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Journal articles on the topic 'Single Photon Avalanche Diode (SPAD)'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 25 January 2025

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1

Qiu, Chenxi, Peng Wang, Xiangshun Kong, et al. "On-Chip Compressive Sensing with a Single-Photon Avalanche Diode Array." Sensors 23, no. 9 (2023): 4417. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s23094417.

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Single-photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) are novel image sensors that record photons at extremely high sensitivity. To reduce both the required sensor area for readout circuits and the data throughput for SPAD array, in this paper, we propose a snapshot compressive sensing single-photon avalanche diode (CS-SPAD) sensor which can realize on-chip snapshot-type spatial compressive imaging in a compact form. Taking advantage of the digital counting nature of SPAD sensing, we propose to design the circuit connection between the sensing unit and the readout electronics for compressive sensing. To proc

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2

Hu, Jun, Xiao Bin Xin, Petre Alexandrov, et al. "4H-SiC Single Photon Avalanche Diode for 280nm UV Applications." Materials Science Forum 600-603 (September 2008): 1203–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.600-603.1203.

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This paper reports a 4H-SiC single photo avalanche diode (SPAD) operating at the solar blind wavelength of 280 nm. The SPAD has an avalanche breakdown voltage of 114V. At 90% and 95% of the breakdown voltage, the SPAD shows a low dark current of 57.2fA and 159fA, respectively. The quantum efficiency of 29.8% at 280nm and <0.007% at 400nm indicates a high UV-to-visible rejection ratio of >4300. Single photon counting measurement at 280nm shows that a single photon detection efficiency of 2.83% with a low dark count rate of 22kHz is achieved at the avalanche breakdown voltage of 116.8V.

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3

Meng, Xiao, Shiyu Xie, Xinxin Zhou, et al. "InGaAs/InAlAs single photon avalanche diode for 1550 nm photons." Royal Society Open Science 3, no. 3 (2016): 150584. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.150584.

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A single photon avalanche diode (SPAD) with an InGaAs absorption region, and an InAlAs avalanche region was designed and demonstrated to detect 1550 nm wavelength photons. The characterization included leakage current, dark count rate and single photon detection efficiency as functions of temperature from 210 to 294 K. The SPAD exhibited good temperature stability, with breakdown voltage dependence of approximately 45 mV K −1 . Operating at 210 K and in a gated mode, the SPAD achieved a photon detection probability of 26% at 1550 nm with a dark count rate of 1 × 10 8 Hz. The time response of t

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4

Bulling, Anthony Frederick, and Ian Underwood. "Pion Detection Using Single Photon Avalanche Diodes." Sensors 23, no. 21 (2023): 8759. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s23218759.

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We present the first reported use of a CMOS-compatible single photon avalanche diode (SPAD) array for the detection of high-energy charged particles, specifically pions, using the Super Proton Synchrotron at CERN, the European Organization for Nuclear Research. The results confirm the detection of incident high-energy pions at 120 GeV, minimally ionizing, which complements the variety of ionizing radiation that can be detected with CMOS SPADs.

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Khudyakov, Dmitry S. "Capabilities of image sensors with a photonic avalanche diode." Analysis and data processing systems, no. 2 (June 28, 2022): 69–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.17212/2782-2001-2022-2-69-80.

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In many fields of science and technology there is a need to record fast running processes and phenomena, often occurring in low light conditions. In such cases, there is a need to use highly sensitive image sensors. Such sensors can be constructed on the basis of photon avalanche diodes capable of capturing even single photons. However, creating this type of sensor with high performance, in particular, with high resolution, presents a number of technological challenges, as they are more complex than traditional CMOS (Complementary Metal–Oxide–Semiconductor) and CCD (Charge-Coupled Device) sens

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6

Yang, Jian, Yang Wang, Xiang-Liang Jin, Yan Peng, and Jun Luo. "Design and Fabrication of Near Ultraviolet Enhanced Composite Single Photon Avalanche Diode for Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging." Journal of Nanoelectronics and Optoelectronics 17, no. 2 (2022): 267–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1166/jno.2022.3193.

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The near ultraviolet photon detection probability (PDP) of single photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) is very important for the fluorescence lifetime imaging. However, the PDP of traditional SPAD (T-SPAD) devices in the near-ultraviolet is not ideal, which is difficult to meet the requirements of fluorescence lifetime imaging. In response to the above problems, this paper realizes a near ultraviolet enhanced composite SPAD (NUEC-SPAD) based on photogate. The device is based on a photogate and a PN junction formed by P+/N-Well to detect photons. Therefore, the PDP of the device in the near ultravio

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7

Thorburn, Fiona, Xin Yi, Zoë M. Greener, et al. "Ge-on-Si single-photon avalanche diode detectors for short-wave infrared wavelengths." Journal of Physics: Photonics 4, no. 1 (2021): 012001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/2515-7647/ac3839.

