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1
Zaidi, Shadab, Martina Maselli, Cecilia Laschi, and Matteo Cianchetti. "Actuation Technologies for Soft Robot Grippers and Manipulators: A Review." Current Robotics Reports 2, no. 3 (2021): 355–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s43154-021-00054-5.
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Abstract Purpose of Review The new paradigm of soft robotics has been widely developed in the international robotics community. These robots being soft can be used in applications where delicate yet effective interaction is necessary. Soft grippers and manipulators are important, and their actuation is a fundamental area of study. The main purpose of this work is to provide readers with fast references to actuation technologies for soft robotic grippers in relation to their intended application. Recent Findings The authors have surveyed recent findings on actuation technologies for soft grippers. They presented six major kinds of technologies which are either used independently for actuation or in combination, e.g., pneumatic actuation combined with electro-adhesion, for certain applications. Summary A review on the latest actuation technologies for soft grippers and manipulators is presented. Readers will get a guide on the various methods of technology utilization based on the application.
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Khuyen, Nguyen Quang, Rudolf Kiefer, Fred Elhi, Gholamreza Anbarjafari, Jose G. Martinez, and Tarmo Tamm. "A Biomimetic Approach to Increasing Soft Actuator Performance by Friction Reduction." Polymers 12, no. 5 (2020): 1120. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/polym12051120.
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While increasing power output is the most straight-forward solution for faster and stronger motion in technology, sports, or elsewhere, efficiency is what separates the best from the rest. In nature, where the possibilities of power increase are limited, efficiency of motion is particularly important; the same principle can be applied to the emerging biomimetic and bio-interacting technologies. In this work, by applying hints from nature, we consider possible approaches of increasing the efficiency of motion through liquid medium of bilayer ionic electroactive polymer actuations, focusing on the reduction of friction by means of surface tension and hydrophobicity. Conducting polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bilayers were chosen as the model actuator system. The actuation medium consisted of aqueous solutions containing tetramethylammonium chloride and sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate in different ratios. The roles of ion concentrations and the surface tension are discussed. Hydrophobicity of the PET support layer was further tuned by adding a spin-coated silicone layer to it. As expected, both approaches increased the displacement—the best results having been obtained by combining both, nearly doubling the bending displacement. The simple approaches for greatly increasing actuation motion efficiency can be used in any actuator system operating in a liquid medium.
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Xiang, Chaoqun, Jianglong Guo, Rujie Sun, et al. "Electroactive Textile Actuators for Breathability Control and Thermal Regulation Devices." Polymers 11, no. 7 (2019): 1199. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/polym11071199.
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Smart fabrics offer the potential for a new generation of soft robotics and wearable technologies through the fusion of smart materials, textiles and electrical circuitries. Conductive and stretchable textiles have inherent compliance and low resistance that are suitable for driving artificial muscle actuators and are potentially safer electrode materials for soft actuation technologies. We demonstrate how soft electroactive actuating structures can be designed and fabricated from conducting textiles. We first quantitatively analyse a range of stretchable conductive textiles for dielectric elastomer actuators (DEAs). We found that conductive-knit textiles are more suitable for unidirectional DEA applications due to the largest difference (150%) in principle strain axes, whereas isotropic textiles are more suited to bidirectional DEA applications due to the smallest (11.1%) principle strain difference. Finally, we demonstrate controllable breathability through a planar e-textile DEA-driven skin and show thermal regulation in a wearable prototype that exploits soft actuation and kirigami.
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Higueras-Ruiz, Diego R., Kiisa Nishikawa, Heidi Feigenbaum, and Michael Shafer. "What is an artificial muscle? A comparison of soft actuators to biological muscles." Bioinspiration & Biomimetics 17, no. 1 (2021): 011001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-3190/ac3adf.
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Abstract Interest in emulating the properties of biological muscles that allow for fast adaptability and control in unstructured environments has motivated researchers to develop new soft actuators, often referred to as ‘artificial muscles’. The field of soft robotics is evolving rapidly as new soft actuator designs are published every year. In parallel, recent studies have also provided new insights for understanding biological muscles as ‘active’ materials whose tunable properties allow them to adapt rapidly to external perturbations. This work presents a comparative study of biological muscles and soft actuators, focusing on those properties that make biological muscles highly adaptable systems. In doing so, we briefly review the latest soft actuation technologies, their actuation mechanisms, and advantages and disadvantages from an operational perspective. Next, we review the latest advances in understanding biological muscles. This presents insight into muscle architecture, the actuation mechanism, and modeling, but more importantly, it provides an understanding of the properties that contribute to adaptability and control. Finally, we conduct a comparative study of biological muscles and soft actuators. Here, we present the accomplishments of each soft actuation technology, the remaining challenges, and future directions. Additionally, this comparative study contributes to providing further insight on soft robotic terms, such as biomimetic actuators, artificial muscles, and conceptualizing a higher level of performance actuator named artificial supermuscle. In conclusion, while soft actuators often have performance metrics such as specific power, efficiency, response time, and others similar to those in muscles, significant challenges remain when finding suitable substitutes for biological muscles, in terms of other factors such as control strategies, onboard energy integration, and thermoregulation.
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Cai, Guofa, Jing-Hao Ciou, Yizhi Liu, Yi Jiang, and Pooi See Lee. "Leaf-inspired multiresponsive MXene-based actuator for programmable smart devices." Science Advances 5, no. 7 (2019): eaaw7956. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aaw7956.
