Relevant bibliographies by topics / Slope (Physical geography)

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  1. Journal articles
  2. Dissertations / Theses
  3. Books
  4. Book chapters
  5. Conference papers

Academic literature on the topic 'Slope (Physical geography)'

Author: Grafiati
Published: 4 June 2021
Last updated: 11 February 2022

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Journal articles on the topic "Slope (Physical geography)"

1

Allison, Robert J. "Slopes and slope processes." Progress in Physical Geography: Earth and Environment 20, no. 4 (1996): 453–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/030913339602000405.

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Despite suggestions (see Wolman, 1995, for example) that problem-solving in physical geography relies increasingly on interactions between research and application, there is abundant evidence in hillslope studies of research focused on both real-world problems and aimed at generating new knowledge. A study of mass movement patterns (Flagollet, 1996) illustrates application, by examining hazard associated with spatial and temporal variations in landslide activity. Understanding the principle of dynamic equilibrium is, on the other hand, examined and verified using quantitative DEM data (Chandle
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Oorthuis, Raül, Jean Vaunat, Marcel Hürlimann, et al. "Slope Orientation and Vegetation Effects on Soil Thermo-Hydraulic Behavior. An Experimental Study." Sustainability 13, no. 1 (2020): 14. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su13010014.

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The stability and erosion of natural and man-made slopes is influenced by soil-vegetation-atmosphere interactions and the thermo-hydro-mechanical slope conditions. Understanding such interactions at the source of slope mass-wasting is important to develop land-use planning strategy and to promote environmentally adapted mitigation strategies, such as the use of vegetation to stabilize slopes and control erosion. Monitoring is essential for calibrating and validating models and for better comprehending the physical mechanisms of soil-vegetation-atmosphere interactions. We approached this comple
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Zhang, Qi-Peng, Jian Wang, Hong-Liang Gu, Zhi-Gang Zhang, and Qian Wang. "Effects of Continuous Slope Gradient on the Dominance Characteristics of Plant Functional Groups and Plant Diversity in Alpine Meadows." Sustainability 10, no. 12 (2018): 4805. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su10124805.

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Many studies reported the effect on plant functional groups and plant diversity under discontinuous slope gradient. However, studies on the effect of continuous slope gradient on plant functional groups and plant diversity in alpine meadows have rarely been conducted. We studied the effect of a continuous slope gradient on the dominance characteristics of plant functional groups and plant diversity of alpine meadows on the Tibetan plateau—in Hezuo area of Gannan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture. Altogether, 84 samples of alpine meadows grass and 84 soil samples from seven slope gradients at sunli
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Ristic, Ratko. "Lag time on torrential catchments in Serbia." Bulletin of the Faculty of Forestry, no. 87 (2003): 51–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/gsf0387051r.

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Maximal discharge Qmax(p) is the basic input data for designing longitudinal and transversal objects in torrential beds. Calculation of maximal discharge Qmax, on unstudied catchments, is carrying out by usage the theory of synthetic unit hidrograph and SCS methodology for separation effective rain Pe by total rainfall Pb. One of the basic time characteristics of torrential floods was analyzed: lag time tp. Lag time tp was determined on the basis of processing of hydrographs and deriving representative unit hydrographs, on 93 control profiles. Dominant physical-geography characteristics were d
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De Vita, Pantaleone, Francesco Fusco, Rita Tufano, and Delia Cusano. "Seasonal and Event-Based Hydrological and Slope Stability Modeling of Pyroclastic Fall Deposits Covering Slopes in Campania (Southern Italy)." Water 10, no. 9 (2018): 1140. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w10091140.

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The pyroclastic fall deposits mantling mountain slopes in the Campania region (Southern Italy) represent one of the most studied geomorphological frameworks of the world regarding rainfall-induced debris flows threating urban areas. The proposed study focused on advancing knowledge about the hydrological response of pyroclastic fall coverings from the seasonal to event-based time scales, leading to the initiation of slope instability. The study was based on two consequential tasks. The first was the analysis of a six-year monitoring of soil pressure head carried out in a sample area of the Sar
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Jeong, Sangseom, Azman Kassim, Moonhyun Hong, and Nader Saadatkhah. "Susceptibility Assessments of Landslides in Hulu Kelang Area Using a Geographic Information System-Based Prediction Model." Sustainability 10, no. 8 (2018): 2941. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su10082941.