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Abstract Germanium-on-silicon (Ge-on-Si) based single-photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) have recently emerged as a promising detector candidate for ultra-sensitive and picosecond resolution timing measurement of short-wave infrared (SWIR) photons. Many applications benefit from operating in the SWIR spectral range, such as long distance light detection and ranging, however, there are few single-photon detectors exhibiting the high-performance levels obtained by all-silicon SPADs commonly used for single-photon detection at wavelengths <1 µm. This paper first details the advantages of operatin

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8

Madonini, Francesca, and Federica Villa. "Single Photon Avalanche Diode Arrays for Time-Resolved Raman Spectroscopy." Sensors 21, no. 13 (2021): 4287. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s21134287.

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The detection of peaks shifts in Raman spectroscopy enables a fingerprint reconstruction to discriminate among molecules with neither labelling nor sample preparation. Time-resolved Raman spectroscopy is an effective technique to reject the strong fluorescence background that profits from the time scale difference in the two responses: Raman photons are scattered almost instantaneously while fluorescence shows a nanoseconds time constant decay. The combination of short laser pulses with time-gated detectors enables the collection of only those photons synchronous with the pulse, thus rejecting

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9

Goll, Bernhard, Bernhard Steindl, and Horst Zimmermann. "Avalanche Transients of Thick 0.35 µm CMOS Single-Photon Avalanche Diodes." Micromachines 11, no. 9 (2020): 869. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/mi11090869.

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Two types of single-photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) with different diameters are investigated regarding their avalanche behavior. SPAD type A was designed in standard 0.35-µm complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) including a 12-µm thick p- epi-layer with diameters of 50, 100, 200, and 400 µm; and type B was implemented in the high-voltage (HV) line of this process with diameters of 48.2 and 98.2 µm. Each SPAD is wire-bonded to a 0.35-µm CMOS clocked gating chip, which controls charge up to a maximum 6.6-V excess bias, active, and quench phase as well as readout during one clock period

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10

Qian, Xuanyu, Wei Jiang, Ahmed Elsharabasy, and M. Jamal Deen. "Modeling for Single-Photon Avalanche Diodes: State-of-the-Art and Research Challenges." Sensors 23, no. 7 (2023): 3412. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s23073412.

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With the growing importance of single-photon-counting (SPC) techniques, researchers are now designing high-performance systems based on single-photon avalanche diodes (SPADs). SPADs with high performances and low cost allow the popularity of SPC-based systems for medical and industrial applications. However, few efforts were put into the design optimization of SPADs due to limited calibrated models of the SPAD itself and its related circuits. This paper provides a perspective on improving SPAD-based system design by reviewing the development of SPAD models. First, important SPAD principles suc

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Wang, Wei, Ting Chen, Yongchun He, et al. "The design and characterization of high photon detection efficiency CMOS single-photon avalanche diode." Modern Physics Letters B 32, no. 25 (2018): 1850302. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0217984918503025.

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The high photon detection efficiency (PDE) single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) designed with a low voltage standard 0.18 [Formula: see text]m CMOS process is investigated in detail. The proposed CMOS SPAD is with P+/N-well junction structure, and its multiplication region is surrounded by a virtual guard ring, with which the premature edge avalanche breakdown can be prevented. The analytical and simulation results show that the CMOS SPAD has a uniform electric field distribution in P+/N-well junction, and the breakdown voltage is as low as 8.2 V, the PDE is greater than 40% at the wavelength

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Pullano, Salvatore A., Giuseppe Oliva, Twisha Titirsha, et al. "Design of an Electronic Interface for Single-Photon Avalanche Diodes." Sensors 24, no. 17 (2024): 5568. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s24175568.

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Single-photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) belong to a family of avalanche photodiodes (APDs) with single-photon detection capability that operate above the breakdown voltage (i.e., Geiger mode). Design and technology constraints, such as dark current, photon detection probability, and power dissipation, impose inherent device limitations on avalanche photodiodes. Moreover, after the detection of a photon, SPADs require dead time for avalanche quenching and recharge before they can detect another photon. The reduction in dead time results in higher efficiency for photon detection in high-frequency

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13

Wang, Wei, Guang Wang, Hongan Zeng, Yuanyao Zhao, U.-Fat Chio, and Jun Yuan. "A low dark count rate single photon avalanche diode with standard 180 nm CMOS technology." Modern Physics Letters B 33, no. 09 (2019): 1950099. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0217984919500994.