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Natural leaves, with elaborate architectures and functional components, harvest and convert solar energy into chemical fuels that can be converted into energy based on photosynthesis. The energy produced leads to work done that inspired many autonomous systems such as light-triggered motion. On the basis of this nature-inspired phenomenon, we report an unprecedented bilayer-structured actuator based on MXene (Ti3C2Tx)–cellulose composites (MXCC) and polycarbonate membrane, which mimic not only the sophisticated leaf structure but also the energy-harvesting and conversion capabilities. The bilayer actuator features multiresponsiveness, low-power actuation, fast actuation speed, large-shape deformation, programmable adaptability, robust stability, and low-cost facile fabrication, which are highly desirable for modern soft actuator systems. We believe that these adaptive soft systems are attractive in a wide range of revolutionary technologies such as soft robots, smart switch, information encryption, infrared dynamic display, camouflage, and temperature regulation, as well as human-machine interface such as haptics.
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Li, Weidong, Diangang Hu, and Lei Yang. "Actuation Mechanisms and Applications for Soft Robots: A Comprehensive Review." Applied Sciences 13, no. 16 (2023): 9255. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app13169255.
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Soft robots, which exhibit distinguishing features in terms of compliance, adaptability, and safety, have been expansively adopted in various niche applications. For soft robots, innovative actuators have been designed based on smart materials enabling the robots to perform flexible and versatile functions, whereas extra spaces and accessories to accommodate motors and power devices have been eliminated to achieve structural optimisation. Herein, different types of actuation mechanisms for soft robots are summarised to reflect the state-of-the-art research and applications. Major characteristics of the actuation mechanisms are updated. Design methodologies of the actuation mechanisms are discussed in detail. Furthermore, their advantages, disadvantages, and application potential are compared and summarised. In the end, based on our knowledge and understanding, new thoughts and recommendations to further develop the actuation mechanisms are put forward. This review is useful to support the conclusion that, through incorporating actuation mechanisms and advanced intelligent technologies, soft robots tend to create disruptive innovations in applications.
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Terrile, Silvia, Miguel Argüelles, and Antonio Barrientos. "Comparison of Different Technologies for Soft Robotics Grippers." Sensors 21, no. 9 (2021): 3253. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s21093253.
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Soft grippers have experienced a growing interest due to their considerable flexibility that allows them to grasp a variety of objects, in contrast to hard grippers, which are designed for a specific item. One of their most remarkable characteristics is the ability to manipulate soft objects without damaging them. This, together with their wide range of applications and the use of novels materials and technologies, renders them a very robust device. In this paper, we present a comparison of different technologies for soft robotics grippers. We fabricated and tested four grippers. Two use pneumatic actuation (the gripper with chambered fingers and the jamming gripper), while the other two employ electromechanical actuation (the tendon driver gripper and the gripper with passive structure). For the experiments, a group of twelve objects with different mechanical and geometrical properties have been selected. Furthermore, we analyzed the effect of the environmental conditions on the grippers, by testing each object in three different environments: normal, humid, and dusty. The aim of this comparative study is to show the different performances of different grippers tested under the same conditions. Our findings indicate that we can highlight that the mechanical gripper with a passive structure shows greater robustness.
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Shimizu, Keita, Toshiaki Nagai, and Jun Shintake. "Dielectric Elastomer Fiber Actuators with Aqueous Electrode." Polymers 13, no. 24 (2021): 4310. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/polym13244310.
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Dielectric elastomer actuators (DEAs) are one of the promising actuation technologies for soft robotics. This study proposes a fiber-shaped DEA, namely dielectric elastomer fiber actuators (DEFAs). The actuator consisted of a silicone tube filled with the aqueous electrode (sodium chloride solution). Furthermore, it could generate linear and bending actuation in a water environment, which acts as the ground side electrode. Linear-type DEFA and bending-type DEFA were fabricated and characterized to prove the concept. A mixture of Ecoflex 00–30 (Smooth-On) and Sylgard 184 (Dow Corning) was employed in these actuators for the tube part, which was 75.0-mm long with outer and inner diameters of 6.0 mm and 5.0 mm, respectively. An analytical model was constructed to design and predict the behavior of the devices. In the experiments, the linear-type DEFA exhibited an actuation strain and force of 1.3% and 42.4 mN, respectively, at 10 kV (~20 V/µm) with a response time of 0.2 s. The bending-type DEFA exhibited an actuation angle of 8.1° at 10 kV (~20 V/µm). Subsequently, a jellyfish-type robot was developed and tested, which showed the swimming speed of 3.1 mm/s at 10 kV and the driving frequency of 4 Hz. The results obtained in this study show the successful implementation of the actuator concept and demonstrate its applicability for soft robotics.
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Guo, Zhiqin. "A review of upper-limb soft exosuit." Theoretical and Natural Science 13, no. 1 (2023): 51–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.54254/2753-8818/13/20240778.
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A rigid exoskeleton has been developed for decades, and its feasibility has been proven in many areas, such as rehabilitation. Unlike the rigid exoskeleton, the soft exosuit provides a new insight for wearable robotics development and has drawn much attention as the external muscles instead of exoskeletons, especially for supporting users activities of daily living (ADL) and human body augmentation. This paper reviews the upper-limb soft exosuit studies in the last three years, including the core technologies and the current challenges that need to be addressed. Then, the actuator designs were described, including motor-tendon unit, pneumatic artificial muscle, hydraulic artificial muscle, and textile-based actuation. Their advantages and disadvantages were given and the applications were listed. Also, as the other part of core technologies described in this paper, the controller design which contains low-level and high-level control was discussed. Finally, the challenges were listed, which could be the further directions of research.
