knowledge of microbiota colonization and its induced metabolites of small intestine during early life is still limited. In the present study, we examined the microbiota and metabolome in the jejunum and ileum of neonatal sika deer (Cervus nippon) from birth to weaning at days 1, 42, and 70. The microbial data showed that diversity and richness were increased with age, but a highly individual variation was observed at day 1. Principal coordinate analysis revealed significant differences in microbial community composition across three time points in the jejunum and ileum. The abundance of Halomonas spp., Lactobacillus spp., Escherichia-Shigella, and Bacteroides spp. tended to be decreased, while the proportion of Intestinibacter spp., Cellulosilyticum spp., Turicibacter spp., Clostridium sensu stricto 1 and Romboutsia spp. was significantly increased with age. For metabolome, metabolites separated from each other across the three time points in both jejunum and ileum. Moreover, the amounts of methionine, threonine, and putrescine were increased, while the amounts of myristic acid and pentadecanoic acid were decreased with age, respectively. The present study demonstrated that microbiota colonization and the metabolome becomes more developed in the small intestine with age. This may shed new light on the microbiota-metabolome-immune interaction during development.

This study was designed to investigate the ecology and performance of a population of Japanese sika deer (Cervus nippon nippon) and to determine the possible impacts of different levels of deer density and culling on vegetation in Killarney National Park, Ireland. The Park is a Special Area of Conservation (SAC) under European law and contains a number of important habitats and species of conservation merit. Compared with most other study sites in Western Europe, the area is unusual in having mild winters with mean temperatures of approximately 7°C as well as a high year-round rainfall.