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This study was conducted to estimate the susceptibility of landslides on a test site in Malaysia (Hulu Kelang area). A Geographic Information system (GIS)-based physical model named YS-Slope, which integrates a mechanistic infinite slope stability method and the geo-hydrological model was applied to calculate the safety factor of the test site. Input data, slopes, soil-depth, elevations, soil properties and plant covers were constructed as GIS datasets. The factor of safety of shallow landslides along the wetting front and deep-seated landslides at the bottom of the groundwater were estimated
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Tessema, Netsanet, Fjóla Sigtryggsdóttir, Leif Lia, and Asie Jabir. "Physical Model Study on Discharge over a Dam Due to Landslide Generated Waves." Water 12, no. 1 (2020): 234. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w12010234.

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Impulse waves generated by landslides falling into reservoirs may lead to overtopping of a dam and, in turn, to flooding of the downstream area. In the case of an embankment dam, the overtopping may lead to erosion of the downstream slope, ultimately resulting in breaching and complete failure with consequent further hazardous release of water to the downstream area. This research deals with the overtopping process of a dam due to landslide generated waves in a three-dimensional (3D) physical scale model setup. Experiments have been conducted with varying the slide, reservoir, and dam paramete
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Lemenkova, Polina. "Using R packages 'tmap', 'raster' and 'ggmap' for cartographic visualization: An example of dem-based terrain modelling of Italy, Apennine Peninsula." Zbornik radova - Geografski fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu, no. 68 (2020): 99–116. http://dx.doi.org/10.5937/zrgfub2068099l.

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The main purpose of this article is to present the use of R programming language in cartographic visualization demonstrating using machine learning methods in geographic education. Current trends in education technologies are largely influenced by the possibilities of distance-learning, e-learning and selflearning. In view of this, the main tendencies in modern geographic education include active use of open source GIS and publicly available free geospatial datasets that can be used by students for cartographic exercises, data visualization and mapping, both at intermediate and advanced levels
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Bernknopf, R. L., D. S. Brookshire, R. H. Campbell, and C. D. Shapiro. "An Economic and Geographic Appraisal of a Spatial Natural Hazard Risk: A Study of Landslide Mitigation Rules." Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space 20, no. 5 (1988): 621–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/a200621.

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Natural hazards in the form of landslides are pervasive throughout the United States. Efficient mitigation of natural hazards requires a spatial representation of the risk, based upon the geographic distribution of physical parameters and man-related development activities. Through such a representation, the spatial probability of landslides based upon physical science concepts is estimated for Cincinnati, Ohio. Mitigation programs designed to reduce loss from landslide natural hazards are then evaluated. An optimum mitigation rule is suggested that is spatially selective and is determined by
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Weng, Cheng-Hsueh, Ming-Lang Lin, Chia-Ming Lo, and Hsi-Hung Lin. "The Influence of Groundwater on the Sliding and Deposition Behaviors of Cataclinal Slopes." Water 10, no. 9 (2018): 1179. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w10091179.

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In 2015, Typhoon Soudelor caused a number of slopes to collapse in Wulai District of New Taipei City. One of these landslides took place in the village of Zhongzhi and involved atypical cataclinal slope failure with a rock–soil interface. The remaining rock in the slope and the rock that originally covered it contained vertical joints, so groundwater could have flowed through the joints and influenced landslide behavior. However, few existing studies have examined the influence of upward groundwater flow on slope stability. To fill this gap, this study used physical tests and discrete element
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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Slope (Physical geography)"

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Dwyer, Todd Douglas. "Development of a physical slope failure model /." free to MU campus, to others for purchase, 2004. http://wwwlib.umi.com/cr/mo/fullcit?p1421132.

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Mathur, Priti. "A comparison of slope estimation methods." Thesis, Virginia Tech, 1991. http://hdl.handle.net/10919/41688.

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The study evaluates widely used slope estimation algorithms with the aim of determining similarities or differences between results obtained by each, the accuracy of methods in modelling actual slope, and the suitability of these methods for site-specific and non-site specific applications. The data used in the study comprise of 24 artificial surfaces generated from mathematical equations and a natural surface represented by a USGS Digital Elevation Model of the Salem Quadrangle, Virginia. The concept of using artificial surfaces was to enable determination of accuracy without the requiremen
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Weih, Robert C. "Evaluating methods for characterizing slope conditions within polygons." Diss., This resource online, 1991. http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-06062008-171008/.

