Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Snakebot'

Master’s thesis deals with design the link robot and motion simulation. It is divided into four parts. In first part are briefly explained basic information of industrial robots and manipulators, their design and structure. Further it is listed some examples of design industrial robots and manipulators and principle of computation of kinematic chain. On beginning of the second part is performed analysis of configuration link robots, description of their designs and structures, examples of design link robots and their applications. In third part is selected option of design, created mathematical and kinematic model. Then it is designed and described construction of robot. The last section is devoted to simulation of robot’s kinematics, description of simulation softwares and their use for required results.

Snakebite disproportionally affects children living in impoverished rural communities. The WHO has recently reinstated snakebites on its list of Neglected Tropical Diseases and launched a comprehensive Strategy for the Prevention and Control of Snakebite Envenoming. In the first of a two paper series, we describe the epidemiology, socioeconomic impact and key prevention strategies. We also explore current challenges and priorities including the production and distribution of safe and effective antivenom.
Revisión por pares

The epidemiology of snakebite injury in the Amazonian regions of Ecuador Introduction: Morbidity and mortality from snakebite envenomations is a major public health issue in remote areas of under-developed countries. Several attempts have been made to approximate the impact of snakebites worldwide, however these are assumed to be underestimations due to the lack of documentation on the local level. Ecuador's Amazonian region lacks a comprehensive community-based surveillance system, however it is unique in that an aero-medical transport system is in place to transfer the patients requiring hospitalization to one of the five urban medical centers. Beginning in 1998, Servicio Aéreo Misional (SAM), one of the two transport companies serving three of the rural provinces, began documenting flight data including the demographics of patients and their diagnoses. Methods: The SAM database was used to conduct a retrospective study to describe the incidence, patient demographics and geographic location of snakebite injuries in three rural provinces of Ecuador. SPSS was used for frequencies and Chi squares analyses. Results: In the years 2003 to 2005 there were a total of 1,340 aero-medical transports in this region. Of those, snakebite injuries constituted 4.2% of all medical diagnoses. The majority of snakebites occurred in males (p=0.027) aged 10-29 (p<0.001) and were concentrated in the low-lying areas of the province of Morona-Santiago. Discussion: These results describe the distribution of snakebites; efforts are now underway to identify the risk factors involved in this patient population. This information would then be used to optimize prevention and treatment.

Antivenom is the only effective treatment against the systemic effects of snakebite and is currently developed by a century-old immunisation protocol that aims to generate IgGs capable of binding and neutralizing most (if not all) of the venom toxins. However, snake venoms comprise more than a hundred proteins and peptides that exhibit a significant diversity in terms of isoform complexity, toxicity and immunogenicity. Therefore, antivenom doesn’t take into account the representation of venom toxins and contains therapeutically redundant IgGs to non-toxic venom components, and a lack of high titre IgGs to highly toxic, but weakly immunogenic components. The usual consequence of the century old immunisation protocol is the need to administer large volumes to achieve venom-neutralisation in an envenomed patient, which greatly increases the risk of antivenom-induced adverse effects and reduces its affordability. The Alistair Reid Venom Research Unit has pioneered a new approach using the rationale of generating venom toxin‐specific antibodies on the basis that an antivenom that only targets the most pathogenic toxin groups would be predicted to overcome these issues by improving the clinical efficacy of the treatment. Based upon preliminary work illustrating extensive cross‐specific and cross‐generic reactivity of a toxin‐specific antibodies generated against some of the most pathogenic toxin groups of venoms from medically-important species, the overarching aim of the work described in this thesis was to extended this toxin-specific antivenom approach with a view to ultimately generating a therapy against all the African species of the Echis genus. In order to overcome the high isoform diversity known for most of the pathologically-important venom toxin groups, we conducted a bioinformatic interrogation of the venom gland transcriptomes of Echis ocellatus, Echis pyramidum leakeyi and Echis coloratus for five major target toxin groups: Phospholipases A2 (PLA2), Serine proteases (SP) C-type lectins (CTLs), Metalloproteinases (SVMPs) and Disintegrins that identified epitopes on the basis of i) sequence conservation, ii) antigenicity, (iii) surface exposure and (iv) coverage across the EST data. Resultant sequences were synthesised as epitope-strings and subsequently delivered as DNA and recombinant proteins immunogens that in a proteic form successfully generated antibodies capable of binding to a number of reduced venom proteins in a cross-reactive manner, suggesting the presence of specific and generic shared epitopes of importance. The results obtained in this study helped identifying key elements of the toxin-specific approach for the design of antivenoms and highlighted the need to elucidate several aspects of the molecular interaction of the raised antibodies against the target venom proteins, in order to have an accurate approach to their binding in a native state. In addition, the study successfully approached venom glycosylation, and aspect that hasn’t been studied in detail and came apparent during the progress of the toxin specific antivenom gave light in the future stages of its development.