There are many species of boreal or temperate deer (Lincoln 1992) and they are short-day breeders (Sadleir 1987, Lincoln 1985, Loudon and Brinklow 1992) mating in autumn and fawning in early summer (Kaji 1988, Koizumi 1991, Matsuura et al. 2004a). Their seasonal reproductive pattern ensures that fawns are born at a time of year when food is available for lactating and the weather is favorable for survival of offspring (Loudon and Brinklow 1992). Although most of parturition takes place during period of about one month (Guinness et al. 1978a, Koizumi 1991, Birgersson and Ekvall 1997, Bowyer et al. 1998), range of 83 to 135 days for birth date due to late parturitions were reported in sika deer (Koizumi 1991, Matsuura 2004). Late conception leads to late parturition (Matsuura et al. 2004a) and late parturition results in decline in reproductive success of females, defined as the number of fawns a mother reared to one year old over a specified period of time (red deer: Clutton-Brock et al. 1982), due to increase in mortality rate of fawn (Guinness et al. 1978b) or decrease in female conception rate in the following mating season (Clutton-Brock et al. 1983). Therefore, conceptions at the appropriate breeding season and subsequent maintenance of pregnancy throughout gestation are required for females to enhance their reproductive success. Since most of female conceive at the first estrus of the season (Matsuura et al. 2004a), the change in physiological condition from the anestrous season to the estrous season is important factors which responsible for determining the time of conception. However, there is no insight into mechanism for the successful conception and physiological factor influences to the conception date, and even basic information about the reproductive physiology such as ovarian dynamics and changes in hormones around the conception are not well known in sika deer. Therefore this study was conducted to clarify the characteristics of reproductive physiology of sika deer with special interest in around conception and gestation period by revealing the changes in reproductive organs and steroid hormones. There are two approaches to study about the issue; using carcasses and using live animals. Carcasses are available from nuisance control, sport hunting and hunting for the research purpose, and provide information on morphology and histology of reproductive organs in which animals are needed to be killed. Although abundant carcasses can be obtained, information from carcasses reflects the condition only at the time they were sampled. On the other hand, studying live animals provides the temporal changes in reproductive physiology in animals. However, number of captive deer available for physiological study is limited due to lack of institution holding animals, insufficient equipment, and financial problem in Japan. Therefore, combination of these two approaches is essential for further improvement for understanding reproductive physiology of sika deer. Carcasses provide the physiological data such as occurrence of ovulation (Suzuki and Ohtaishi 1993) and steroidogenic ability of corpus luteum (CL; Matsuura et al. 2004c). In the study using carcasses, the reproductive status must be estimated from the condition of the female, and when they are pregnant, gestational ages are estimate from fetal weight in sika deer (Suzuki et al. 1996). However, present method of gestational age estimation will contain an intrinsic error at early gestational stage. The accurate estimation of early gestational age of the samples contributes to revealing characteristics of reproductive physiology around early pregnancy. Study using live animals is advantageous in understanding temporal changes in the individuals and noninvasive examination, such as behavioral observation and fecal progesterone analysis (Matsuura et al. 2004a), provided the important insight in sika deer. However, data of noninvasive examination are limited to indirect changes in reproductive physiology. To know the characteristics around the first estrus and conception more in detail, invasive methods as it has be done in other cervid species, such as blood collection for hormone assay (Plotka et al. 1977, Kelly et al. 1982, Adam et al. 1985, Garcia et al. 2003) and transrectal ultrasonography for follicular and luteal dynamics (Asher et al. 1997, McCorkell et al. 2004, 2006, 2007) of captive animals under restrain or immobilization are also needed. In sika deer, there is a unique reproductive characteristics observed from early pregnancy. It is multiple CLs formation in spite of having singleton (Yamauchi et al. 1984, Suzuki et al. 1992, Suzuki and Ohtaishi 1993). Since both CLs have ability to synthesis progesterone, it is assumed that forming surplus CL have an important role for establishment and maintenance of pregnancy (Matsuura et al. 2004c). However, significance and function of surplus CL is not obvious, and even the origin and the timing of formation of surplus CL are not known. For understanding the conception and maintenance of pregnancy in this species, these questions must be revealed. In present thesis, the author focused on conception and pregnancy period in sika deer. In chapter 1, the temporal ovarian dynamics and changes in steroid hormones were investigated from anestrous to estrous season to know the characteristics during the seasonal transition and to discuss the factor influence to the successful conception. In chapter 2, the temporal ovarian dynamics and changes in steroid hormone during conception and early gestation were investigated and the significance of multiple CLs was discussed. In chapter 3, description of fetal development and estimation of fetal age during early pregnancy was reported. In chapter 4, distribution of steroid hormone receptors in uteri derived from the wild deer were examined to know the steroid hormone action site at the each stage of pregnancy.<br>受胎日の遅延はシカ類の繁殖成功度に悪影響を与える。そのため、適切な時期に受胎し、妊娠を維持することは繁殖成功を高める重要な要因となる。そこで本研究では、受胎時期と妊娠維持の時期に注目した。ニホンジカにおいては、卵巣動態やホルモン濃度の変化などの基本的な繁殖生理学的情報が欠けているため、どのような生理的要因が受胎時期に影響を与えているかは不明である。そこで本研究では、受胎時期と妊娠維持の時期周辺の基礎的な生理状態および生理機構の特徴について検討した。第1章では、非発情期から発情期への移行期における卵巣動態とホルモン濃度変化の特徴を明らかにすることを目的とした。8頭の飼育個体を用い、卵胞や黄体の動態、ステロイドホルモン濃度の変化を初回発情周期中とその前後の期間で比較した。発情開始以前から初回発情までは7個体を、初回発情から発情周期3～6回分の期間は3個体を実験に用いた。2～3日間隔で経直腸による超音波画像診断と血中プロジェステロンおよびエストラジオール17.濃度測定を行った。その結果、全ての個体において初回の発情以前に発情を伴わない排卵がみられた。また、それに続く一過性の黄体形成と、低濃度のプロジェステロン濃度の上昇が1回以上観察された。プロジェステロンは発情を引き起こす因子であるため、一過性のプロジェステロンによる感作は、発情期の開始に寄与していると推察された。また、発情周期中には主に2ないし3回の卵胞発育波が観察された。さらに、発情時には子宮頸管粘液の結晶化が観察され、発情の指標となることが示唆された。第2章では、受胎時期と妊娠初期における卵巣動態とホルモン濃度変化の特徴を明らかにし、妊娠しているニホンジカにおいて特徴的に見られる複数の黄体の起源と形成時期を明らかにし、その存在意義を検討することを目的とした。6頭の飼育個体を用いて受胎から妊娠初期までの卵胞と黄体の動態およびステロイドホルモン濃度の変化を2～3日間隔で調べた。その結果、初回の発情で妊娠した個体3頭において2つの黄体が形成された。2つ目の黄体は、発情に伴う排卵の後に出現した最初の卵胞発育波の主席卵胞が起源であり、これがエストロジェンの上昇と共に排卵し、黄体を形成した。一方、2回目の発情で妊娠した個体３頭では、発情後の主席卵胞は排卵せず、黄体は1つしか形成されなかった。そのため、2つ目の黄体は発情期初回の発情で受胎した場合に形成されることが示唆された。また、黄体の数によってプロジェステロン濃度に差が認められなかったため、2つ目の黄体は1つ目の黄体のみでは不十分なプロジェステロンの分泌を補助することで、初回発情での妊娠の維持に寄与していると推察された。第3章では、妊娠初期における胎子の成長を明らかにし、正確な胎齢推定を可能にすることを目的とした。5頭の飼育個体を用い、妊娠59～61日まで2～3日間隔で経直腸超音波画像診断により胎子の成長を観察した。妊娠20～26日までに、全ての個体において胎子が確認された。胎子の直頭殿長、曲頭殿長、頭長、胸深、心拍数を計測した結果、両頭殿長の対数を取った値とその他の計測値は直線的な増加を示した。胎齢推定式を算出した結果、直頭殿長が最も早期から計測可能で、高い相関を示すことが明らかとなった。したがって、直頭殿長を計測することで、正確に妊娠初期の胎齢が推定できることが判明した。第4章では、妊娠期間中の子宮におけるプロジェステロンとエストロジェンの作用部位の変化を推定することを目的とした。複数黄体を持つ24の死体から得られた子宮組織を用いて、発情直後から妊娠末期までのエストロジェン受容体. (ER.)とプロジェステロン受容体(PR)の発現を免疫組織化学的に調べた。胎齢は第3章の結果と既存の方法をもとに推定した。その結果、ER.およびPRが妊娠25日まで確認され、他の家畜反芻動物と比較すると、受胎後も遅い時期まで発現していることが明らかとなった。したがって、ニホンジカでは妊娠25日程度まで、プロジェステロンのみならずエストロジェンが作用していることが示唆された。本研究では、非発情期から発情期、受胎から妊娠初期までの卵胞や黄体の動態と血中ステロイドホルモン変化、さらに妊娠個体の子宮におけるステロイドホルモン受容体の分布から、これまで情報の少なかったニホンジカの発情期への移行期、受胎時期や妊娠初期における繁殖生理学的特徴を明らかにした。また、妊娠初期の正確な胎齢推定の方法を確立したことにより、今後野外で得られたサンプルの有効活用を可能にした。<br>Hokkaido University (北海道大学)<br>博士<br>獣医学