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Dakin, Susan Helen. "A multidisciplinary approach to the study of slope instability in Derbyshire, with particular reference to Matlock." Thesis, University of Nottingham, 1989. http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/11307/.

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This study of slope instability in the Matlock region of Derbyshire uses, and tests the applicability of, a variety of techniques from reconnaissance through to site investigation. The aims have been to (i) provide a greater understanding of landsliding in this area and (ii) produce a critical assessment of the techniques employed. A procedure was developed for the application of Landsat-5 TM imagery to slope stability studies, however, such imagery was found to be of very limited use in the study area. Morphological and geomorphological mapping from aerial photographs and in the field proved
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Mithan, Huw. "Quantifying the dynamic response of permafrost and slope stability to a changing climate." Thesis, Cardiff University, 2018. http://orca.cf.ac.uk/111329/.

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The Arctic contains a wealth of landforms that are governed by the diurnal and seasonal response of permafrost to climatic and topographic forcings. Of key importance to the process rates of many periglacial landforms is the dynamic behaviour of the active layer, which regulates the transfer of heat and moisture between the atmosphere and permafrost. The strong dependence of periglacial process rates on active layer dynamics makes this geomorphic system particularly sensitive to future increases in Arctic temperatures and precipitation. These increases will continue to degrade permafrost, affe
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Gless, James Douglas. "Slope stability as related to geology at Rainier, Columbia County, Oregon." PDXScholar, 1989. https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/open_access_etds/3985.

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Rainier, Oregon, has experienced problems in the development of residential and commercial sites, utilities, and transportation facilities as a result of slope instability. This study of slope stability at Rainier was conducted at the request of city officials.
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Illgner, Peter Mark. "The morphology and sedimentology of two unconsolidated quaternary debris slope deposits in the Alexandria district, Cape Province." Thesis, Rhodes University, 1995. http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1005519.

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Research on hillslope surface processes and hillslope stratigraphy has been neglected in southern Africa. The amount of published literature on hillslope stratigraphy in southern Africa is very limited. Hillslope sediments provide a record of past environmental conditions and may be especially useful in calculating the recurrence interval of extreme environmental conditions such as earthquakes and intense rainfall events. The characteristics of hillslope sediments provide information as to their origin, transport and mechanisms of deposition. No published work could be found that had been unde
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Rubensdotter, Lena. "Alpine lake sediment archives and catchment geomorphology : causal relationships and implications for paleoenvironmental reconstructions." Doctoral thesis, Stockholm : Department of Physical Geography and Quaternary Geology, Stockholm University, 2006. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:su:diva-945.

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Fritzson, Hanna. "Effect of Environmental Factors on Pore Water Pressure in River Bank Sediments, Sollefteå, Sweden." Thesis, Uppsala universitet, Institutionen för geovetenskaper, 2017. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-333788.

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Pore water pressure in a silt slope in Sollefteå, Sweden, was measured from 2009-2016. The results from2009-2012 were presented and evaluated in a publication by Westerberg et al. (2014) and this report is an extension of that project.In a silt slope the pore water pressures are generally negative, contributing to the stability of theslope. In this report the pore water pressure variations are analyzed using basic statistics and a connection between the pore water pressure variations, the geology and parameters such as temperature, precipitation and soil moisture are discussed.The soils in the
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Westrin, Pontus, and Nils Melin. "Slope processes and strength of material in silt rich ravines in Säterdalen, Sweden." Thesis, Uppsala universitet, Institutionen för geovetenskaper, 2015. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-239978.

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Slope processes are important to understand if we are to protect fragile environments. Every year slope development in weak soils put nearby infrastructure in risk zones of sliding and ravine erosion takes away field areal from farmers as they grow even larger. Many methods for doing a risk analysis of a slope and its soil are complicated and require a lot of equipment. A simple way to do a slope investigation is explained in this report, along with its advantages and disadvantages. The authors construct a shear ring, an apparatus to measure peak shear stress of soils before fracturing. LIDAR
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Books on the topic "Slope (Physical geography)"

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Slope tectonics. Geological Society, 2011.