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Huang, Zixin, Xinpeng Li, Jiarun Wang, Yi Zhang, and Jingfu Mei. "Human Pulse Detection by a Soft Tactile Actuator." Sensors 22, no. 13 (2022): 5047. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s22135047.
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Soft sensing technologies offer promising prospects in the fields of soft robots, wearable devices, and biomedical instruments. However, the structural design, fabrication process, and sensing algorithm design of the soft devices confront great difficulties. In this paper, a soft tactile actuator (STA) with both the actuation function and sensing function is presented. The tactile physiotherapy finger of the STA was fabricated by a fluid silica gel material. Before pulse detection, the tactile physiotherapy finger was actuated to the detection position by injecting compressed air into its chamber. The pulse detecting algorithm, which realized the pulse detection function of the STA, is presented. Finally, in actual pulse detection experiments, the pulse values of the volunteers detected by using the STA and by employing a professional pulse meter were close, which illustrates the effectiveness of the pulse detecting algorithm of the STA.
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Greco, Carlo, Thilina H. Weerakkody, Venanzio Cichella, Leonardo Pagnotta, and Caterina Lamuta. "Lightweight Bioinspired Exoskeleton for Wrist Rehabilitation Powered by Twisted and Coiled Artificial Muscles." Robotics 12, no. 1 (2023): 27. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/robotics12010027.
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Stroke, cerebral palsy, and spinal cord injuries represent the most common leading causes of upper limb impairment. In recent years, rehabilitation robotics has progressed toward developing wearable technologies to promote the portability of assistive devices and to enable home rehabilitation of the upper extremities. However, current wearable technologies mainly rely on electric motors and rigid links or soft pneumatic actuators and are usually bulky and cumbersome. To overcome the limitations of existing technologies, in this paper, a first prototype of a lightweight, ungrounded, soft exoskeleton for wrist rehabilitation powered by soft and flexible carbon fibers-based twisted and coiled artificial muscles (TCAMs) is proposed. The device, which weighs only 0.135 kg, emulates the arrangement and working mechanism of skeletal muscles in the upper extremities and is able to perform wrist flexion/extension and ulnar/radial deviation. The range of motion and the force provided by the exoskeleton is designed through simple kinematic and dynamic theoretical models, while a thermal model is used to design a thermal insulation system for TCAMs during actuation. The device’s ability to perform passive and active-resisted wrist rehabilitation exercises and EMG-based actuation is also demonstrated.
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Fitzgerald, Seth G., Gary W. Delaney, and David Howard. "A Review of Jamming Actuation in Soft Robotics." Actuators 9, no. 4 (2020): 104. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/act9040104.
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Jamming is a popular and versatile soft robotic mechanism, enabling new systems to be developed that can achieve high stiffness variation with minimal volume variation. Numerous applications have been reported, including deep-sea sampling, industrial gripping, and use as paws for legged locomotion. This review explores the state-of-the-art for the three classes of jamming actuator: granular, layer and fibre jamming. We highlight the strengths and weaknesses of these soft robotic systems and propose opportunities for further development. We describe a number of trends, promising avenues for innovative research, and several technology gaps that could push the field forwards if addressed, including the lack of standardization for evaluating the performance of jamming systems. We conclude with perspectives for future studies in soft jamming robotics research, particularly elucidating how emerging technologies, including multi-material 3D printing, can enable the design and creation of increasingly diverse and high-performance soft robotic mechanisms for a myriad of new application areas.
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Yang, Han-Wen, Nien-Tzu Yeh, Tzu-Ching Chen, Yu-Chun Yeh, I.-Chi Lee, and Yi-Chen Ethan Li. "A Printable Magnetic-Responsive Iron Oxide Nanoparticle (ION)-Gelatin Methacryloyl (GelMA) Ink for Soft Bioactuator/Robot Applications." Polymers 16, no. 1 (2023): 25. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/polym16010025.
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The features or actuation behaviors of nature’s creatures provide concepts for the development of biomimetic soft bioactuators/robots with stimuli-responsive capabilities, design convenience, and environmental adaptivity in various fields. Mimosa pudica is a mechanically responsive plant that can convert pressure to the motion of leaves. When the leaves receive pressure, the occurrence of asymmetric turgor in the extensor and flexor sides of the pulvinus from redistributing the water in the pulvinus causes the bending of the pulvinus. Inspired by the actuation of Mimosa pudica, designing soft bioactuators can convert external stimulations to driving forces for the actuation of constructs which has been receiving increased attention and has potential applications in many fields. 4D printing technology has emerged as a new strategy for creating versatile soft bioactuators/robots by integrating printing technologies with stimuli-responsive materials. In this study, we developed a hybrid ink by combining gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) polymers with iron oxide nanoparticles (IONs). This hybrid ION-GelMA ink exhibits tunable rheology, controllable mechanical properties, magnetic-responsive behaviors, and printability by integrating the internal metal ion-polymeric chain interactions and photo-crosslinking chemistries. This design offers the inks a dual crosslink mechanism combining the advantages of photocrosslinking and ionic crosslinking to rapidly form the construct within 60 s of UV exposure time. In addition, the magnetic-responsive actuation of ION-GelMA constructs can be regulated by different ION concentrations (0–10%). Furthermore, we used the ION-GelMA inks to fabricate a Mimosa pudica-like soft bioactuator through a mold casting method and a direct-ink-writing (DIW) printing technology. Obviously, the pinnule leaf structure of printed constructs presents a continuous reversible shape transformation in an air phase without any liquid as a medium, which can mimic the motion characteristics of natural creatures. At the same time, compared to the model casting process, the DIW printed bioactuators show a more refined and biomimetic transformation shape that closely resembles the movement of the pinnule leaf of Mimosa pudica in response to stimulation. Overall, this study indicates the proof of concept and the potential prospect of magnetic-responsive ION-GelMA inks for the rapid prototyping of biomimetic soft bioactuators/robots with untethered non-contact magneto-actuations.