The aim of my diploma thesis is to dokument the weight of the game. In hunting HS Líšťany Hunčice. For every piece of fish caught, three mass data, the date od capture, the estimated age per month and thereafter the year is given. The weight was divided into the weight of the whole piece, the weight of the hardened piece, the weight of the hardened piece without the head and the run as i tis don efor the purchase of the game. In total, 712 pieces of deer, silk, were weighed. The hunter game was divided into categories-peas, ropes and deer. These data were statistically evaluated.

碩士<br>國立屏東科技大學<br>野生動物保育研究所<br>91<br>Although the free-ranging population of the re-introduced Formosan sika deer (Cervus nippon taiouanus) in the Kenting National Park (KNP) is slowly growing, understanding of their nutritional in-take, such as food quality and its seasonal variations, is still lacking. Furthermore, the extensive overlap of food items among sika deer, cattle and goat may create competition when food is in short supply. Present study evaluated the food quality of the sika deer in KNP based on the fecal and food item’s nitrogen content. Five study areas for sika deer were selected to cover KNP’s natural forest and pasture, and captive condition in the National Pingtung University of Science and Technology. Cattle and goat’s feces were also collected within the Shedin area where the sika deer presently distributes. Results showed that there is a significant positive correlation between the nitrogen content of pasture and sika deer’s feces (fecal nitrogen content = 0.59 pasture’s nitrogen content＋0.7258) in KNP. Free-ranging deer had food with higher protein content than others and the protein content maintained in the optimum level of 14％ throughout the year. The frequency of appearance of the deer in natural broad-leaved forest increases between August and November which might be a result of deer moving from secondary forest to search for food with higher quality. In the pasture environments, protein quality of pasture would vary with the growing period of Pangola grass (Digitaria decumbens), and was lower than 7％, the minimum requirements for maintenance, in May and October. The quality of the pasture can be improved by growing legume or increasing fertilization. Food quality of free-ranging deer maintain in an optimum and stable status. Food quality of cattle and goat also stable year round and that the habitat use were separated among these three herbivores at present. Although apparent food competition among the three herbivores was not existing, long-term monitoring of the growth of the free-ranging sika deer population and their nutritional intake is still needed for a better management of the deer population.

碩士<br>國立東華大學<br>自然資源管理研究所<br>95<br>Cervidae lives on diverse habitats and food resources. Impacts of deer browsing on the survival of saplings and the succession of vegetations have been among the major concerns in forest management. Formosan sika deers(Cervus nippon taiouanus) has been restored and released to wildlife by Kenting National Park. At present , deers can be found in the karst forest of nature reserve. This study is aimed to examine the habitat use pattern and sapling browsing by sika deers in different seasons, and to compare the growth of saplings with and without the appearance of deers. 60 sub-plots(10x10m2) were chosen randomly in proportion to the amounts of the four habitat types ( Aglaia formosana type, Bischofia javanica type, Melanolepis multiglandulosa type,and Pisonia umbellifera type) in the karst forestry permanent plot(10 ha) managed by Hengchun Research Center, Taiwan Forestry Research Institute. From September 2005 to July 2006, a 2x2m2 sapling plot was set in each sub-plot , all the saplings within the plot were marked in September 2005. the sub-plots were surveyed bimonthly for feces and the marked saplings were monitored for browsing evidence and survival. Fecal counts were conducted for all 1000 sub-plots in dry and wet season (January and July 2006, respectively). To examine the relationship between habitat characteristics and the appearance of deer faeces, understorey vegetation and karst coverages were recorded for each sub-plot in dry season. Four pairs of fenced and unfenced plot were set outside the permanent plot to compare the growth of saplings. The results reveal that Sika deers tend to aggregate in both dry and wet seasons, faeces within plots differed significantly between dry and wet season, but they show no preference for the four habitat types. The overlap index(OIA) of plot with faeces is 0.306 between dry and wet season. Pianka overlap index(OIB) is 0.571, 40% of which was by Melanolepis multiglandulosa type. The amount of faeces within plot of the four habitat types differed between dry and wet seasons, especially in Bischofia javanica type and Melanolepis multiglandulosa type. Logistic regression analysis shows habitat types, numbers of trees, karst herb and fern coverages have significant effects on sika deer presence in dry season. In the six bimonthly surveys, the number of plots with feces and the mount of faeces within the 60 sample plots were highest in January. In addition, OIB is the greatest between January and March 2006 with the greatest contribution from Pisonia umbellifera type. There were also significant differences in amount of facees in the four habitat types. The proportion of the browsed saplings was the greatest at January 2006. Browsing by deer was found mostly on saplings under 60cm, and the leading shoot broken by deer was uncommon. More saplings of Diospyros maritime, the most dominant species in the karst forest, were browsed by sika deer in the study plots, but the mortality of the browsed saplings was similar to that of the un-browsed saplings. The growth and survival of saplings in the fence of plots were better than those in the unfenced plots. According to the result of the study, the density of sika deer and effects of browsing on saplings are not high by now, and the impacts on forest regeneration and succession need furthur attention.