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A single photon avalanche diode (SPAD) structure designed with standard 180 nm CMOS technology is investigated in detail. The SPAD employs a [Formula: see text]-well anode, rather than the conventional [Formula: see text] layer, and with a [Formula: see text]-well/deep [Formula: see text]-well junction with square shape, a deep retrograde [Formula: see text]-well virtual guard ring which prevents the premature edge avalanche breakdown. The analytical and simulation results show that the SPAD exhibits a uniform electric field distribution in [Formula: see text]-well/deep [Formula: see text]-wel

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14

VERT, ALEXEY, STANSILAV SOLOVIEV, JODY FRONHEISER, and PETER SANDVIK. "SOLAR-BLIND SINGLE-PHOTON 4H-SiC AVALANCHE PHOTODIODES." International Journal of High Speed Electronics and Systems 19, no. 01 (2009): 85–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0129156409006114.

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A solar blind 4 H - SiC single photon avalanche diode (SPAD) is reported. The SPAD with separate absorption and multiplication layers was designed for operation with low dark counts. A thin film optical filter deposited on a sapphire window of the device package provided sensitivity in the wavelength range between 240 and 280 nm with a very high solar photon rejection ratio. An estimated dark current of 0.4 pA (0.75 nA/cm2) at a gain of 1000 was measured on a device with an effective mesa diameter of 260 µm. A single photon detection efficiency of 9% (linear mode) and 9.5% (gated Geiger mode)

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15

Jegannathan, Gobinath, Thomas Van den Dries, and Maarten Kuijk. "Current-Assisted SPAD with Improved p-n Junction and Enhanced NIR Performance." Sensors 20, no. 24 (2020): 7105. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s20247105.

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Single-photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) fabricated in conventional CMOS processes typically have limited near infra-red (NIR) sensitivity. This is the consequence of isolating the SPADs in a lowly-doped deep N-type well. In this work, we present a second improved version of the “current-assisted” single-photon avalanche diode, fabricated in a conventional 350 nm CMOS process, having good NIR sensitivity owing to 14 μm thick epilayer for photon absorption. The presented device has a photon absorption area of 30 × 30 µm2, with a much smaller central active area for avalanche multiplication. The p

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16

Farina, S., I. Labanca, G. Acconcia, M. Ghioni, and I. Rech. "10-nanosecond dead time and low afterpulsing with a free-running reach-through single-photon avalanche diode." Review of Scientific Instruments 93, no. 5 (2022): 053102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/5.0086312.

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The reduction of detector dead time represents an enabling factor in several photon counting applications. In this work, we investigate the free-running operation of reach-through single-photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) at ultra-low dead times. By employing a fast active quenching circuit with direct bonding to the detector, we are able to achieve a 10 ns dead time with a thick SPAD by Excelitas, still maintaining extremely low afterpulsing probabilities (below 1.5%).

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17

Goll, Bernhard, Mehran Saadi Nejad, Kerstin Schneider-Hornstein, and Horst Zimmermann. "Reducing Avalanche Build-Up Time by Integrating a Single-Photon Avalanche Diode with a BiCMOS Gating Circuit." Sensors 24, no. 23 (2024): 7598. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s24237598.

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It is shown that the integration of a single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) together with a BiCMOS gating circuit on one chip reduces the parasitic capacitance a lot and therefore reduces the avalanche build-up time. The capacitance of two bondpads, which are necessary for the connection of an SPAD chip and a gating chip, are eliminated by the integration. The gating voltage transients of the SPAD are measured using an integrated mini-pad and a picoprobe. Furthermore, the gating voltage transients of a CMOS gating circuit and of the BiCMOS gating circuit are compared for the same integrated SPA

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18

Ma, Sizhuo, Varun Sundar, Paul Mos, Claudio Bruschini, Edoardo Charbon, and Mohit Gupta. "Seeing Photons in Color." ACM Transactions on Graphics 42, no. 4 (2023): 1–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/3592438.

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Megapixel single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) arrays have been developed recently, opening up the possibility of deploying SPADs as generalpurpose passive cameras for photography and computer vision. However, most previous work on SPADs has been limited to monochrome imaging. We propose a computational photography technique that reconstructs high-quality color images from mosaicked binary frames captured by a SPAD array, even for high-dyanamic-range (HDR) scenes with complex and rapid motion. Inspired by conventional burst photography approaches, we design algorithms that jointly denoise and

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19

Mu, Yu, Xiaoxiao Du, Chao Wang, Ziwei Ye, and Yijun Zhu. "Gate-Width Optimisation Based on Time-Gated Single Photon Avalanche Diode Receiver for Optical Wireless Communications." Electronics 11, no. 14 (2022): 2218. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/electronics11142218.