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Hughes, J. A. E., P. Maiolino, and F. Iida. "An anthropomorphic soft skeleton hand exploiting conditional models for piano playing." Science Robotics 3, no. 25 (2018): eaau3098. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/scirobotics.aau3098.
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The development of robotic manipulators and hands that show dexterity, adaptability, and subtle behavior comparable to human hands is an unsolved research challenge. In this article, we considered the passive dynamics of mechanically complex systems, such as a skeleton hand, as an approach to improving adaptability, dexterity, and richness of behavioral diversity of such robotic manipulators. With the use of state-of-the-art multimaterial three-dimensional printing technologies, it is possible to design and construct complex passive structures, namely, a complex anthropomorphic skeleton hand that shows anisotropic mechanical stiffness. We introduce a concept, termed the “conditional model,” that exploits the anisotropic stiffness of complex soft-rigid hybrid systems. In this approach, the physical configuration, environment conditions, and conditional actuation (applied actuation) resulted in an observable conditional model, allowing joint actuation through passivity-based dynamic interactions. The conditional model approach allowed the physical configuration and actuation to be altered, enabling a single skeleton hand to perform three different phrases of piano music with varying styles and forms and facilitating improved dynamic behaviors and interactions with the piano over those achievable with a rigid end effector.
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Davidson, Zoey S., Hamed Shahsavan, Amirreza Aghakhani, et al. "Monolithic shape-programmable dielectric liquid crystal elastomer actuators." Science Advances 5, no. 11 (2019): eaay0855. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aay0855.
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Soft robotics may enable many new technologies in which humans and robots physically interact, yet the necessary high-performance soft actuators still do not exist. The optimal soft actuators need to be fast and forceful and have programmable shape changes. Furthermore, they should be energy efficient for untethered applications and easy to fabricate. Here, we combine desirable characteristics from two distinct active material systems: fast and highly efficient actuation from dielectric elastomers and directed shape programmability from liquid crystal elastomers. Via a top-down photoalignment method, we program molecular alignment and localized giant elastic anisotropy into the liquid crystal elastomers. The linearly actuated liquid crystal elastomer monoliths achieve strain rates over 120% per second with an energy conversion efficiency of 20% while moving loads over 700 times the elastomer weight. The electric actuation mechanism offers unprecedented opportunities toward miniaturization with shape programmability, efficiency, and more degrees of freedom for applications in soft robotics and beyond.
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Potnik, Valentina, Gabriele Frediani, and Federico Carpi. "How to Easily Make Self-Sensing Pneumatic Inverse Artificial Muscles." Biomimetics 9, no. 3 (2024): 177. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics9030177.
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Wearable mechatronics for powered orthoses, exoskeletons and prostheses require improved soft actuation systems acting as ‘artificial muscles’ that are capable of large strains, high stresses, fast response and self-sensing and that show electrically safe operation, low specific weight and large compliance. Among the diversity of soft actuation technologies under investigation, pneumatic devices have been the focus, during the last couple of decades, of renewed interest as an intrinsically soft artificial muscle technology, due to technological advances stimulated by applications in soft robotics. As of today, quite a few solutions are available to endow a pneumatic soft device with linear actuation and self-sensing ability, while also easily achieving these features with off-the-shelf materials and low-cost fabrication processes. Here, we describe a simple process to make self-sensing pneumatic actuators, which may be used as ‘inverse artificial muscles’, as, upon pressurisation, they elongate instead of contracting. They are made of an elastomeric tube surrounded by a plastic coil, which constrains radial expansions. As a novelty relative to the state of the art, the self-sensing ability was obtained with a piezoresistive stretch sensor shaped as a conductive elastomeric body along the tube’s central axis. Moreover, we detail, also by means of video clips, a step-by-step manufacturing process, which uses off-the-shelf materials and simple procedures, so as to facilitate reproducibility.
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Joe, Seonggun, Massimo Totaro, Hongbo Wang, and Lucia Beccai. "Development of the Ultralight Hybrid Pneumatic Artificial Muscle: Modelling and optimization." PLOS ONE 16, no. 4 (2021): e0250325. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250325.