碩士<br>國立臺北教育大學<br>自然科學教育學系碩士班<br>98<br>Because of population extinction of wild formosan Sika deer (Cervus nippon taiouanus) in 1969, Kenting National Park launched a Sika deer restoration program in 1983. In the year from 1994 to 1997, Sika deer was released to the field. Currently, homerange of the deer flock gradually encompass the She-Ting area. As the rubbing behavior of male Sika deer can cause tree damage, in order to understand the extent rubbing situations and whether the rubbing behavior causes any obvious effects on the local trees after the deer releasing to the field, a field exploration was conducted from March 2009 to January 2010. The results showed that along the surveyed transect field line, the Third District Forest Recreation Area had sixty-nine trees being rubbed and was the most severe zone. By contrast, three, one and none trees were rubbed at the Great Circle Mountain Ranch, the Yacht Rock and the five Pasture Areas of Tsai Po, respectively. Overall, a total of 518 trees (in 71 species, 35 family) were rubbed. Among them, 41 trees (in 18 species), i.e.7.9%, were repeatedly rubbed. The first ten tree species being rubbed most, in ranking order from the highest were Leucaena glauca, Aglaia formosana, Casuarina equisetifolia, Macaranga tanarius, Bridelia tomentosa Blume, Allophyllus timorensis, Bambusa dolichoclada Hayata, Melanolepis multiglandulosa, Champereia manillana and Acacia confus, respectively. In terms of tree sizes, smaller trees were rubbed more than larger trees, a percentage of 56.9% versus 42.8%, an indication that Sika deer preferred smaller trees for rubbing. Observations also showed that 38 trees (in 17 species) were rubbed to death. The death proportion was 7.3 % for which 76.3% were smaller trees. However, the dead trees were only 0.4% of the total trees surveyed, showing that the rubbing behavior caused no significant damage to the local trees. On the other hand, the density of the trees being rubbed increased (40：20 trees per km), suggesting that the population of Sika deer enlarged; a sign of successful restoration in the wild.

碩士<br>國立屏東科技大學<br>野生動物保育研究所<br>106<br>The herd composition of Cervids is influenced by breeding cycle, and therefore differs in month. Formosan sika deer (Cervus nippon taiouanus) had been re-introduced by Kenting National Park since 1984. A stable wild population has been formed. The present study recorded, the first time in the history, their monthly herd composition change under natural condition and discussed its relation with breeding cycle. Drone was used to record the deer herd composition in the Shuiwaku area (grassland habitat) from October 2016 to March 2018. Fawn-doe ratio and young-doe ratio based on data collected, during the same period, by camera trappers in the Nature Reserve of Uplifted Coral Reef (forest habitat), by another research team, were also analyzed. The results from the drone filming show that there is no difference in average group size (≧2 individuals) among different months. However, the herd composition is significantly difference between the peak of rutting season (October-December) and the rest of the year. Males in single are most likely to exist during October to December (75.5-90.3%) in all male groups observed). For the mixed group, the composition were clearly male-bias (61.7%-74.1%) from April to August, while they were female-bias (68.0-75.3%) from October to December. These seasonal changes match the timing of mating and birth season. The fawn-doe ratio on grassland habitat in October were 51.5% in 2016 and 63.7% in 2017. The young ratio of 1 year and 2 years old young to doe in July were 44.2% and 30.8% respectively. The fawn-doe ratio (in November) in the forest habitat were 66.5% in both 2016 and 2017. The young-doe ratio of 1 year and 2 years old young in July were 45.1% and 33.8% respectively. These population parameters for the re-introduced sika deer population in Kenting should be helpful in predicting the future development of the population.

碩士<br>國立屏東科技大學<br>野生動物保育研究所<br>100<br>The populations of many species in the Cervidae family have significantly increased in recent years, which had caused significant impact and disturbance in ecological system and human economy. Therefore, by knowing the population structures of deer to evaluate the future population dynamics of them is more and more important. Pellet morphometry is a relatively inexpensive and efficient way to identify the sexes of Cervidae population. There is not much research on deer pellet morphometry in Taiwan and most of the researchers identify the sexes of deer’s pellets according to their own experience. From December 2010 to November 2011, the pellet groups of sambar deer ( Rusa unicolor swinhoei ) and sika deer ( Cervus nippon taiouanus ) were collected from deer-farm and wild. Wild samples of unknown sexes, were determined via the the DNA extraction from pellet by using molecular techniques. Then, the study randomly selected 5 undamaged pellets from each sex-confirmed pellet groups and measured pellet morphology: wet weight, dry weight, maximum length, maximum width, crown length, maximum length/maximum width ratio and volume. The results of pellets shows that wet weight, dry weight, maximum width, and volume of captive ( N=142 ) and wild ( N=38 ) in male sambar deer were significant larger than those from female’s, except for the maximum length/maximum width ratios. And maximum width of captive ( N=44 ) and wild ( N=61 ) in male sika deer were significant larger than those from female’s, except for maximum length and maximum length/maximum width ratios. The result of this study support previous studies, that fecal pellet of adult male are usually rounder than female’s. The main cause of differences in adult deer pellets may possibly due to the size of the body. The discriminant function analysis on fecal pellet morphometry in this study, could correctly distinguish more than 70 % of sexes in sambar deer and sika deer. The correct percentage of step-wise discriminant function is slightly lower than discriminant function that all variables included, therefore, application of step-wise discriminant function on fecal pellet morphometry is feasible. To increase the distinguishment of sexes to over 80 %, fecal samples are suggested to analyze monthly or seasonly. In order to ensure the highest correct percentage, it is suggested that fecal pellet of local population should be collected beforehand to establish the database for a particular study or management. The advantages of pellet morphometry distinguishment is a method that relatively a lower-cost, faster-identify and most of all, do not need high-quality samples than pellets DNA molecular techniques identification. It has potential and development values for the study of ungulate, especially Cervidae population structure and sex ratios in Taiwan.