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Using a single photon avalanche diode (SPAD) as a receiver in an optical wireless communications (OWC) system can effectively expand the transmission distance. However, the performance of the SPAD receiver is usually affected with the bit error rate (BER) lower bound determined by background light and the inter-symbol interference (ISI) distortion caused by dead time. In this paper, external time-gated technology is employed, and the SPAD is only activated within the set gate-ON time to alleviate the influence of background light and ISI distortion. The SPAD photon counting model and the commu

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Sun, Xin, Hu Yan, Hongcun He, Xiangshun Kong, Chen Mao, and Feng Yan. "Comparative Analysis of Free-Running and Gating Imaging Modes of SPAD Sensors." Photonics 11, no. 8 (2024): 721. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/photonics11080721.

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A single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) is a photon-counting sensor renowned for its exceptional single-photon sensitivity. One significant feature of SPADs is their non-linear response to light, making them ideal for high-dynamic range imaging applications. In SPAD imaging, the photon detection mode, which depends on the quenching method employed, is crucial for optimizing image quality and dynamic range. This paper examines the free-running and gating imaging modes, evaluating their impacts on photon capture and saturation limits. Given that the number of incident photons follows a Poisson di

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He, Tingting, Xiaohong Yang, Yongsheng Tang, Rui Wang, and Yijun Liu. "High photon detection efficiency InGaAs/InP single photon avalanche diode at 250 K." Journal of Semiconductors 43, no. 10 (2022): 102301. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1674-4926/43/10/102301.

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Abstract Planar semiconductor InGaAs/InP single photon avalanche diodes with high responsivity and low dark count rate are preferred single photon detectors in near-infrared communication. However, even with well-designed structures and well-controlled operational conditions, the performance of InGaAs/InP SPADs is limited by the inherent characteristics of avalanche process and the growth quality of InGaAs/InP materials. It is difficult to ensure high detection efficiency while the dark count rate is controlled within a certain range at present. In this paper, we fabricated a device with a thi

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Kurilla, Boldizsár. "Single Photon Communication with Avalanche Diodes and the General Basics of Photon Counting." Academic and Applied Research in Military and Public Management Science 15, no. 1 (2016): 19–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.32565/aarms.2016.1.2.

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Single photon communication (SPC) already exists in several applications in laboratory and even outdoor conditions. In the field of quantum cryptography SPC experiments are part of military applications too. There are several methods to detect every single impacting photon in such an experiment. Mostly photomultiplier tubes (PMT) are used. In some cases single photon avalanche diodes (SPAD) are more suitable for photon detection. Both the SPADs and PMTs have advantages and disadvantages. Usually PMTs have much larger detection areas than SPADs, but most of the PMTs detection efficiency peaks a

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Carrier, Simon, Michel Labrecque-Dias, Ramy Tannous, et al. "Towards a Multi-Pixel Photon-to-Digital Converter for Time-Bin Quantum Key Distribution." Sensors 23, no. 7 (2023): 3376. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s23073376.

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We present an integrated single-photon detection device custom designed for quantum key distribution (QKD) with time-bin encoded single photons. We implemented and demonstrated a prototype photon-to-digital converter (PDC) that integrates an 8 × 8 single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) array with on-chip digital signal processing built in TSMC 65 nm CMOS. The prototype SPADs are used to validate the QKD functionalities with an array of time-to-digital converters (TDCs) to timestamp and process the photon detection events. The PDC uses window gating to reject noise counts and on-chip processing t

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Defienne, Hugo, and Daniele Faccio. "Towards real-time quantum imaging with single photon avalanche diode cameras." Photoniques, no. 107 (March 2021): 36–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/photon/202110736.

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By harnessing the properties of photonic quantum states and their interaction with the environment, quantum imaging promises to go beyond the limits of classical imaging. However, the inherent weakness of detected signals and the fragility of quantum states make their properties difficult to measure in practice. In recent years, the emergence of single-photon sensitive cameras enabled the field to take a step closer to practical applications. In this respect, singlephoton avalanche diode (SPAD) cameras are one the most promising technologies as they can detect single photons across many pixels

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Du, Yanyan, Bo Li, and Xu Wang. "Simulation Study of Silicon-Based Single-Photon Avalanche Diodes with Double Buried Layers and Deep Trench Electrodes." Crystals 11, no. 10 (2021): 1176. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/cryst11101176.