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Pneumatic artificial muscles (PAMs) are one of the key technologies in soft robotics, and they enable actuation in mobile robots, in wearable devices and exoskeletons for assistive and rehabilitative purposes. While they recently showed relevant improvements, they still present quite low payload, limited bandwidth, and lack of repeatability, controllability and robustness. Vacuum-based actuation has been recently demonstrated as a very promising solution, and many challenges are still open, like generating at the same time a large contraction ratio, and a high blocking force with enhanced axial stiffness. In this paper, a novel Ultralight Hybrid PAM (UH-PAM), based on bellow-type elastomeric skin and vacuum actuation, is presented. In particular, open-cell foam is exploited as a structural backbone, together with plastic rings, all embedded in a thin skin. The design and optimization combine numerical, analytical, and experimental data. Both static and dynamic analysis are performed. The weight of the optimized actuator is only 20 g. Nevertheless, a contraction ratio up to 50% and a maximum payload of 3 kg can be achieved. From a dynamic point of view, a rise time of 0.5 s for the contraction phase is observed. Although hysteresis is significant when using the whole contraction span, it can be reduced (down to 11.5%) by tuning both the vacuum range and the operating frequency for cyclic movements. Finally, to demonstrate the potentiality of this soft actuation approach, a 3 DoFs Stewart platform is built. The feasibility of performing smooth movements by exploiting open-loop control is shown through simple and more complex handwriting figures projected on the XY plane.
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Ang, Benjamin Wee Keong, Chen-Hua Yeow, and Jeong Hoon Lim. "A Critical Review on Factors Affecting the User Adoption of Wearable and Soft Robotics." Sensors 23, no. 6 (2023): 3263. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s23063263.
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In recent years, the advent of soft robotics has changed the landscape of wearable technologies. Soft robots are highly compliant and malleable, thus ensuring safe human-machine interactions. To date, a wide variety of actuation mechanisms have been studied and adopted into a multitude of soft wearables for use in clinical practice, such as assistive devices and rehabilitation modalities. Much research effort has been put into improving their technical performance and establishing the ideal indications for which rigid exoskeletons would play a limited role. However, despite having achieved many feats over the past decade, soft wearable technologies have not been extensively investigated from the perspective of user adoption. Most scholarly reviews of soft wearables have focused on the perspective of service providers such as developers, manufacturers, or clinicians, but few have scrutinized the factors affecting adoption and user experience. Hence, this would pose a good opportunity to gain insight into the current practice of soft robotics from a user’s perspective. This review aims to provide a broad overview of the different types of soft wearables and identify the factors that hinder the adoption of soft robotics. In this paper, a systematic literature search using terms such as “soft”, “robot”, “wearable”, and “exoskeleton” was conducted according to PRISMA guidelines to include peer-reviewed publications between 2012 and 2022. The soft robotics were classified according to their actuation mechanisms into motor-driven tendon cables, pneumatics, hydraulics, shape memory alloys, and polyvinyl chloride muscles, and their pros and cons were discussed. The identified factors affecting user adoption include design, availability of materials, durability, modeling and control, artificial intelligence augmentation, standardized evaluation criteria, public perception related to perceived utility, ease of use, and aesthetics. The critical areas for improvement and future research directions to increase adoption of soft wearables have also been highlighted.
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Parvin, Nargish, Sang Woo Joo, Jae Hak Jung, and Tapas Kumar Mandal. "Electroactive Polymers for Self-Powered Actuators and Biosensors: Advancing Biomedical Diagnostics Through Energy Harvesting Mechanisms." Actuators 14, no. 6 (2025): 257. https://doi.org/10.3390/act14060257.
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Electroactive polymers (EAPs) have emerged as versatile materials for self-powered actuators and biosensors, revolutionizing biomedical diagnostics and healthcare technologies. These materials harness various energy harvesting mechanisms, including piezoelectricity, triboelectricity, and ionic conductivity, to enable real-time, energy-efficient, and autonomous sensing and actuation without external power sources. This review explores recent advancements in EAP-based self-powered systems, focusing on their applications in biosensing, soft robotics, and biomedical actuation. The integration of nanomaterials, flexible electronics, and wireless communication technologies has significantly enhanced their sensitivity, durability, and multifunctionality, making them ideal for next-generation wearable and implantable medical devices. Additionally, this review discusses key challenges, including material stability, biocompatibility, and optimization strategies for enhanced performance. Future perspectives on the clinical translation of EAP-based actuators and biosensors are also highlighted, emphasizing their potential to transform smart healthcare and bioelectronic applications.
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Rana, Md Tasnim, Md Shariful Islam, and Azizur Rahman. "Human-Centered Sensor Technologies for Soft Robotic Grippers: A Comprehensive Review." Sensors 25, no. 5 (2025): 1508. https://doi.org/10.3390/s25051508.
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The importance of bio-robotics has been increasing day by day. Researchers are trying to mimic nature in a more creative way so that the system can easily adapt to the complex nature and its environment. Hence, bio-robotic grippers play a role in the physical connection between the environment and the bio-robotics system. While handling the physical world using a bio-robotic gripper, complexity occurs in the feedback system, where the sensor plays a vital role. Therefore, a human-centered gripper sensor can have a good impact on the bio-robotics field. But categorical classification and the selection process are not very systematic. This review paper follows the PRISMA methodology to summarize the previous works on bio-robotic gripper sensors and their selection process. This paper discusses challenges in soft robotic systems, the importance of sensing systems in facilitating critical control mechanisms, along with their selection considerations. Furthermore, a classification of soft actuation based on grippers has been introduced. Moreover, some unique characteristics of soft robotic sensors are explored, namely compliance, flexibility, multifunctionality, sensor nature, surface properties, and material requirements. In addition, a categorization of sensors for soft robotic grippers in terms of modalities has been established, ranging from the tactile and force sensor to the slippage sensor. Various tactile sensors, ranging from piezoelectric sensing to optical sensing, are explored as they are of the utmost importance in soft grippers to effectively address the increasing requirements for intelligence and automation. Finally, taking everything into consideration, a flow diagram has been suggested for selecting sensors specific to soft robotic applications.