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Slope Analysis Using Boundary Elements. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 1989.

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Hearn, G. J. Slope engineering for mountain roads. Geological Society, 2011.

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Pomeroy, John S. Geologic relationships of slope movement in northern Alabama. Dept. of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, 1985.

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Luedke, Robert G. Slope map of the Telluride quadrangle, San Miguel, Ouray, and San Juan Counties, Colorado. U.S. Geological Survey, 1995.

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Dijkstra, Tom. Loess slope instability in the Lanzhou region, China. Koninklijk Nederlands Aardrijkkundig Genootschap, 2000.

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Dijkstra, Tom. Loess slope instability in the Lanzhou region, China. Koninklijk Nederlands Aardrijkskundig Genootschap, Faculteit Ruimtelijke Wetenschappen, Universiteit Utrecht, 2000.

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AAPG/SEPM Annual Meeting (2012 : Long Beach, California), ed. Deposits, architecture, and controls of carbonate margin, slope, and basinal settings. SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology), 2013.

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Seminar on Slope Engineering in Hong Kong (1997 Hong Kong). Slope engineering in Hong Kong: Proceedings of the annual Seminar on Slope Engineering in Hong Kong, Hong Kong, 2 May 1997. A.A. Balkema, 1998.

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Gerstel, Wendy J. Slope stability analysis of the bluffs along the Washington State Capitol Campus, Olympia, Washington. Washington Dept. of Natural Resources, Division of Geology and Earth Resources, 1996.

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Book chapters on the topic "Slope (Physical geography)"

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McColl, Samuel T., and Daniel Draebing. "Rock Slope Instability in the Proglacial Zone: State of the Art." In Geography of the Physical Environment. Springer International Publishing, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94184-4_8.

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Dusik, Jana-Marie, Fabian Neugirg, and Florian Haas. "Slope Wash, Gully Erosion and Debris Flows on Lateral Moraines in the Upper Kaunertal, Austria." In Geography of the Physical Environment. Springer International Publishing, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94184-4_11.

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Wainwright, John. "Weathering, Soils, and Slope Processes." In The Physical Geography of the Mediterranean. Oxford University Press, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199268030.003.0018.

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Hillslopes are the dominant landform features of the Earth’s surface. They make up the interface between the atmosphere and Earth systems, providing a substrate that supports life and thus the basis for human activities within the Mediterranean. Their location at this interface means that hillslopes evolve through a complex interaction of different processes, operating at a range of different time and spatial scales. At longer timescales, processes of weathering convert rock and other parent materials into soils. Soils allow the growth of vegetation and thus further feedbacks between atmospheric and surface processes; in some cases these feedbacks can be seen to provide relative stability, while in others the system can become more fragile (Chapter 20). The latter case often arises as a result of erosion processes of various types. Water erosion and mass movements are a significant element of Mediterranean landscape evolution, occurring in parallel with (in response to, and affecting) tectonic processes that have moulded the configuration of the Earth’s crust (see Chapter 1), producing the unique combination of environmental characteristics of the region. Since the Late Pleistocene, depending on location, human activity has led to an acceleration of many of these processes, with important consequences for the basic ‘life-support system’ of the region and for global environmental cycles. The in situ modification of near-surface materials is typically considered to take place along a continuum relating to the dominance of mechanical or chemical processes (e.g. Birkeland 1999). The simplest control may be considered to be climatic, with mechanical breakdown of particles dominating in cold, dry conditions, and chemical processes dominating in warm, wet conditions. Comparing this model to the present day climate of the Mediterranean suggests, as with other processes, something of a north–south divide in terms of the dominant weathering process. The northern part of the basin (together with the Levant and the north-facing uplands of the Maghreb) would seem to be dominated by moderate chemical weathering; exceptions being the arid areas of south-east Spain, southern Sicily, eastern Cyprus, and parts of the Anatolian plateau as well as areas where low average temperatures would also reduce rates, such as in the Alps and parts of Slovenia and Croatia.
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Thornes, John, and Jamie Woodward. "Hydrology, River Regimes, and Sediment Yield." In The Physical Geography of the Mediterranean. Oxford University Press, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199268030.003.0020.