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In this paper we present a study of a silicon-based Single-Photon Avalanche Diode (SPAD) in the near-infrared band with double buried layers and deep trench electrodes fabricated by the complimentary metal–oxide semiconductor (CMOS) technology. The deep trench electrodes aim to promote the movement of carriers in the device and reduce the transit time of the photo-generated carrier. The double buried layers are introduced to increase the electric field in the avalanche area and withstand a larger excess bias voltage as its larger depletion region. The semiconductor device simulation software T

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Sun, Miao, Shenglong Zhuo, and Patrick Yin Chiang. "Multi-Scale Histogram-Based Probabilistic Deep Neural Network for Super-Resolution 3D LiDAR Imaging." Sensors 23, no. 1 (2022): 420. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s23010420.

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LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) imaging based on SPAD (Single-Photon Avalanche Diode) technology suffers from severe area penalty for large on-chip histogram peak detection circuits required by the high precision of measured depth values. In this work, a probabilistic estimation-based super-resolution neural network for SPAD imaging that firstly uses temporal multi-scale histograms as inputs is proposed. To reduce the area and cost of on-chip histogram computation, only part of the histogram hardware for calculating the reflected photons is implemented on a chip. On account of the distribu

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Zeng, Mei-Ling, Yang Wang, Xiang-Liang Jin, Yan Peng, and Jun Luo. "Design, Fabrication, and Verification of Blue-Extended Single-Photon Avalanche Diode with Low Dark Count Rate and High Photon Detection Efficiency." Journal of Nanoelectronics and Optoelectronics 16, no. 4 (2021): 546–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1166/jno.2021.2975.

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Single-photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) can detect extremely weak optical signals and are mostly used in single-photon imaging, quantum communication, medical detection, and other fields. In this paper, a low dark count rate (DCR) single-photon avalanche diode device is designed based on the 180 nm standard BCD process. The device has a good response in the 450~750 nm spectral range. The active area of the device adopts a P+/N-Well structure with a diameter of 20 µm. The low-doped N-Well increases the thickness of the depletion region and can effectively improve the detection sensitivity; the P

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Maccarone, Aurora, Giulia Acconcia, Ulrich Steinlehner, et al. "Custom-Technology Single-Photon Avalanche Diode Linear Detector Array for Underwater Depth Imaging." Sensors 21, no. 14 (2021): 4850. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s21144850.

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We present an optical depth imaging system suitable for highly scattering underwater environments. The system used the time-correlated single-photon counting (TCSPC) technique and the time-of-flight approach to obtain depth profiles. The single-photon detection was provided by a linear array of single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) detectors fabricated in a customized silicon fabrication technology for optimized efficiency, dark count rate, and jitter performance. The bi-static transceiver comprised a pulsed laser diode source with central wavelength 670 nm, a linear array of 16 × 1 Si-SPAD det

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Rhim, Jinsoo, Xiaoge Zeng, Zhihong Huang, et al. "Monolithically-Integrated Single-Photon Avalanche Diode in a Zero-Change Standard CMOS Process for Low-Cost and Low-Voltage LiDAR Application." Instruments 3, no. 2 (2019): 33. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/instruments3020033.

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We present a single-photon sensor based on the single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) that is suitable for low-cost and low-voltage light detection and ranging (LiDAR) applications. It is implemented in a zero-change standard 0.18-μm complementary metal oxide semiconductor process at the minimum cost by excluding any additional processing step for customized doping profiles. The SPAD is based on circular shaped P+/N-well junction of 8-μm diameter, and it achieves low breakdown voltage below 10 V so that the operation voltage of the single-photon sensor can be minimized. The quenching and reset c

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Inoue, Akito, Toru Okino, Shinzo Koyama, and Yutaka Hirose. "Modeling and Analysis of Capacitive Relaxation Quenching in a Single Photon Avalanche Diode (SPAD) Applied to a CMOS Image Sensor." Sensors 20, no. 10 (2020): 3007. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s20103007.

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We present an analysis of carrier dynamics of the single-photon detection process, i.e., from Geiger mode pulse generation to its quenching, in a single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD). The device is modeled by a parallel circuit of a SPAD and a capacitance representing both space charge accumulation inside the SPAD and parasitic components. The carrier dynamics inside the SPAD is described by time-dependent bipolar-coupled continuity equations (BCE). Numerical solutions of BCE show that the entire process completes within a few hundreds of picoseconds. More importantly, we find that the total a

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Sewidan, L., H. Georgieva, P. Tieben, A. W. Schell, M. López, and S. Kück. "Characterization of hexagonal boron nitride quantum emitters for application in quantum radiometry." Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2864, no. 1 (2024): 012013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2864/1/012013.