Background: Venomous snakebite and its effects are a source of fear for people living in southern Nepal. As a result, people have developed a negative attitude towards snakes, which can lead to human-snake conflicts that result in killing of snakes. Attempting to kill snakes increases the risk of snakebite, and actual killing of snakes contributes to loss of biodiversity. Currently, snake populations in southern Nepal are thought to be declining, but more research is needed to evaluate the conservation status of snakes. Therefore, we assessed attitudes, knowledge, and awareness of snakes and snakebite by Chitwan National Park's (CNP) buffer zone (BZ) inhabitants in an effort to better understand challenges to snake conservation and snakebite management. The results of this study have the potential to promote biodiversity conservation and increase human health in southern Nepal and beyond. Methods: We carried out face-to-face interviews of 150 randomly selected CNP BZ inhabitants, adopting a cross-sectional mixed research design and structured and semi-structured questionnaires from January-February 2013. Results: Results indicated that 43 % of respondents disliked snakes, 49 % would exterminate all venomous snakes, and 86 % feared snakes. Farmers were the most negative and teachers were the most ambivalent towards snakes. Respondents were generally unable to identify different snake species, and were almost completely unaware of the need of conserve snakes and how to prevent snakebites. Belief in a snake god, and the ability of snakes to absorb poisonous gases from the atmosphere were among many superstitions that appeared to predispose negativity towards snakes of BZ residents. Conclusion: People with predisposed negativity towards snakes were not proponents of snake conservation. Fear, negativity, ambivalence towards, and ignorance about, snakes and the need for snake conservation were strong indicators of the propensity to harm or kill snakes. It seems that if wanton killing of snakes continues, local snake populations will decline, and rare and endangered snake species may even become locally extirpated. Moreover, inappropriate perception and knowledge about snakes and snakebites may put BZ people at increased risk of venomous snakebite. Therefore, intensive, pragmatic educational efforts focused on natural history and ecology of snakes and prevention of snakebite should be undertaken in communities and at schools and universities.

Milk sickness, attributed to a native plant called white snakeroot, was transmitted predominantly from cattle to humans via milk in the nineteenth- and twentieth-centuries in the states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Kentucky, and Tennessee, as well as in remote pockets of North Carolina. Milk sickness was responsible for many deaths throughout the region and is most commonly associated with the death of Nancy Hanks Lincoln, mother of President Abraham Lincoln. Milk sickness was more than an illness; it profoundly reshaped the landscape of an entire region, spawned a lesser-known regional conflict, and highlighted the question of what responsibilities were delegated to public officials as citizens were faced with looming environmental conditions that affected their mortality and economy.