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In comparison to the rest of Europe, Africa, and Asia, most rivers arising and flowing within the Mediterranean watershed typically drain small catchments with mountainous headwaters. The hydrology of Mediterranean catchments is strongly influenced by the seasonal distribution of precipitation, catchment geology, vegetation type and extent, and the geomorphology of the slope and channel systems. It is important to appreciate, as the preceding chapters have shown, that the area draining to the Mediterranean Sea is large and enormously variable in terms of the key controls on catchment hydrology outlined above, and it is therefore not possible to define, in hydrological terms, a strict single Mediterranean river type. However, river regimes across the basin do have a marked seasonality that is largely controlled by the climate system (Chapter 3) and, in most basins, the dominant flows occur in winter—but autumn and spring runoff is also important in many areas. These patterns reflect the general water balance of the basin as a whole, but there are key geographical patterns in catchment hydrology and sediment yield and a marked contrast is evident between the more humid north and the semi-arid south and east (Struglia et al. 2004; Chapter 21). Also, because of the long history of vegetation and hillslope modification by human activity and the more recent and widespread implementation of water resource management projects, there are almost no natural river regimes in the Mediterranean region, especially in the middle and lower reaches of river catchments (Cudennec et al. 2007). Runoff generation on hillslopes in the Mediterranean is very closely related to rainfall intensities and land surface properties as discussed in Chapter 6. While this is probably true of most catchments, runoff generation in the Mediterranean is very sensitive to vegetation cover because of the seasonal dynamics of rainfall and the role played by extreme events. The cumulative effect of these characteristics is a specific set of management problems and restoration issues and, although these are rather different in the various socio-political regimes of the region, it can be argued that they are in many ways unique to Mediterranean catchments.
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Bryant, Richard H. "SLOPES." In Physical Geography. Elsevier, 1986. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-434-98520-3.50009-7.

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Gupta, Avijit. "Accelerated Erosion and Sedimentation in Southeast Asia." In The Physical Geography of Southeast Asia. Oxford University Press, 2005. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199248025.003.0026.

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Periodic attempts to plot global distribution of erosion and sedimentation usually attribute most of Southeast Asia with a very high sediment yield (Milliman and Meade 1983). The erosion rates and sediment yield figures are especially high for maritime Southeast Asia. Milliman and Syvitski (1992), for example, listed 3000 t km−2 yr−1 for the archipelagos and peninsulas of Southeast Asia. They provided a number of natural explanations for the high erosion rate: location near active plate margins, pyroclastic eruptions, steep slopes, and mass movements. This is also a region with considerable annual rainfall, a very substantial percentage of which tends to be concentrated in a few months and falls with high intensity. Part of Southeast Asia (the Philippines, Viet Nam, Timor) is visited by tropical cyclones with heavy, intense rainfall and possible associated wind damage to existing vegetation. The fans at the foot of slopes, the large volume of sediment stored in the channel and floodplain of the rivers, and the size of deltas all indicate a high rate of erosion and episodic sediment transfer. This episodic erosion and sediment transfer used to be controlled for most of the region by the thick cover of vegetation that once masked the slopes. When vegetation is removed soil and regolith de-structured, and natural slopes altered, the erosion rates and sediment yield reach high figures. Parts of Southeast Asia display striking anthropogenic alteration of the landscape, although the resulting accelerated erosion may be only temporary, operating on a scale of several years. Over time the affected zones shift, and slugs of sediment continue to arrive in a river but from different parts of its drainage basin. The combination of anthropogenic alteration and fragile landforms may give rise to very high local yields. Sediment yields of more than 15 000 t km−2 yr−1 have been estimated from such areas (Ruslan and Menam, cited in Lal 1987). This is undoubtedly towards the upper extreme, but current destruction of the vegetation cover due to deforestation, expansion of agriculture, mining, urbanization, and implementation of large-scale resettlement schemes has increased the sediment yield from < 102 to > 103 t km−2 yr−1.
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Gupta, Avijit. "Landforms of Southeast Asia." In The Physical Geography of Southeast Asia. Oxford University Press, 2005. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199248025.003.0013.