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Abstract We present the metrological characterization of single-photon emitters based on single point defects in hexagonal boron nitride (hBN) to be used in quantum radiometry. The characterization is performed in terms of their spectral characteristics, single-photon properties and stability of photon flux emission at room temperature. A statistical analysis of 563 emitters has been carried out showing that approximately one third of the photon emission can be attributed to single photon emitters. In addition, a relative calibration of two single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) detectors using

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32

Wang, Wei, Xiaoyuan Bao, Li Chen, Ting Chen, Guanyu Wang та Jun Yuan. "High photon detection efficiency single photon avalanche diode in 0.18 μm standard CMOS process". Modern Physics Letters B 31, № 17 (2017): 1750193. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0217984917501937.

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This paper proposed a single photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) designed with 0.18 [Formula: see text] standard CMOS process. One of the major challenges in CMOS SPADs is how to raise the low photon detection efficiency (PDE). In this paper, the device structure and process parameters of the CMOS SPAD are optimized so as to improve PDE properties which have been investigated in detail. The CMOS SPADs are designed in p+/n-well/deep n-well (DNW) structure with the p-sub and the p-well guard ring (GR). The simulation results show that with the p-well GR, the quantum efficiency (QE) is about 80% with

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Zheng, Lixia, Huan Hu, Ziqing Weng, Qun Yao, Jin Wu, and Weifeng Sun. "Compact Active Quenching Circuit for Single Photon Avalanche Diodes Arrays." Journal of Circuits, Systems and Computers 26, no. 10 (2017): 1750149. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0218126617501493.

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A compact quenching circuit for Single Photon Avalanche Diode (SPAD) arrays is presented. The proposed circuit preserves the advantages of small area occupation and low power consumption, since it mainly adopts the junction capacitance of the detector to sense the avalanche current. The sensing time is now limited more by the detector rather than the circuit itself. Fabricated in TSMC standard 0.35[Formula: see text][Formula: see text]m CMOS process, the proposed circuit only occupies an area of 20[Formula: see text][Formula: see text]m[Formula: see text][Formula: see text][Formula: see text]3

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Hsieh, Chin-An, Chia-Ming Tsai, Bing-Yue Tsui, Bo-Jen Hsiao, and Sheng-Di Lin. "Photon-Detection-Probability Simulation Method for CMOS Single-Photon Avalanche Diodes." Sensors 20, no. 2 (2020): 436. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s20020436.

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Single-photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) in complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) technology have excellent timing resolution and are capable to detect single photons. The most important indicator for its sensitivity, photon-detection probability (PDP), defines the probability of a successful detection for a single incident photon. To optimize PDP is a cost- and time-consuming task due to the complicated and expensive CMOS process. In this work, we have developed a simulation procedure to predict the PDP without any fitting parameter. With the given process parameters, our method combin

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Gaskill, D. Kurt, Jun Hu, X. Xin, et al. "Proton Irradiation of 4H-SiC Ultraviolet Single Photon Avalanche Diodes." Materials Science Forum 679-680 (March 2011): 551–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.679-680.551.

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The effects of proton irradiation on uv 4H-SiC single photon avalanche photodiodes (SPADs) are reported. The SPADs, grown by chemical vapor deposition, were designed for uv operation with dark count rates (DCR) of about 30 kHz and single photon detection efficiency (SPDE) of 4.89%. The SPADs were irradiated with 2 MeV protons to a fluence of 1012 cm-2. After irradiation, the I-V characteristics show forward voltage (<1.9 V) generation-recombination currents 2 to 3 times higher than before irradiation. Single photon counting measurements imply generation-recombination centers created in the

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Kosman, John, Kevin Moore, Harald Haas, and Robert K. Henderson. "Distortion losses of high-speed single-photon avalanche diode optical receivers approaching quantum sensitivity." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 378, no. 2169 (2020): 20190194. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2019.0194.

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The high internal gain of single-photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) operating in Geiger mode allows the quantum limit of detection to be approached. This offers a significantly improved sensitivity for optical communication over existing photodiodes. A fully integrated CMOS SPAD array receiver (RX) is presented which achieves 500 Mb s −1 four-level pulse amplitude modulation in a visible light communication link within 15.2 dB of the quantum limit. However, SPAD dead time induces around 5.7 dB of transient distortion which restricts error performance and data rate. We propose a model describing a

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Chen, Ming, Chenghao Li, Alan P. Morrison, et al. "Design and Implementation of a Compact Single-Photon Counting Module." Electronics 9, no. 7 (2020): 1131. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/electronics9071131.

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A compact single-photon counting module that can accurately control the bias voltage and hold-off time is developed in this work. The module is a microcontroller-based system which mainly consists of a microcontroller, a programmable negative voltage generator, a silicon-based single-photon avalanche diode, and an integrated active quench and reset circuit. The module is 3.8 cm × 3.6 cm × 2 cm in size and can communicate with the end user and be powered through a USB cable (5 V). In this module, the bias voltage of the single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) is precisely controllable from −14 V ~

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Yang, Xiao, Hongbo Zhu, Toru Nakura, Tetsuya Iizuka, and Kunihiro Asada. "An Asynchronous Summation Circuit for Noise Filtering in Single Photon Avalanche Diode Sensors." Journal of Circuits, Systems and Computers 25, no. 03 (2015): 1640017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s021812661640017x.