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O envenenamento ofídico, dentre os acidentes com animais peçonhentos é o mais importante deles, pela sua frequência e gravidade. No Brasil, as serpentes do gênero Bothrops são responsáveis por 90 % dos acidentes ofídicos. Os extratos vegetais apresentam uma diversidade de moléculas com diversas ações farmacológicas. As espécies de Clusia são de grande interesse paisagístico, porém duas espécies deste gênero, C. torresii Standl. e C. palmana Standl. apresentam propriedades antiofídicas contra o veneno de B. asper. O objetivo do nosso trabalho foi avaliar as propriedades antiofídicas da espécie Clusia fluminensis Planch & Triana, utilizando diferentes partes vegetais e solventes de diferentes polaridades para o preparo dos extratos, assim como uma benzofenona isolada do extrato hexânico da flor, frente atividades biológicas do veneno de B. jararaca. Ensaios in vitro mostraram que os extratos hexânicos e metanólicos das folhas e frutos, na proporção de 1:50 (veneno:extrato) foram capazes de inibir 100 % a atividade proteolítica do veneno de B. jararaca (9 μg/mL), usando-se azocaseína como substrato; com exceção do extrato hexânico do caule e da benzofenona que inibiram cerca de 50 %. Na atividade hemolítica do veneno de B. jararaca (88 μg/mL), a inibição foi de 40 %, nas proporções de 1:10 e 1:20. Por outro lado, os extratos nestas mesmas proporções não foram capazes de neutralizar a coagulação do plasma induzida pelo veneno de B. jararaca (22 μg/mL), de forma significativa. Em ensaios in vivo (atividade hemorrágica) apenas o extrato acetônico do fruto, na proporção de 1:20, foi capaz de reverter totalmente a hemorragia causada pelo veneno de B. jararaca (16,7 μg/g). Sendo assim, nossos resultados mostram que a planta C. fluminensis pode ser uma fonte de moléculas com propriedades antiofídicas, especificamente contra o veneno de B. jararaca, e que este efeito neutralizante está diretamente relacionado a parte do vegetal e a polaridade do solvente utilizado na extração, Além disso podemos concluir que a benzofenona não é responsável, isoladamente, pelos resultados obtidos
Snake venom poisoning, among accidents with venomous animals is the most important of them, by their frequency and severity. In Brazil, Bothrops are responsible for 90 % of snake bites. The plant extracts have a variety of molecules with several pharmacological actions. Clusia species are of great landscape interest, but two species of this genus, C. torresii Standl. and C. palmana Standl. have properties against snake venom B. asper. The aim of our study was to evaluate the antivenom properties the species Clusia fluminensis Triana & Planch, using different plant parts and solvents of different polarities for the preparation of extracts, as well as a benzophenone isolated from the hexane extract of the flower, against biological activity of the venom of B. jararaca. In vitro assays showed that the hexane and methanolic extracts of leaves and fruits at a ratio of 1:50 (venom: extract) were able to inhibit 100 % proteolytic activity of the venom of B.jararaca (9μg/mL), using azocaseíne as substrate, with the exception of hexanic extract from stem and benzophenone which inhibited about 50 %. In the hemolytic activity of the venom of B. jararaca (88 μg/mL), inhibition was 40 %, the proportions of 1:10 and 1:20. On the other hand, the same proportions in these extracts were not able to neutralize the plasma coagulation induced by the venom of B. jararaca (22 μg/mL) significantly. In vivo assays (hemorrhagic activity) only the acetone extract of the fruit was able to totally reverse bleeding caused by the venom of B. jararaca (16,7 μg/g). Thus, our results show that the plant C. fluminensis can be a source of molecules with neutralizing properties of snake venom, specifically against the venom of B. jararaca, and that the neutralizing effect is directly related to part of the plant and the polarity of the solvent used in extraction, we can also conclude that benzophenone is not responsible alone for the results

Undulatory locomotion is a common and powerful strategy used in nature at different biological scales by a broad range of living organisms, from flagellated bacteria to prehistoric snakes, which have overcome the complexity of living in ”flowable” media. By taking inspiration from this evolution-induced strategy, we aim at modelling the locomotion in a granular and viscous environment with the objective to provide more insights for designing robots for soil-like media exploration. Moreover, in contrast to common types of movement, the granular locomotion is still not well understood and is an open and challenging field. We approached this phenomenon with several tools: (i.) numerically, via coupling the Finite Element Method (FEM) with the Discrete Element Method (DEM) using ABAQUS; (ii.) analytically, by employing the Lagrangian formalism to derive the equations of motion of a discrete and continuous system subject to non-conservative forces, and (iii.) experimentally, by creating an ad-hoc set up in order to observe the migration of microfibres used for the treatment of spinal cord injuries. The computational attempts to model the motion in a granular medium involved the simulation of the dynamics of an elastic beam (FEM) surrounded by rigid spherical particles (DEM). A propulsion mechanism was introduced by sinusoidally forcing the beam’s tip normally to the longitudinal axis, while the performance of the locomotion was evaluated by means of a parametric study. Depending on the parameters of the external excitation, after a transient phase, the slender body reached a steady-state with a constant translational velocity. In order to gain physical insights, we studied a simplified version of the previous continuous beam by introducing a discrete multi-bar system. The dynamics of the latter was analytically derived, by taking into account the forces exchanged between the locomotor and the environment, according to the Resistive Force Theory. By numerically solving the equations of motion and evaluating the input energy and dissipations, we were able to define the efficiency and thus provide an effective tool to optimise the locomotion. It is worth mentioning that the two approaches, despite the different physical hypothesis, show a qualitatively and quantitatively good accordance. The numerical and analytical models previously analysed have shown promising results for the interpretation of "ad-hoc" experiments that demonstrate the migration of a microfibre embedded in a spinal cord-like matrix. This migration needs to be avoided, once the regenerative microfibre is implanted in the lesioned spinal cord, for the sake of the patients health.