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Southeast Asia is a corner of the continent of Asia which ends in an assemblage of peninsulas, archipelagos, and partially enclosed seas. Towards the northwest, the physical contact of this region with the rest of Asia is via a mountainous region that includes the eastern Tibetan Plateau, the eastern Himalaya Mountains, the hills and plateaux of Assam (India) and of Yunnan (China). From this high region a number of large, elongated river basins run north–south or northwest–southeast. These are the basins of rivers such as the Irrawaddy, Salween, Chao Phraya, Mekong, and Sông Hóng (Red). An east–west traverse across the mainland part of Southeast Asia, therefore, is a repetition of alluvium-filled valleys of large rivers separated by mountain chains or plateaux. To the south and to the east are coastal plains, rocky peninsulas, and a number of deltas. Beyond lies the outer margin of Southeast Asia, the arcuate islands of Indonesia, and the Philippines with steep volcanic slopes, intermontane basins, and flat coastal plains of varying size. This assemblage of landforms has resulted from a combination of plate tectonics, Pleistocene history, Holocene geomorphic processes, and anthropogenic modifications of the landscape. Most of the world has been shaped by such a combination, but unlike the rest of the world, in Southeast Asia all four are important. The conventional wisdom of a primarily climate-driven tropical geomorphology is untenable here. The first two factors, plate tectonics and the Pleistocene history, have been discussed in Chapters 1 and 2 respectively. In the Holocene, Southeast Asia has been affected by the following phenomena: • The sea rose to its present level several thousand years ago. • The present natural vegetation, a major part of which includes a set of rainforest formations, achieved its distribution. • A hot and humid climate became the norm, except in the high altitudes and the extreme northern parts. • The dual monsoon systems blowing from the northeast in the northern hemispheric winter and from the southwest in the summer (and in general producing a large volume of precipitation) became strongly developed.
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Seltzer, Geoffrey O. "Late Quaternary Glaciation of the Tropical Andes." In The Physical Geography of South America. Oxford University Press, 2007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195313413.003.0011.

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The effects of climate change are intrinsic features of Earth’s landscapes, and South America is no exception. Abundant evidence bears witness to the changes that have shaped the continent over time—from the glacial tillites inherited from late Paleozoic Gondwana to recent terrigenous sediments and life forms trapped in alluvial, lacustrine, and nearby marine deposits. Preeminent among this evidence are the landforms and sediments derived from the late Cenozoic glaciations of the Andes, which have been the focus of so much recent and ongoing research. Because South America has long been a mainly tropical and subtropical continent, most of it escaped the direct effects of these glaciations. Nevertheless, portions of the continent extend sufficiently far poleward and rise high enough to attract snowfall and promote glaciers today. Glaciers were more emphatically present during Pliocene and Pleistocene cold stages, and it is their legacies that provide information about the changing environments of those times, and more especially of the past 30,000 years. There is evidence for glaciation in the tropical and extratropical Andes as early as Pliocene time (Clapperton, 1993). In southern South America, along the eastern side of the Patagonian Andes, Mercer (1976) dated a series of basalts interbedded with glacial tills that suggest multiple glacial advances after ~3.6 Ma (million years before present). In the La Paz Valley, Bolivia, volcanic ashes dated by K/Ar (potassium/argon) methods are interbedded with glacial tills indicative of at least two phases of glaciation in the late Pliocene, at 3.27 and 2.20 Ma (Clapperton, 1979, 1993). This evidence for early glaciation in disparate parts of the Andes indicates that portions of the cordillera were high enough and climatic variations were great enough in the Pliocene for glaciers to form long before the cold episodes of the Pleistocene. Glacial deposits in Ecuador, Perú, and Bolivia provide evidence for climate variability in tropical South America in the recent geological past. In the late Pleistocene, glacier equilibrium-line altitudes were as much as 1,200 m lower than they are today on the eastern slopes of the Andes, indicative of a significant depression in mean annual temperature in the tropics at maximum glaciation (e.g., Klein et al., 1999).
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Rundel, P. W., and P. E. Villagra. "Arid and Semi-Arid Ecosystems." In The Physical Geography of South America. Oxford University Press, 2007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195313413.003.0018.