博士<br>國立臺灣師範大學<br>生物研究所<br>90<br>From July 1994 to August 2000 field work had been conducted to study the behavior and habitat use of the Formosan sika deer (Cervus nippon taiouanus) in Kenting National Park. The result showed that deer had higher daytime activity than that of nighttime. Movement was higher in dry season; while rest was higher in the wet season. Female had higher activity in movement; and male had higher activity in rumination. The average daily activity was 57.2% among radio-tracked deer with 4 to 6 active peaks each day. There was no difference between sexes in activity. Weather and tourist also affected deer activity. Deer had lower activity in cloudy days with strong wind (52.3%±24.7%) than those in sunny days (74.7%±18.1%). Similar trend was found between rainy days (45.7%±23.2%) and sunny days (62.9%±24.7%). Deer had higher activity in weekdays than those in weekends and other holidays (57.1% vs. 43.6%). The average annual home range was 159.8 ha and daily range was 12.24±8.59 ha. The average dry season range was 101.3ha, and wet season range was 51.7ha. In terms of food habits, 157 species mainly woody and herbaceous plants from 51 families were recorded. Among those species, 8 were preferred and 86 were commonly used by the deer. Two hundred twenty four species were recorded to be used by 3 herbivores in the study area. Among those species, 204 were used by goat, 157 by deer, 68 by water buffalo, and 52 by all 3 herbivores. The similarities between any 2 different herbivores and among 3 herbivores were 76.3% between deer and goat, 49.3% between deer and buffalo, 46.7% between goat and buffalo, and 36.4% among all 3 species. Deer had a higher food overlap with the other 2 species. The effect of deer activity on plant succession was insignificant from the observation on the plant composition in the sample plots. However, the decrease of undercover in the forest floor was related to the food habit of the deer. Four hundred thirty plants from 27 families and 55 species were rubbed by the deer. Among those plants 63.6% had repeated damages and some species was preferred (X2 test, p< 0.005). Thirty plants from 14 species had fatal damage which composed of 0.2% of all trees surveyed in transect lines. There was significant difference between number of rubbed tree and food quantity in the sampling plots (ANOVA, p< 0.05). The occurrence of tree rubbing was coincided with rutting season. The bark stripping was found only in Sec. 4 in the enclosed area. Those 1010 plants from 10 families and 15 species were bark stripped in comparison with over 100 untouched species indicated that deer selected certain species to rub. The activity was recorded every month with the peak activity in the late dry and early wet season. Four hundred and twenty seven plants from 9 species had fatal injury. The mortality of stripped trees was 42.3%. The occurrence of bark stripping in Sec. 4 was probably due to high deer density (> 2.1 deer/ha) of the area than those of other areas (< 1.8 deer/ha) and poor habitat quality.

碩士<br>國立臺北教育大學<br>自然科學教育學系碩士班<br>98<br>Formosan Sika Deer was extinct in the wild and therefore, Kenting National Park administration started the restoration project since 1984. They started to restore the Sika Deer population first and then released deer gradually from 1994 to 1997. Until now, deer population has expanded from Sheding and surrounding area. Since the deer’s proximity is close to human’s community, deer’s behaviors such as feeding, trampling plants, and rubbing trees might damage crops. The purpose of research is to explore local residents’ attitude toward restoration of Formosan Sika Deer between now and past. First, during May to July, 2009, we conducted pre-test on questionnaire, modified the contents, and discussed with experts to finalized questionnaire. Then, during August, 2009 to January, 2010, we surveyed through questionnaire to residents near deer living area in both non-random convenient and snowball sampling approaches. 155 effective samples were collected and, among those, 55 % were farmers. There were nine species of animals which were damaging to crops and, among them, wild boars, Formosan Sika Deer, and squirrels were considered as most harmful. In terms of deer’s crop-damaging behaviors, 53.4% responses considered feeding was on top of the list. However, among them, only 15% residents strongly ask subsidy for building a fence. Compare to previous researches, our survey results indicated that the deer damaging on crops was increasing. Furthermore, using (Likert) way to answer the five-point scale, when comparing deer-damaging survey results from farmers to non-farmers, we found that the former considered deer is more harmful. Other results included: most of residents held positive attitude toward and agreed with deer restoration (112 persons, 72.3%); most residents consider that restoration benefited locally (93 persons, 60%); and more residents were against public hunting (2.83 points). In addition, more focused area residents agreed more with that restoration is good for tourism than remoted residents (3.81 points : 3.24 points). Top 3 resident responses to deer-damaging on crops were: expel (37 persons, 23.9%), powerless (31 persons, 20%) and neglect due to minimal consumption (22 persons, 14.2%). Only 9 residents (5.8%) of our samples would actively applied for subsidies. Among surveyed residents, 84 had dogs (54.2%) and 77 of them (49.7%) raised dogs as watchdogs. When dogs were found to attack deer, 98 of surveyed (63.2%) agree to intervene. Furthermore, to prevent deer to be killed by wild dogs, 97 surveyed residents (62.6%) strongly agreed that wild dog population should be limited. However, 38 of them (24.5%) disagree.