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Introduction: Snakebites in some countries are among the 10 leading causes of death and heterologous antivenom is the only effective treatment for over 100 years. However, problems in its production and control until now have not been fully resolved and early and late adverse reactions are common serotherapy. In most case reports, clinical and laboratory findings are related to the subject that had been chopped and received antivenom, so there is the question whether the changes are related only to the action of the venom and also the action of the serum. Studies report evidence that excessive amounts of antivenom are in use, resulting in a high incidence of reactions. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the effect of different antivenoms on liver function in Wistar rats. One hundred and fifty animals were distributed in five groups as follows: group 1 (G1) - received anticrotalic serum for human use; group 2 (G2) - antivenom for human use; group 3 (G3) - serum antibothropic-crotalic for human use; group 4 (G4) - serum antibothropic-crotalic for veterinary use; group 5 (G5 control) - received saline. Serum dosage of alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, gammaglutamyltransferase, alkaline phosphatase and liver histopathology with 2, 8 and 24 hours was performed. The statistical analyzes were performed using analysis of variance with contrasts using the Tukey method, ANOVA and Kruskal-Wallis. The level of significance was 5%. Results: In the groups treated with antivenom, we observed increased alanine aminotransferase and alkaline phosphatase, no change in aspartate aminotransferase and gammaglutamyltransferase, and congestion, decreased glycogen, vacuolar degeneration, Kupffer cell hyperplasia and centrilobular necrosis in the histopathological analysis. Conclusions: The antivenom used in this assay when administered intraperitoneally, caused hepatic changes in Wistar rats, suggesting new studies related to adequacy in conduct as the dose of serum to be used in snakebite, need to produce higher quality sera and greater safety for patients.
Os acidentes ofídicos em alguns países estão entre as 10 principais causas de morte em seres humanos e a soroterapia heteróloga é o único tratamento eficaz há mais de 100 anos. No entanto, problemas na sua produção e controle até hoje não foram totalmente resolvidos e reações adversas precoces e tardias à soroterapia são comuns. Na maioria dos relatos de caso, os achados clínicos e laboratoriais estão relacionados ao sujeito que já havia sido picado e recebido a soroterapia, assim fica a dúvida se as alterações só estão relacionadas à ação do veneno ou também a ação do soro. Estudos relatam evidências que quantidades excessivas de antiveneno estão sendo utilizadas, resultando em uma elevada incidência de reações. Desta forma, este estudo teve como objetivo avaliar a ação de diferentes antivenenos sobre a função hepática em ratos Wistar. Cento e cinqüenta animais foram distribuídos em cinco grupos como se segue: grupo 1 que receberam soro anticrotálico para uso humano; grupo 2 que receberam soro antibotrópico para uso humano; grupo 3 que receberam soro antibotrópico-crotálico para uso humano; grupo 4 que receberam soro antibotrópico-crotálico para uso veterinário; grupo 5 que receberam solução fisiológica. Foi realizado dosagem sérica de alaninoaminotransferase, aspartato aminotransferase, gama glutamiltransferase , fosfatase alcalina e histopatologia do fígado com 2, 8 e 24 horas. Os testes estatisticos utilizados foram de análise de variância com contrastes pelo método de Tukey, Anova e Kruskal-Wallis. O nível de significância adotado foi de 5%. Nos grupos tratados com antiveneno, observou-se aumentou de alanino aminotransferase e da fosfatase alcalina, ausência de alteração de aspartato aminotransferase e gama glutamiltransferase , além de congestão, diminuição de glicogênio, degeneração vacuolar, hiperplasia das células de Kupffer e necrose centrolobular na análise hitopatológica. Os antivenenos utilizados neste ensaio, quando administrados por via intraperitoneal, na dose de 2 mL, causaram alterações hepáticas em ratos Wistar, sugerindo assim novos estudos relacionados a adequação da conduta quanto a dose de soro a ser usada no acidente ofídico, necessidade de produção de soros de maior qualidade e de maior segurança aos pacientes.