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An asynchronous projection and summation circuit is proposed for single photon avalanche diode (SPAD) sensors. Thanks to the efficient interconnection by the asynchronous technique, the circuit can be easily implemented inside 2D SPAD arrays. As a result, the precise summation of the 1b data in one row can be parallel processed for all rows within the same cycle. A test-of-concept chip was fabricated in a 0.18[Formula: see text][Formula: see text]m 1P5M CMOS process. By measurement results, the summation of a 15-pixel row can be achieved by the proposed circuit within 20.5[Formula: see text]ns

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Ogi, Jun, Fumiaki Sano, Tatsuya Nakata та ін. "A 3.06 μm Single-Photon Avalanche Diode Pixel with Embedded Metal Contact and Power Grid on Deep Trench Pixel Isolation for High-Resolution Photon Counting". Sensors 23, № 21 (2023): 8906. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s23218906.

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In this study, a 3.06 μm pitch single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) pixel with an embedded metal contact and power grid on two-step deep trench isolation in the pixel is presented. The embedded metal contact can suppress edge breakdown and reduce the dark count rate to 15.8 cps with the optimized potential design. The embedded metal for the contact is also used as an optical shield and a low crosstalk probability of 0.4% is achieved, while the photon detection efficiency is as high as 57%. In addition, the integration of a power grid and the polysilicon resistor on SPAD pixels can help to redu

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Yu, Chao, Tianyi Li, Xian-Song Zhao, et al. "Free-running 4H-SiC single-photon detector with ultralow afterpulse probability at 266 nm." Review of Scientific Instruments 94, no. 3 (2023): 033101. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/5.0137823.

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Ultraviolet single-photon detector (UVSPD) provides a key tool for applications requiring ultraweak light detection in the wavelength band. Here, we report a 4H-SiC single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) based free-running UVSPD with ultralow afterpulse probability. We design and fabricate the 4H-SiC SPAD with a beveled mesa structure, which exhibits the characteristic of ultralow dark current. We further develop a readout circuit of passive quenching and active reset with a tunable hold-off time setting to considerably suppress the afterpulsing effect. The nonuniformity of photon detection effi

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Nolet, Frédéric, Samuel Parent, Nicolas Roy, et al. "Quenching Circuit and SPAD Integrated in CMOS 65 nm with 7.8 ps FWHM Single Photon Timing Resolution." Instruments 2, no. 4 (2018): 19. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/instruments2040019.

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This paper presents a new quenching circuit (QC) and single photon avalanche diode (SPAD) implemented in TSMC CMOS 65 nm technology. The QC was optimized for single photon timing resolution (SPTR) with a view to an implementation in a 3D digital SiPM. The presented QC has a timing jitter of 4 ps full width at half maximum (FWHM) and the SPAD and QC has a 7.8 ps FWHM SPTR. The QC adjustable threshold allows timing resolution optimization as well as SPAD excess voltage and rise time characterization. The adjustable threshold, hold-off and recharge are essential to optimize the performances of ea

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Buchner, Andre, Stefan Hadrath, Roman Burkard, et al. "Analytical Evaluation of Signal-to-Noise Ratios for Avalanche- and Single-Photon Avalanche Diodes." Sensors 21, no. 8 (2021): 2887. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s21082887.

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Performance of systems for optical detection depends on the choice of the right detector for the right application. Designers of optical systems for ranging applications can choose from a variety of highly sensitive photodetectors, of which the two most prominent ones are linear mode avalanche photodiodes (LM-APDs or APDs) and Geiger-mode APDs or single-photon avalanche diodes (SPADs). Both achieve high responsivity and fast optical response, while maintaining low noise characteristics, which is crucial in low-light applications such as fluorescence lifetime measurements or high intensity meas

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Ribisch, Christoph, Michael Hofbauer, Seyed Saman Kohneh Poushi, et al. "Multi-Channel Gating Chip in 0.18 µm High-Voltage CMOS for Quantum Applications." Sensors 23, no. 24 (2023): 9644. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s23249644.