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Singh, Ashutosh, Ravi Butola, and Jitendra Bhaskar. "A Review on Development of Soft Gripper Using 4D Printing." INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADVANCED PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING 5, no. 3 (2020): 49–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.35121/ijapie202007348.
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Improvements in soft robotics, materials, and flexible gripper technology made it possible for the soft grippers to advance rapidly. A brief analysis of soft robotic grippers featuring various material collections, physical rules, and system architectures is provided here. Soft gripping is divided into three technologies, enabling gripping with: a) actuation, b) material used, and c) Use of 3D printing in fabricating grippers. An informative analysis is provided of every form. Similar to stiff grippers, flexible and elastic end-effectors may also grab or control a broader variety of objects. The inherent versatility of the materials is increasingly being used to study advanced materials and soft structures, particularly silicone elastomers, shape-memory materials, active polymers, and gels, in the development of compact, simple, and more versatile grippers. For future work, enhanced structures, techniques, and senses play a prominent part.
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Terzi, Tuğra Alp. "Hydrogel-based Soft Robotics for Surgical Machinery." Next Generation Journal for The Young Researchers 8, no. 1 (2024): 89. http://dx.doi.org/10.62802/mg747v71.
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Hydrogel-based soft robotics represent a transformative approach in surgical machinery, offering unparalleled adaptability, biocompatibility, and precision for minimally invasive procedures. Hydrogels, with their high water content and tunable mechanical properties, mimic soft biological tissues, making them ideal for applications in delicate surgical environments. This research explores the integration of hydrogel materials into soft robotic systems, focusing on their fabrication, actuation mechanisms, and performance in surgical applications. Key advancements include the development of stimuli-responsive hydrogels that enable precise control of movement and force, enhancing the capability to navigate complex anatomical structures. The study also examines computational models for simulating hydrogel behavior and optimizing robotic designs. While the potential benefits of hydrogel-based soft robotics in improving patient outcomes are significant, challenges remain in ensuring durability, scalability, and reliable control systems. This research aims to address these limitations by integrating advanced materials science with robotic engineering. By doing so, it contributes to the evolution of surgical technologies, paving the way for safer and more effective procedures.
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Shi, Yongjun, Wei Dong, Weiqi Lin, and Yongzhuo Gao. "Soft Wearable Robots: Development Status and Technical Challenges." Sensors 22, no. 19 (2022): 7584. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s22197584.
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In recent years, more and more research has begun to focus on the flexible and lightweight design of wearable robots. During this process, many novel concepts and achievements have been continuously made and shown to the public, while new problems have emerged at the same time, which need to be solved. In this paper, we give an overview of the development status of soft wearable robots for human movement assistance. On the basis of a clear definition, we perform a system classification according to the target assisted joint and attempt to describe the overall prototype design level in related fields. Additionally, it is necessary to sort out the latest research progress of key technologies such as structure, actuation, control and evaluation, thereby analyzing the design ideas and basic characteristics of them. Finally, we discuss the possible application fields, and propose the main challenges of this valuable research direction.
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Ansari, Yasmin, Mariangela Manti, Egidio Falotico, Yoan Mollard, Matteo Cianchetti, and Cecilia Laschi. "Towards the development of a soft manipulator as an assistive robot for personal care of elderly people." International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems 14, no. 2 (2017): 172988141668713. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1729881416687132.
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Manipulators based on soft robotic technologies exhibit compliance and dexterity which ensures safe human–robot interaction. This article is a novel attempt at exploiting these desirable properties to develop a manipulator for an assistive application, in particular, a shower arm to assist the elderly in the bathing task. The overall vision for the soft manipulator is to concatenate three modules in a serial manner such that (i) the proximal segment is made up of cable-based actuation to compensate for gravitational effects and (ii) the central and distal segments are made up of hybrid actuation to autonomously reach delicate body parts to perform the main tasks related to bathing. The role of the latter modules is crucial to the application of the system in the bathing task; however, it is a nontrivial challenge to develop a robust and controllable hybrid actuated system with advanced manipulation capabilities and hence, the focus of this article. We first introduce our design and experimentally characterize its functionalities, which include elongation, shortening, omnidirectional bending. Next, we propose a control concept capable of solving the inverse kinetics problem using multiagent reinforcement learning to exploit these functionalities despite high dimensionality and redundancy. We demonstrate the effectiveness of the design and control of this module by demonstrating an open-loop task space control where it successfully moves through an asymmetric 3-D trajectory sampled at 12 points with an average reaching accuracy of 0.79 cm ± 0.18 cm. Our quantitative experimental results present a promising step toward the development of the soft manipulator eventually contributing to the advancement of soft robotics.
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Sun, Yu-Chen, Meysam Effati, Hani E. Naguib, and Goldie Nejat. "SoftSAR: The New Softer Side of Socially Assistive Robots—Soft Robotics with Social Human–Robot Interaction Skills." Sensors 23, no. 1 (2022): 432. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s23010432.