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Venomous animals accidents are of great importance in any Country especially due to the significant number of people involved and the relevance of these accidents. There is an annual average of 24,000 snakebite accidents in Brasil and from these 1% are related to the genus Micrurus, which represents the true coralsnakes. In this study I evaluated the biological aspects of the accidents caused by coralsnakes in Brasil, including aspects related to municipality, sex and age of the patients, time between the accident and the first medical evaluation and biological and toxinological diversity. I analyzed 787 reports available in the SINAN electronic system, from 2007 to 2010. According to the data, 691 patients were discharged as totally healed, three died, and 93 were reported as no data available. The majority of the accidents were reported from the northeast region (52%). The time between 0 and 3 hours for the first medical evaluation is a general rule for the whole Country which contributes for a satisfactory result of the treatment. The clinical cases available in the literature show that the coralsnake envenomation may or may not present symptoms, however the administration of the anti-coralsnake serum is recommended in all cases as all are considered as grave. From the 27 described species of coralsnakes for Brasil 20 occur in the northern region and, among them, nothing is known about the venom composition of at least 13 species. In a long term this might become a problem as the immunization pool for antivenin production is based only in three species. The study of biology and natural history of this group is important to facilitate the maintenance of these animals in captivity. It is also necessary to evaluate the antigenic pool and verify the efficacy of the antivenin against all species.
Os acidentes por animais peçonhentos têm grande importância médico sanitária no país. No Brasil ocorre uma média anual de 24.000 acidentes com serpentes peçonhentas, desses, 1% com o gênero Micrurus, representado pelas cobras corais verdadeiras. Neste trabalho foram avaliados os aspectos biológicos dos acidentes causados por cobras corais no Brasil, incluindo aspectos relacionados com o município e região brasileira, sexo e faixa etária dos acidentados, tempo decorrido entre o acidente e o atendimento, diversidade biológica e toxinológica. Foram analisadas as informações de 787 notificações disponíveis no sistema eletrônico do SINAN, no período de 2007 a 2010. De acordo com os dados, 691 pacientes foram liberados totalmente curados, três vieram a óbito, e 93 não há informação. A maioria dos acidentes foram registrados na região Nordeste do país (52%). O intervalo de zero a três horas entre acidente e atendimento, prevalece em alta para todas as regiões, o que contribui para um resultado satisfatório do tratamento. Os casos clínicos disponíveis na literatura mostram que o envenenamento elapídico pode apresentar sintomatologia ou não, porém a administração do soro antielapídico é recomendada em todos os casos, pois todos são considerados graves. Das 27 espécies de cobras corais descritas para o Brasil, 20 ocorrem na região norte, dentre elas, não se conhece o veneno de 13 espécies. A longo prazo esse pode ser um problema diante do pool de imunização para a produção de soro, que é composto por somente três espécies. O estudo da biologia e história natural desse grupo é importante para facilitar a manutenção desses animais em cativeiro. É necessário também, a avaliação do pool antigênico para verificar a eficácia do antiveneno para todas as espécies.

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This study evaluated the effects of the venom from Crotalus durissus terrificus and snakebite serum on the clinical signs and liver function in 120 Wistar rats by performing physical examinations, laboratory and histopathology tests. The animals were divided into four experimental groups of thirty animals in each group. The control group (C) - received only solution of sodium chloride 0.9%; Group venom (V) - received 1mg/kg venom; Group snakebite serum (S) - received the indicated dose snakebite serum to neutralize the poison; Poison and serum group (VS) - received venom and the snakebite serum six hours later. The clinical evaluation and specimen obtained for laboratory and histological examinations were performed at time 2 hours, 8 hours and 24 hours in all groups. It was observed for the S Group elevation of serum enzyme alkaline phosphatase (FA), inflammatory reaction, changes in Kupffer cells, necrosis and hyaline degeneration; Group V heart rate decrease over time, increase in rectal temperature (TR), increased FA, increase of serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST), inflammatory infiltrate, changes in Kupffer cells, necrosis and hyaline degeneration; Group VS increased TR and also respiratory rate, elevated serum FA, AST and alanine aminotransferase (ALT), inflammatory reaction, changes in Kupffer cells, necrosis and hyaline degeneration. The results indicate that the venom and snakebite serum alter the clinical parameters and cause liver damage at the doses and times studied. However, further studies with the venom and antivenom to be able to understand the effect of time and changes in the percentage contribution of hepatotoxicity in serum isolated. In addition, to investigate the need for additional treatments to protect the liver.
Este estudo avaliou os efeitos hepatotóxicos do veneno de Crotalus durissus terrificus e soro antiofídico em 120 ratos Wistar, através da realização de exames físico, laboratorial e histopatológico. Os animais foram divididos em quatro grupos experimentais, com trinta animais em cada grupo, sendo: grupo controle (C) - recebeu solução de cloreto de sódio 0,9%; grupo veneno (V) - recebeu veneno crotálico 1mg/Kg; grupo soro antiofídico (S) - recebeu soro antiofídico na dose indicada para neutralizar o veneno; grupo veneno e soro (VS) - recebeu veneno crotálico e após 6 horas o soro antiofídico. A avaliação clínica e a colheita de material para exames laboratorial e histopatológico do fígado foram realizadas nos momentos 2 horas (n=10), 8 horas (n=10) e 24 horas (n=10) para todos os grupos. Observou-se para o grupo S elevação sérica da enzima fosfatase alcalina (FA), infiltrado inflamatório, alterações nas células de Kupffer, necrose e degeneração de hialina; Grupo V diminuição da frequência cardíaca no decorrer do tempo, aumento na temperatura retal (TR), elevação da FA, elevação sérica da aspartato aminotransferase (AST), infiltrado inflamatório, alterações nas células de Kupffer, necrose e degeneração de hialina; Grupo VS aumento da TR e na frequência respiratória, elevação sérica da FA, elevação sérica da AST, elevação sérica da alanina aminotransferase (ALT), infiltrado inflamatório, alterações nas células de Kupffer, necrose e degeneração de hialina. Os resultados encontrados indicam que o veneno crotálico e o soro antiofídico, associados ou não, alteram os parâmetros clínicos e provocam danos hepáticos nas doses e momentos estudados. No entanto, são necessários novos estudos com o veneno crotálico e a soroterapia para que se possa entender o efeito do tempo nas alterações e a porcentagem de contribuição do soro isolado na hepatotoxicidade. Além disso, investigar a necessidade de tratamentos complementares para a proteção hepática.