碩士<br>國立臺北教育大學<br>自然科學教育學系碩士班<br>98<br>Because of population extinction of wild formosan Sike deer (Cervus nippon taiouanus) in 1969, Kenting National Park launched a Sika deer restoration program in 1984. In the year from 1994 to 1997, Sike deer was released to the field. Currently, homerange of the deer has expanded to 4000 hectares. So, we put eyes on the sphere of activities about Formosan Sika deer and investigate into line transect survey. Therefore, we carried out the research in dry and wet seasons, finding 47 sites in five months of dry seasons and 44 sites in six months of wet seasons. The rain scouring may be the reason causing less number in wet seasons. For terrain, Sika deer prefer to choose crest line as their bedding sites, where provide broad eyesight and escape natural enemy easily. For gradient, the resting places in flat-place occupied higher rate, where is more comfortable for Sika deer. Furthermore, the condition of surface for Sika deer, the bedding sites of lawn and bare earth accounted for 50% respectively have higher rate. For the density of boscage, the sparse places has higher rate. Moreover, the vegetation for sida deer, preferring to choose deciduous forest not grasslands. In addition, they prefer to secret places where covered thicket as their shelter. Besides Sika deer prefer to high wind speed place. All of above show that Sika deer have about their bedding sites which has relationship with escaping natural enemies and the temperature control.

碩士<br>國立屏東科技大學<br>野生動物保育研究所<br>106<br>Crop damage caused by deer has been concerned worldwide. Formosan sika deer (Cervus nippon taiouanus) were re-introduced into the Kenting area in 1986. Following the rapid growth and the expansion of sika deer population, there are crop damages caused by the deer. And the government-provided deer-exclusion fences need to be improved. Present study was to survey spatiotemporal pattern of crop damage caused by the deer, and to determine effective deer-exclusion fence designs for damage prevention. A total of 22 farmers with deer damage was interviewed, of which 16 (73.0%) located in Gangkou village, 2 (9.0%) located beside the coast guard administration, and the rest located in Yongjing village, Sheding, Puding and Sianglin village, respectively. Crops, which the most severe damaged by deer were pitaya and black beans. Most damage occurred in dry season and growing season of the crops. The majority of damage is browsing, and most damage occurred in the area where has high density of sika deer population and the area with dense cropland. Major roadways are the possible barriers of deer movement, hence limited the distribution of crop damage. For the exclusion of sika deer, the conventional deer fence and electric fence were tested. In addition to conducting the fence experiments in the enclosure of the Sheding Protection Area, we also tested the electric fence at a black bean field. The results showed that, in Sheding protection area, a 150-cm conventional chain link fence can effectively excludes all the sika deer, while a 135-cm, 16-strand electric fence can effectively stop the deer. At the black bean field, a 90-cm, 7-strand electric fence can effectively exclude the sika deer. The availability of food resources and the level of stress of the deers will both affect the effectiveness of deer-exclusion fences. The cost effectiveness and the cost of maintenance should be considered in the fence installation. And the deer-exclusion fence should work with other population management measures to achieve a better deer damage prevention.

碩士<br>東海大學<br>生命科學系<br>106<br>Deer play a key role in a variety of ecosystems, and they have long-term impacts on plant populations and communities. However, most of previous studies used species-based approaches and indicated that impacts of deer herbivory on forest ecosystems are context-dependent and inconsistent among ecosystems. The studies with species-based approaches may overlook strong relationship between feeding preference of deer and functional traits of plants. In this study, we would like to evaluate effects of Formosan sika deer (Cervus nippon taiouanus) herbivory on community assembly of woody seedlings in a Taiwanese tropical forest. Two questions were addressed in this study. First, would deer show preferences on woody seedlings? Second, would deer herbivory cause directional changes in functional composition of woody seedlings? In December 2014, we established 15 deer exclosure and control plots adjacent to the Kenting Forest Dynamics Plot. We tagged and mapped every seedling of woody plant taller than10 cm at a three-month interval from January, 2015 to October, 2017. Four functional traits, including leaf thickness, specific leaf area (SLA), leaf dry matter content (LDMC), and photosynthetic capacity, were used to estimate functional diversity. Our results showed that there were 2333 seedlings of 35 woody species in exclosure plots and 888 seedlings of 22 woody species in control plots. Species diversity of woody seedlings in the exclosure plots were significantly higher than control plots. Moreover, the pattern of seedling recruitment and survival were species-specific. The community-weighted mean of leaf thickness in exclosure plots was significantly lower than control plots. The opposite pattern occurred in the community-weighted mean of specific leaf area. Furthermore, functional diversity of woody seedlings was not significantly different between the exclosure and control plots. In conclusion, deer herbivory led to decreased species diversity, but did not alter functional diversity significantly. This study suggested that appropriate protection of palatable species was necessary for the conservation of species diversity in the Nature Reserve. Our study can be applied to develop management plans for the Kenting Uplifted Coral Reef Nature Reserve.