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Arid and semi-arid ecosystems in South America are best illustrated by two desert regions, the Peruvian and Atacama Deserts of the Pacific coast and the Monte Desert of central Argentina. The caatinga of northeast Brazil is often described as semi-arid, but mostly receives 500–750 mm of annual rainfall and is better regarded as dry savanna. Small areas of Venezuela and Colombia near the Caribbean coast, and nearby offshore islands, support desert-like vegetation with arborescent cacti, Prosopis, and Capparis, but generally receive up to 500 mm annual rainfall. Substrate conditions, as much or more than climate, determine the desert-like structure and composition of these communities, and thus they are not discussed further here. Extensive areas of Patagonian steppe also have semi-arid conditions, as discussed in chapter 14. The Peruvian and Atacama Deserts form a continuous belt along the west coast of South America, extending 3,500 km from near the northern border of Perú (5°S) to north-central Chile near La Serena (29°55’S), where the Mediterranean- type climate regime becomes dominant. The eastward extent of the Peruvian and Atacama Deserts is strongly truncated where either the coastal ranges or Andean Cordillera rise steeply from the Pacific coast and, as a biogeographic unit, the desert zone may extend from 20 to 100 km or more inland. A calculation of the area covered by these deserts depends in part on how this eastern margin is defined. Thus the Peruvian Desert covers between 80,000 and 144,000 km2, while the Atacama Desert of Chile extends over about 128,000 km2 if the barren lower slopes of the Andes are included. Actual vegetated landscapes are far smaller and for the lomas of Perú change dramatically between years depending on rainfall. Only about 12,000 km2 of the Atacama contain perennial plant communities, largely in the southern portion known as the Norte Chico but also including a narrow coastal belt of lomas extending northward almost to Antofagasta and the Prosopis woodlands of the Pampa del Tamarugal. The vegetated areas of the coastal lomas of Perú and Chile together probably do not exceed 4,000 km2 as a maximum following El Niño rains.
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10

Buol, Stanley W. "Soils." In The Physical Geography of South America. Oxford University Press, 2007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195313413.003.0014.

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Soil is a physical, chemical, and biological medium at the upper surface of Earth’s land areas capable of accepting plant roots and thereby enabling plants to extend their photosynthetic tissues upward and intercept radiant energy from the sun. Each day, chemical and biological activities in soil change in response to temperature and moisture dynamics. Each soil has a range of physical, chemical, and biological properties determined by inherited mineral composition and biogeochemical processes existing in a quasi-steady state of flux. Most primary minerals in soil formed in geologic environments of high temperature and pressure. When exposed to lower temperatures and pressures, meteoric water, and organic compounds near Earth’s surface, primary minerals slowly decompose in response to weathering processes. As primary minerals weather, some elements necessary for plant growth are released as inorganic ions, some reassemble to form secondary silicate and oxide clay minerals, and some elements are lost via dissolution and leaching. After prolonged or intense weathering, few minerals containing elements necessary for plant growth remain. Weathering most often occurs in or slightly below the soil but may not be entirely related to the present soil. Material from which a present soil is formed may have been weathered in a soil environment, and eroded and deposited many times before coming to rest in its present location. Such materials are often almost devoid of nutrient- bearing minerals, and the soils formed provide scant amounts of the elements essential for plant growth. In contrast, minerals exposed to a soil environment for the first time on rapidly eroding slopes, fluvial deposits, or as volcanic ejecta succumb more rapidly to weathering and release essential elements in forms needed by plants. Plants ingest inorganic ions and water from the soil through their roots and combine them with carbon secured as carbon dioxide from the air, and with hydrogen and oxygen from water to form organic tissues. Organic residues are added to the soil as various plant parts, insects, and animals die. Microorganisms in and above the soil then decompose the organic residues, carbon returns to the air as carbon dioxide, and essential elements contained in the organic compounds are released as inorganic ions within the soil.
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Conference papers on the topic "Slope (Physical geography)"

1

McClarty, Edward. "Ground Movement Monitoring of Unstable Pipeline Corridors With Fiber Optic Slope Indicators." In 2008 7th International Pipeline Conference. ASMEDC, 2008. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/ipc2008-64279.

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Spectra Energy Transmission (SET) owns and operates approximately 6,000 kms of raw and sweet natural gas transmission pipelines in northeastern British Columbia and northwestern Alberta. This geographic area is very susceptible to landslides and unstable land mass due principally to the local geological regime. These slope instabilities present long term operational challenges to pipeline companies. Geotechnical pipeline failures are not uncommon and pipeline operators spend significant portions of their operational budgets on geotechnical issues. SET has developed a geotechnical integrity pro
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