The snakebite is a public health problem worldwide, especially in tropical countries. The objective of this study was to investigate the mechanisms involved in the effect of hydroethanolic extract of the stem bark Abarema cochliacarpos (EAc) in muscle injury induced by Bothrops leucurus. Male swiss mice were used (28-32g ; n= 6 groups), where they received perimuscular injection Bothrops leucurus venom (BlV 1 mg/Kg/paw Volume 50 ìl) the right hind limb, treated orally (po), with vehicle (saline) or EAc (100, 200 or 400 mg / kg). In the mechanical hypernociception animals were evaluated in time 2, 4 and 6 hours using digital analgesymeter (von Frey). Edema activity in the animals were evaluated at 15, 30, 60 and 90 minutes, using a digital caliper. Have motor activity was assessed by the rota -rod test and the animals were evaluated at 1, 3 and 7 days. Histological evaluation extensor digitorum longus muscle (EDL) was isolated, removed, fixed, paraffin emblocado (Optical Microscopy) and resin (Electron Microscopy) and cut. Tissues were stained with hematoxylin and eosin and observed under optical and electron microscopy and subsequently photographed. The experimental protocols were approved by the ethical committee for animal research at UFS (CEPA: 61/12). The results were analyzed using followed by Student.s t-test. The treatment orally with EAc (400 mg / kg ) inhibited mechanical hypernociception (2h 5.1 ± 0.76, 5.70 ± 0.65 4h, 6h 5.93 ± 0.49, (p < 0, 05) compared with the BlV venom group (2h 2.08 ± 0.33; 4h 2.28 ± 0.18; 6h 2.52 ± 0.24). The inhibition of edema was also seen in activity with EAc (400 mg / kg) (15 min 15.35 ± 0.27; 30 min 12.63 ± 0.69; 60 min 9.38 ± 0,29 and 90 min 6.83 ± 0.66, p < 0.05) compared with the BlV venom group (15 min 29.7 ± 0.17; 30 min 25.8 ± 0.26; 60 min 20.15 ± 0.24 and 90 min 14.76 ± 0.21). Regarding motor activity, the EAc (400 mg / kg) preserved motor ability (1day 83.22 ± 0.46; 3 days 98.02 ± 0.20 and 7 days 119.24 ± 0.48, p < 0.05) compared to the BlV venom group (1 day 20.03 ± 0.26, 3 days 35.22 ± 0.36 and 7 days 111.21 ± 0.18). Histological analysis showed an protection of muscle injury after administration of EAc (400 mg / kg), maintaining muscle fibers. Our results demonstrated that EAc inhibited the harmful effects of the venom, suggesting that this compound has biotechnological potential in adjuvant treatment of snakebite.
O ofidismo e um problema de saude publica em todo o mundo, especialmente nos paises tropicais. O objetivo deste trabalho foi de investigar os mecanismos envolvidos no efeito do extrato hidroetanolico da entrecasca da Abarema cochliacarpos (EAc) (popularmente conhecida como gbarbatimao h) na lesao muscular induzida pelo veneno de Bothrops leucurus (BlV). Foram utilizados camundongos Swiss machos (28-32 g; n=6 por grupo), que receberam injecao perimuscular do veneno Bothrops leucurus (BlV . 1 mg/Kg/pata . Volume 50 Êl) no membro posterior direito, tratados por via oral (v.o.), com veiculo (solucao salina) ou EAc (100, 200 ou 400 mg/kg). Na hipernocicepcao mecanica os animais foram avaliados nos tempos 2, 4 e 6 horas, utilizando o analgesimetro digital (Von Frey). Na atividade edematogenica os animais foram avaliados nos tempos 15, 30, 60 e 90 minutos, utilizando o paquimetro digital. Ja atividade motora foi avaliada pelo teste de rota-rod e os animais foram avaliados em 1, 3 e 7 dias. Na avaliacao histologica o musculo Extensor digitorum longus (EDL) foi isolado, retirado, fixado, emblocado com parafina (Microscopia optica) e resina (Microscopia eletronica) e cortados. Os tecidos foram corados com hematoxilina- eosina e observados ao microscopio optico e eletronico e posteriormente fotografados. Os protocolos experimentais foram aprovados pelo comite de etica em pesquisa com animais da UFS (CEPA: 61/12). Os resultados foram analisados utilizando o teste Student.S t-test. O tratamento, por v.o, com EAc (400 mg/Kg) inibiu a hipernocicepcao mecanica, (2h 5,1 }0,76; 4h 5,70 }0,65; 6h 5,93 }0,49; p<0,05) quando comparados aos animais do grupo BlV (veneno) (2h 2,08 }0,33; 4h 2,28 }0,18; 6h 2,52 }0,24). A inibicao tambem foi verificada na atividade edematogenica, com EAc (400 mg/kg), (15 min. 15,35 }0,27; 30 min. 12,63 }0,69; 60 min. 9,38 }0,29 e 90 min. 6,83 }0,66; p<0,05), quando comparados aos animais do grupo BlV (veneno) (15 min. 29,7 }0,17; 30 min. 25,8 }0,26; 60 min. 20,15 }0,24 e 90 min. 14,76 }0,21). Quanto a atividade motora, o EAc (400 mg/Kg) preservou a capacidade motora (1 dia 83,22 }0,46; 3 dias 98,02 }0,20 e 7 dias 119,24 }0,48; p<0,05), comparados ao grupo BlV (veneno) (1 dia 20,03 }0,26; 3 dias 35,22 }0,36 e 7 dias 111,21 }0,18). Na analise histologica verificou-se uma protecao da lesao muscular apos administracao do EAc (400 mg/Kg), preservando as fibras musculares. Nossos resultados demonstraram que o EAc inibiu os efeitos nocivos do veneno, sugerindo que este composto apresenta potencial biotecnologico no tratamento coadjuvante do ofidismo.