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A gating circuit for a photonic quantum simulator is introduced. The gating circuit uses a large excess bias voltage of up to 9.9 V and an integrated single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD). Nine channels are monolithically implemented in an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) including nine SPADs using 0.18 µm high-voltage CMOS technology. The gating circuit achieves rise and fall times of 480 ps and 280 ps, respectively, and a minimum full-width-at-half-maximum pulse width of 1.26 ns. Thanks to a fast and sensitive comparator, a detection threshold for avalanche events of less than 1

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Giudici, Andrea, Giulia Acconcia, Ivan Labanca, Massimo Ghioni, and Ivan Rech. "4 ns dead time with a fully integrated active quenching circuit driving a custom single photon avalanche diode." Review of Scientific Instruments 93, no. 4 (2022): 043103. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/5.0087341.

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At the present time, Single Photon Avalanche Diodes (SPADs) are the enabling devices in many applications, ranging from medical imaging to laser ranging and from remote sensing to quantum key distribution. Even though they belong to different scientific domains, these applications share the need for a detector capable of attaining high count rates possibly without trading it off with other key detector’s features, such as afterpulsing probability, photon detection efficiency, and dark counts. In this work, we present the characterization of a fast integrated active quenching circuit capable of

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Nasiri, M., K. Eyvazi, and M. A. Karami. "Single photon avalanche diode dark count rate modelling considering non-local avalanche probability." Journal of Instrumentation 19, no. 10 (2024): T10007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/19/10/t10007.

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Abstract This article deals with the modeling and analysis of the dark count rate (DCR) of single photon avalanche diodes (SPAD) in two models of local and non-local electric field. In the non-local electric field models, the avalanche probability and band-to-band tunneling rate are different from the local models. DCR output is evaluated in two different complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) processes, of 0.15 μm and 0.18 μm. The non-local avalanche probability is based on considering a non-local dependence of impact ionization on the electric field. At high electric fields, the loca

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Zappa, F., A. Gulinatti, P. Maccagnani, S. Tisa, and S. Cova. "SPADA: single-photon avalanche diode arrays." IEEE Photonics Technology Letters 17, no. 3 (2005): 657–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/lpt.2004.840920.

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Yang, Haodong, Qiurong Yan, Ming Wang, Yuhao Wang, Peng Li, and Wei Wang. "Synchronous Clock Recovery of Photon-Counting Underwater Optical Wireless Communication Based on Deep Learning." Photonics 9, no. 11 (2022): 884. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/photonics9110884.

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In photon-counting underwater optical wireless communication (UOWC), the recovery of the time slot synchronous clock is extremely important, and it is the basis of symbol synchronization and frame synchronization. We have previously proposed a time slot synchronous clock extraction method based on single photon pulse counting, but the accuracy needs to be further improved. Deep learning is very effective for feature extraction; synchronous information is already implicit in the discrete single photon pulse signal output by single photon avalanche diode (SPAD), which is used as a communication

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Mahmoudi, Hiwa, and Horst Zimmermann. "Bit Error Performance of APD and SPAD Receivers in Optical Wireless Communication." Electronics 10, no. 22 (2021): 2731. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/electronics10222731.

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This review concentrates on the state-of-the-art hardware-oriented receiver aspects for optical wireless communication (OWC), and points to the importance of BER performance analysis and modeling in presence of non-perpendicular light incidence. Receivers in OWC networks for 6G applications have to work for strongly different light incidence angles, to allow the formation of connections to locally separated transceivers without the need for rotation units and accurate adjustment. In turn, and in combination with fully integrated optical receivers, reduction of cost and increased comfort can be

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Deng, Shijie, Alan P. Morrison, Yong Guo, et al. "Design of a Real-Time Breakdown Voltage and On-Chip Temperature Monitoring System for Single Photon Avalanche Diodes." Electronics 10, no. 1 (2020): 25. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/electronics10010025.

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The design and implementation of a real-time breakdown voltage and on-chip temperature monitoring system for single photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) is described in this work. In the system, an on-chip shaded (active area of the detector covered by a metal layer) SPAD is used to provide a dark count rate for the breakdown voltage and temperature calculation. A bias circuit was designed to provide a bias voltage scanning for the shaded SPAD. A microcontroller records the pulses from the anode of the shaded SPAD and calculates its real-time dark count rate. An algorithm was developed for the micr

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Morimoto, Kazuhiro, and Edoardo Charbon. "A Scaling Law for SPAD Pixel Miniaturization." Sensors 21, no. 10 (2021): 3447. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s21103447.

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The growing demands on compact and high-definition single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) arrays have motivated researchers to explore pixel miniaturization techniques to achieve sub-10 μm pixels. The scaling of the SPAD pixel size has an impact on key performance metrics, and it is, thereby, critical to conduct a systematic analysis of the underlying tradeoffs in miniaturized SPADs. On the basis of the general assumptions and constraints for layout geometry, we performed an analytical formulation of the scaling laws for the key metrics, such as the fill factor (FF), photon detection probability

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