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When we think of “soft” in terms of socially assistive robots (SARs), it is mainly in reference to the soft outer shells of these robots, ranging from robotic teddy bears to furry robot pets. However, soft robotics is a promising field that has not yet been leveraged by SAR design. Soft robotics is the incorporation of smart materials to achieve biomimetic motions, active deformations, and responsive sensing. By utilizing these distinctive characteristics, a new type of SAR can be developed that has the potential to be safer to interact with, more flexible, and uniquely uses novel interaction modes (colors/shapes) to engage in a heighted human–robot interaction. In this perspective article, we coin this new collaborative research area as SoftSAR. We provide extensive discussions on just how soft robotics can be utilized to positively impact SARs, from their actuation mechanisms to the sensory designs, and how valuable they will be in informing future SAR design and applications. With extensive discussions on the fundamental mechanisms of soft robotic technologies, we outline a number of key SAR research areas that can benefit from using unique soft robotic mechanisms, which will result in the creation of the new field of SoftSAR.
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Bai, Yun, Heling Wang, Yonggang Huang, John Rogers, and Xiaoyue Ni. "(Invited) a Dynamically Reprogrammable Surface with Self-Evolving Shape Morphing." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2023-01, no. 34 (2023): 1920. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2023-01341920mtgabs.
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Shape-morphing soft materials are ubiquitous in living systems. They are of increasing relevance to emerging technologies in soft machines, flexible electronics, and smart medicine. The past decade has witnessed phenomenal investment in developing active materials that can shift their shapes, and henceforth their performing functions. However, creating schemes to swiftly reprogram target shapes after fabrication remains challenging. Complexities associated with the operating physics and disturbances from the environment can stop the use of deterministic theoretical models to guide inverse design and control strategies. In this work, we describe a dynamically reprogrammable metasurface with embedded actuation, sensing, and feedback control. The voltage-controlled electromagnetic force drives a flexible, conductive 2D mesh into a diverse set of complex 3D surfaces in the presence of a static magnetic field. The unusual construction of the metasurface from a matrix of filamentary metal traces enables the system to adopt an approximately linear model for inverse design. Implementing an in-situ stereo-imaging feedback strategy with a digitally controlled actuation scheme guided by an optimization algorithm yields surfaces that can morph into target shapes without any presuming models. The closed-loop self-evolving inverse design approach opens opportunities for physical simulations for non-linear or non-ideal systems.
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Hoang, Shane, Konstantinos Karydis, Philip Brisk, and William H. Grover. "A pneumatic random-access memory for controlling soft robots." PLOS ONE 16, no. 7 (2021): e0254524. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0254524.
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Pneumatically-actuated soft robots have advantages over traditional rigid robots in many applications. In particular, their flexible bodies and gentle air-powered movements make them more suitable for use around humans and other objects that could be injured or damaged by traditional robots. However, existing systems for controlling soft robots currently require dedicated electromechanical hardware (usually solenoid valves) to maintain the actuation state (expanded or contracted) of each independent actuator. When combined with power, computation, and sensing components, this control hardware adds considerable cost, size, and power demands to the robot, thereby limiting the feasibility of soft robots in many important application areas. In this work, we introduce a pneumatic memory that uses air (not electricity) to set and maintain the states of large numbers of soft robotic actuators without dedicated electromechanical hardware. These pneumatic logic circuits use normally-closed microfluidic valves as transistor-like elements; this enables our circuits to support more complex computational functions than those built from normally-open valves. We demonstrate an eight-bit nonvolatile random-access pneumatic memory (RAM) that can maintain the states of multiple actuators, control both individual actuators and multiple actuators simultaneously using a pneumatic version of time division multiplexing (TDM), and set actuators to any intermediate position using a pneumatic version of analog-to-digital conversion. We perform proof-of-concept experimental testing of our pneumatic RAM by using it to control soft robotic hands playing individual notes, chords, and songs on a piano keyboard. By dramatically reducing the amount of hardware required to control multiple independent actuators in pneumatic soft robots, our pneumatic RAM can accelerate the spread of soft robotic technologies to a wide range of important application areas.
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Ali, Athar, Vigilio Fontanari, Marco Fontana, and Werner Schmölz. "Spinal Deformities and Advancement in Corrective Orthoses." Bioengineering 8, no. 1 (2020): 2. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering8010002.
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Spinal deformity is an abnormality in the spinal curves and can seriously affect the activities of daily life. The conventional way to treat spinal deformities, such as scoliosis, kyphosis, and spondylolisthesis, is to use spinal orthoses (braces). Braces have been used for centuries to apply corrective forces to the spine to treat spinal deformities or to stabilize the spine during postoperative rehabilitation. Braces have not modernized with advancements in technology, and very few braces are equipped with smart sensory design and active actuation. There is a need to enable the orthotists, ergonomics practitioners, and developers to incorporate new technologies into the passive field of bracing. This article presents a review of the conventional passive braces and highlights the advancements in spinal orthoses in terms of improved sensory designs, active actuation mechanisms, and new construction methods (CAD/CAM, three-dimensional (3D) printing). This review includes 26 spinal orthoses, comprised of passive rigid/soft braces, active dynamics braces, and torso training devices for the rehabilitation of the spine.
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Zhang, Peng, and Maurizio Porfiri. "Modeling the actuation of curved ionic polymer metal composites." Smart Materials and Structures 31, no. 3 (2022): 035013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1361-665x/ac4c73.