The author wrote a dissertation for the Mmed Sc degree entitled The Clinical Natural History of Snakebite in Southern Africa, which dealt with the epidemiology of snakebite and the clinico-pathological events in snakebite victims. This thesis is a sequel on the management of snakebite victims. Publications on the overall management of snakebite in the Southern African region that include original scientific research are those of F.W. Fitzsimons (1912), F.W. Fitzsimons (1929) (assisted by V.F.M. Fitzsimons), P.A. Christensen (1955, 1966, 1969) and Christensen & Anderson (1967). Subsequent books, pamphlets and journal articles have rehashed this knowledge or advocated methods of treatment developed in other countries. An example of the latter is the pressure immobilisation prehospital measure advocated for snakebites in Australia (Sutherland et aL, 1979, 1981, 1995), which I regard as benefiting less than 1% of snakebite victims here and being deleterious in most cases. In view of the paucity of research done in Southern African in recent years, many questions remain unanswered, and some strongly held views are without logical or scientific foundation. Most of these questions arose prior to the writing of this thesis, and others arose when the data were analysed. The following are some questions on the management of snakebite that have still have to be addressed. Is vaccination against snakebite possible and practical? Are folk and traditional remedies advantageous or deleterious? How commonly are they used? Immobilisation of the bitten part and the patient is an internationally recognised aid measure, but is this relevant to the Southern African situation? Tourniquet use in the case of necrotising venoms is considered to aggravate or precipitate necrosis. Does immediate active movement following a bite ameliorate or prevent necrosis without increasing mortality? The majority of clinicians recommend antibiotic prophylaxis, but is this necessary for all snakebites, against which bacteria should antibiotics be administered, and what is the source of these bacteria? Should antivenom be administered to all snakebite victims: for species-specific bites, only if envenomation is present, for severe envenomation, or not at all? Acute adverse reactions to South African manufactured snakebite antivenom has been variously recorded as less than 1% (Visser & Chapman 1978) up to 76% (Moran et al., 1998). What is the truth? Is syndromic management of snakebite efficacious or is it essential to identify the particular snake species? Is the present liberal use of fasciotomy necessary? Is there an optimum time to debride necrotic areas and is surgery necessary at all? Is paresis or paralysis due to neurotoxic envenomation always the result of a post-synaptic block? Would such a block respond to neostigmine or prostigmine in a similar way to post-synaptic anaesthetic muscle relaxants? Is heparin of value when procoagulant toxins induce a consumption coagulopathy? Do fibrinstabilising agents or fibrinolytics have a role? Does the management of pregnant snakebite patients differ from that of non-pregnant patients? Is snake venom teratogenic? Does snake venom ophthalmia frequently lead to blindness? Are steroids, NSAIDs and antihistaminics, which are commonly used in the management of snakebite, of proven value? This thesis attempts to answer these questions and more, and comprises six sections. The first section deals with pre-hospital management, the second with infection which may occur at the bite site wound, the third with SAIMR snakebite antivenom, the fourth with the three envenomation syndromes, the fifth with snakebite in pregnancy, venom ophthalmia and other treatment modalities, and the sixth section includes a summary, appendix and references. Unless otherwise stated, the materials and methods of each chapter are based on 336 snakebite victims admitted to Eshowe Hospital, KwaZulu-Natal, from January 1990 - July 1993 and other victims treated by the author, the data of which have been prospectively maintained. This has been an ongoing process up to the present time.
Thesis (MMedSc.)-University of Natal, 2000.