碩士<br>國立臺北教育大學<br>自然科學教育學系碩士班<br>98<br>This research mainly focuses the speed of fecal pellet decomposition of Formosan Sika deer. In my research, the population sizes of the deer in restoration areas were estimated with dropping counts and clearance method. According to my investigation into the speed of fecal pellet decomposition in specific restoration area, I found 223 fresh excrements on two transection lines in restoration 1 and another line in restoration 4. The fecal pellet decomposition period in wet season was 45 days (n=56), and that in dry season was 98 days (n=167). The average was 85 days (n=223). Hence there were 11sika deer in restoration area one and 8 in restoration area four by my estimate of using dropping counts. Besides, from April 2009 to March 2010, there were about 96 piles of fecal pellet per hectare every month in wet seasons and 254 in dry seasons in restoration area one when clearance method was used to keep track of excrements every month. However, there were 38.7 piles/ha per month in wet seasons and 173.3 piles/ha in dry seasons. It is clear that the speeds of fecal pellet decomposition were different in wet and dry seasons. Therefore, I attributed the difference of speeds to the rainfall. I estimated that there were about 17 sika deer in restoration area one and 9 in restoration area four in dry seasons by using clearance method. However, there were 20-30 deer in restoration area one and 15-24 in restoration 4 when automatic cameras were used as an auxiliary tool for estimates. The population sizes from dropping counts and clearance method were smaller than those from the use of automatic cameras. This result may be attributed to deer’s oestrus in dry seasons because the bucks sika deer’s territorial behavior may lower their uniform distribution. In addition, the population size may be underestimated since I might have missed some fecal pellets when I used dropping counts method.

碩士<br>國立臺灣大學<br>森林學研究所<br>89<br>With a cost of 180 million NT dollars and within 16 years, the reintroduction program of Formosan sika deer has approximately bred out a herd of 100 wild sika deer since 1984. Controversies brought out of the program have made the supportive funds been cut down ever since the enthusiastic approach in the first two years. This research is completed through open-ended semi-structured interviews with the program associates and relevant experts. Via a qualitative analysis and the understanding of the information, the sequent analysis is focusing on the program’s decision-making, execution, consequences and the process as well. It is found that the abortion of the program is due to the lack of public identification, inappropriate resource- allocation, failure to cooperate scientific and economical thinking and the unawareness of the urgent need of in community-based conservation and education. On the other hand, the program nevertheless nourished the development of conservation activities, drew the attention of talented people, and also made a great approach on extending the ideas on the program both nationally and internationally. Comprehensive analysis on the reintroduction program and the emphasis on the future development of conservation in Taiwan are the core issues for this project.

碩士<br>國立屏東科技大學<br>野生動物保育研究所<br>91<br>There were many studies on the relationship between free-ranging dogs and deers; however, the impact differs from place to place. The present study was conducted from January 2002 to June 2003 as an effort to understand the significance of the free-ranging dogs on the sika deer population in She-ding area, Kenting National Park. The incidences of the dog-related death of the sika deer were recorded during the study period, and auto-camera and transect line survey were used to record the activity of the dog. Finally, VORTEX simulation was conducted to evaluate the possible impact of dogs’ predation on the sika deer population. A total of 37 hours was completed for survey on the 11 transect lines and only 7 dogs were recorded. For the auto-trigger cameras, 62745.1 hours were completed by the 31 cameras and 32 pictures of dogs were recorded. At the same time, a total of 39 dog-related deer deaths was recorded during the study period. Results showed that free-ranging dogs occurred in the She-ding area were mostly house dogs. They occurred in the field at the same time and area as local residents did. No feral dog was appearing in She-ding area. Moreover, based on the VORTEX simulation, the present predation level of sika deer by free-ranging house dogs will slow the population growth of the sika deer, which can be serious for a re-established small population. Therefore, a better management of the local house dog will largely eliminate their threat to the sika deer population. It was also found that the fence of protective area for the sika deer not only can not prevent the invasion by the dogs, but will also block the way of the deer when they were trying to escape from the chasing dogs. An improvement of the fence is necessary.