Bibliography: leaves 515-531
The Brooklyn Papyrus (47.218.48 and 47.218.85) is the handbook of the Priests of Serqet who were called upon to treat snakebite victims in ancient Egypt. The first part of the Brooklyn Papyrus describes various snakes encountered by the ancient Egyptians, and the effects of the bites of these snakes. The second part of the Papyrus contains the numerous treatments that were used to treat the snakebite victims. The primary question of the thesis is to address how the ancient Egyptians treated snakebite victims; and if it is possible to identify the snakes that they encountered, as treatment often hinges on this identification. Additional questions are addressed, namely: What is the Brooklyn Papyrus exactly and what is its background? How does the Brooklyn Papyrus compare to the well-known ancient Egyptian medical papyri? How does the snakebite treatment of the ancient Egyptians compare to that of today’s treatment protocol? In order to answer these questions, this thesis provides my transliteration of the hieroglyphic writing into Latin script, and my translation into English, based on the hieratic to hieroglyphic transliteration done by Serge Sauneron in the late 1960s, and published in 1989 as Un Traité Egyptien d’Ophiologie. The primary aim of this thesis is to provide a transliteration and full English translation of the Brooklyn Papyrus, as none is currently available. It is clear that from the translation that one can discover exactly how snakebite was treated in ancient Egypt: what medicinal ingredients were used and how the patient was treated. Furthermore, from the text describing the snakes and the effects of their bites, one can indeed attempt to identify the species of snakes. It is also apparent from the Brooklyn Papyrus that the ancient Egyptians did recognise and accurately describe many effects of snakebite on the human body, as well as the different types of bite wounds: and they also understood the importance of being able to identify a species of snake as it very often impacted on the treatment to be prescribed—exactly as snakebite treatment is considered in medicine today
Biblical and Ancient studies
D. Litt. et Phil. (Ancient Near Eastern Studies)

碩士
國立臺灣大學
生化科學研究所
96
The snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs) are abundant in snake venoms and have been considered as the key toxins involved in snake venom-induced pathogenesis, such as hemorrhage, edema and mortality. According to their primary structures, SVMPs can be classfied into three categories. Here I cloned a novel P-III class SVMP from the cDNA prepared from the Walterinnesia aegyptia venom glands and determined its cDNA sequence and full amino acid sequence. By phylogenetic analysis this P-III was found to be a non-hemorrhagic SVMP, and is most similar to the P-III SVMPs from Asian and African cobra venom. Since 1970, Chinese researchers have developed the First-Aid Kit injecting trypsin solution to the bite area for snakebite treatments.The treatment has been ineffective against viper’s snakebites, Here I tried to find better protease to replace trypsin for snakebite treatment. I also looked into possible improvement of the non-antiserum or preliminary snakebite treatment. For in vitro analyses using SDS-PAGE, I have chosen crude venom of three medically important species as the substrates : Calloselasma rhodostoma, Crotalus viridis viridis and Naja atra, and compared the efficiencies of trypsin and Subtilisin Carlsberg (STC) to degrade these venom. Results of these in vitro experiments showed that STC was better than trypsin in the hydrolysis of snake venom, especially when was also included EDTA. Besides, we found that SVMPs in viper snake venom were rather resistant to trypsin digestion. Furthermore, we used mice as a model to study the pain level and protection effect of STC and EDTA after injecting C. rhodostoma venom (CRV). It was found that SVMPs in CRV may be the source of pain. When first aid treatment by EDTA together with various level of STC was given within 15 min after envenomation, the lethality of venom was reduced, and skin necrosis and pain level of the mice were reduced when EDTA and/or STC was given within 5 min after the venom injection. These data confirm that the first-aid treatment have potential to be useful for snakebite treatment. Further refinement of antidose, e.g. EDTA and lower dose of STC; or EDTA plus hyaluronidase inhibitor.