碩士<br>國立中興大學<br>獸醫學系<br>93<br>Deer is a very timid animal that is easily suffered from stress by any exciting stimulation and probably induced death. Thus, we gave an appropriate chemical to restrain and protect deer from stress for clinical examinations or surgeries. In our study, we administrated xylazine and ketamine by different routes to evaluate the most appropriate dosage and administration routes, subsequently analyzed xylazine concentration in the blood by using high performance liquid chromatography. Deer were divided into xylazine (2 mg/kg) alone, 1.2 mg/kg xylazine combined with 2 mg/kg ketamine, and 2 mg/kg xylazine combined with 1 mg/kg ketamine groups administered intravenously, intramuscularly or intramuscularly by blowgun darts. The results showed that the heart rate and respiratory frequency of deer decreased gradually in 10-20 minutes later after injection of anesthetics. However, the heart rate and respiratory frequency will increase slowly, and returned to close to normal range in both xylazine combined with ketamine groups. Whereas, the heart rate and respiratory frequency in both xylazine combined with ketamine treatment groups were higher than that of xylazine alone group. Among which the respiratory frequency in 1.2 mg/kg xylazine combined with 2 mg/kg ketamine treatment group was higher than that of 2 mg/kg xylazine combined with 1 mg/kg ketamine group in 50±4.7 minute administered intramuscularly with blowgun darts. The fattest heart rate appeared in 78±5.96 minute in 1.2 mg/kg xylazine combined with 2 mg/kg ketamine group administered intravenously. The shortest induction time appeared within 2.5±0.75 minute in xylazine 1.2 mg/kg combined with ketamine 2 mg/kg treatment group administered intravenously. The longest anesthesia time 72.75±2.63 minutes appeared in xylazine 1.2 mg/kg combined with ketamine 2 mg/kg group administered intramuscularly with blowgun dart. After the analysis of blood samples, xylazine peak was found only in both 2 mg/kg xylazine and xylazine 2 mg/kg combined with ketamine 1 mg/kg groups in 0 and 10 minutes after intravenous injection. The concentration of xylazine in the blood of deer was less than 1 ppm. All the results suggested that administration of xylazine 1.2 mg/kg combined with ketamine 2 mg/kg administered intramuscularly with blowgun darts was a satisfied chemical restrain method in deer.

Vom Frühjahr 2010 bis Frühsommer 2011 wurden Verhalten, intra- und interspezifische Interaktionen sowie Raumnutzung von Wisenten (Bison bonasus), Exmoor-Ponys (Equus ferus) und Dybowski-Hirschen (Cervus nippon hortulorum) auf einer 14 ha großen Gemeinschaftsanlage im Tierpark Sababurg untersucht. 15 Individuen wurden dazu insgesamt für 605 Stunden mittels focal-animal und scan sampling beobachtet. Die Mittelwerte der Hauptverhaltensweisen über den gesamten Beobachtungszeitraum ergaben bei den Wisenten Tagesanteile von 47,73 % für Nahrungsaufnahme, 43,05 % für Ruheverhalten, 6,79 % für Fortbewegung und 1,68 % für Komfortverhalten. Die Exmoor-Ponys fraßen 58,62 % des Tages, ruhten 34,54 %, nutzten 3,87 % für die Fortbewegung und verbrachten 1,37 % mit Komfortverhalten. 47,22 % der Zeit wurden von den Dybowski-Hirschen zur Nahrungsaufnahme verwendet, 43,64 % geruht, 4,55 % zur Fortbewegung genutzt und 2,44 % mit Komfortverhalten verbracht. All diese Verhaltensweisen waren Bestandteil eines artspezifischen Tagesrhythmus aus alternierenden Nahrungsaufnahme- und Ruhephasen. Die prozentualen Anteile und somit auch die Ausprägung dieses Tagesrhythmus variierten dabei allerdings teilweise stark zwischen den einzelnen Jahreszeiten und den damit verbundenen klimatischen und umweltbedingten Veränderungen. Die Individuen aller drei Arten verhielten sich dabei völlig normal im Rahmen der nachgewiesenen Bandbreite des natürlichen Verhaltens ihrer wildlebenden Artgenossen, unbeeinflusst von den Gehegebedingungen und Eingriffen des Zuchtmanagements. Interspezifische Interaktionen traten regelmäßig auf, positive Kontakte blieben dabei allerdings auf die Exmoor-Ponys und die Dybowski-Hirsche beschränkt. Agonistische Interaktionen waren meist lediglich als einfache Drohgebärden oder als indirekte Interaktionen ohne körperlichen Kontakt feststellbar. Eine feste Artenhierarchie ist etabliert und wird von allen Tieren akzeptiert, wobei die Wisente die dominante Rolle einnehmen, gefolgt von den Exmoor-Ponys und den Dybowski-Hirschen. Die Habitatnutzungsanalyse ergab für alle drei Arten bevorzugte Aufenthaltsbereiche und genutzte Gehegeobjekte. Dabei war wie das Verhalten auch die Habitatnutzung stark von den jahreszeitlich veränderlichen Umweltbedingungen beeinflusst. Während die offeneren Areale insbesondere im Frühjahr und Herbst genutzt wurden, bevorzugten die Tiere im Sommer und Winter eher die geschützteren Anlagenbereiche, im Sommer hauptsächlich als Schattenbereich, im Winter als Wetterschutz. Zusammenfassend betrachtet funktioniert das Zusammenleben der Wisente, Exmoor-Ponys und Dybowski-Hirsche im Tierpark Sababurg ohne Probleme und kann als Beispiel-Projekt für die zukünftige Forschung über die Möglichkeiten für Beweidungsprojekte mit heimischen Wildtieren im Naturschutz dienen.