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Abstract An ionic polymer metal composites (IPMC) is a soft actuator that consists of an ionomer membrane, neutralized by mobile counterions and plated by metal electrodes. Despite their early promise in robotics, medical devices, and microsystem technologies, widespread application of IPMC actuators is far from being reached. Recent advancements in additive manufacturing technologies have the potential to expand the reach of IPMCs by affording the realization of complex, design-specific geometries that were impossible to attain with standard manufacturing techniques. For this potential to be attained, it is critical to establish physically-based models that could inform 3D printing, beyond the flat, thin, non-tapered geometries that have been the object of investigation for almost three decades. Here, we bridge this gap by presenting an analytical framework to study actuation of a double-clamped IPMC arch under an applied voltage. We adopt a thermodynamically the consistent continuum model to describe the coupled electrochemo-mechanical phenomena taking place within the IPMC. We establish an analytical solution for the electrochemistry using the method of matched asymptotic expansions, which is, in turn, utilized to compute osmotic pressure and Maxwell stress. The mechanical response of the IPMC arch is modeled as a plane strain problem with an induced state of eigenstress, which is solved with the use of a smooth Airy function. The accuracy of our analytical solution is validated through finite element simulations. Through a parametric analysis, we investigate the effect of curvature on the deformation and the reaction forces exerted by the clamps. The proposed analytical framework offers new insight into the response of curved IPMCs, in which progress on 3D printing should be grounded.
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Piazza, C., G. Grioli, M. G. Catalano, and A. Bicchi. "A Century of Robotic Hands." Annual Review of Control, Robotics, and Autonomous Systems 2, no. 1 (2019): 1–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-control-060117-105003.
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This article reports on the state of the art of artificial hands, discussing some of the field's most important trends and suggesting directions for future research. We review and group the most important application domains of robotic hands, extracting the set of requirements that ultimately led to the use of simplified actuation schemes and soft materials and structures—two themes that clearly emerge from our examination of developments over the past century. We provide a comprehensive analysis of novel technologies for the design of joints, transmissions, and actuators that enabled these trends. We conclude by discussing some important new perspectives generated by simpler and softer hands and their interaction with other aspects of hand design and robotics in general.
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Bloemen, Hayco, Stefan Belfroid, Wilco Sturm, and Frederic Verhelst. "Soft Sensing for Gas-Lift Wells." SPE Journal 11, no. 04 (2006): 454–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/90370-pa.
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Summary This paper considers the use of extended Kalman filtering as a soft-sensing technique for gas lift wells. This technique is deployed for the estimation of dynamic variables that are not directly measured. Possible applications are the estimation of flow rates from surface and downhole pressure measurements or the estimation of parameters of a drift-flux model. By means of simulation examples, different configurations of sensor systems are analyzed. Finally, the estimation of drift-flux model parameters is demonstrated on real data from a laboratory setup. Introduction During the last 10 years, the industry has seen different downhole actuation technologies (commonly known as intelligent completions or under different trademarks) coming into existence. The goal of these technologies is ultimately to maximize the value of an asset by applying "right-time" optimization concepts borrowed from control engineering. Depending on the specific economics of the asset, this can be translated into more specific objectives such as speeding up of production, stabilization of unstable production, deferment of production of unwanted fluids, maximizing ultimate recovery, or a combination of some of the aforementioned short- and long-term objectives. Control theory concepts of optimization by means of a feedback loop require means for determining the deviation between the actual response and the desired response of the system. In wells, this often boils down to some sort of multiphase flow measurement. Different accurate multiphase-measurement technologies have been matured during the last decade, and the industry seems to be crossing the chasm between the early-adopter and the early-follower stages. Often for control purposes, direct measurements with high absolute accuracy are not required, as long as the measurements give a good indication of the relative change in the property that needs to be optimized. In different process industries, soft-sensing techniques were developed to determine variables where it is either impossible to directly measure the variables of interest or where it is economically not justifiable. In this paper, the concept of soft sensing is used; unmeasured dynamic variables (such as flow rates) are estimated from measured ones (i.e., pressures) by fitting a sufficiently accurate numerical model to the available measurements. We have looked at the gas lifted well application, where the lift gas rate may be controlled. Ideally this control would be based on directly measured multiphase flow rates, but in reality one often finds that this information is not available. Other measurements, such as surface and downhole pressure and temperature measurements, are more readily available and may be used for soft sensing. The paper is organized in the following manner: first, the model of the gas lifted well is described; then, the soft-sensing concepts are explained; and, finally, different examples and configurations are shown in which this technology is applied for estimating multiphase flows.
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Arena, Maurizio, Christof Nagel, Rosario Pecora, Oliver Schorsch, Antonio Concilio, and Ignazio Dimino. "Static and Dynamic Performance of a Morphing Trailing Edge Concept with High-Damping Elastomeric Skin." Aerospace 6, no. 2 (2019): 22. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/aerospace6020022.
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Nature has many striking examples of adaptive structures: the emulation of birds’ flight is the true challenge of a morphing wing. The integration of increasingly innovative technologies, such as reliable kinematic mechanisms, embedded servo-actuation and smart materials systems, enables us to realize new structural systems fully compatible with the more and more stringent airworthiness requirements. In this paper, the authors describe the characterization of an adaptive structure, representative of a wing trailing edge, consisting of a finger-like rib mechanism with a highly deformable skin, which comprises both soft and stiff parts. The morphing skin is able to follow the trailing edge movement under repeated cycles, while being stiff enough to preserve its shape under aerodynamic loads and adequately pliable to minimize the actuation power required for morphing. In order to properly characterize the system, a mock-up was manufactured whose structural properties, in particular the ability to carry out loads, were also guaranteed by the elastic skin. A numerical sensitivity analysis with respect to the mechanical properties of the multi-segment skin was performed to investigate their influence on the modal response of the whole system. Experimental dynamic tests were then carried out and the obtained results were critically analysed to prove the adequacy of the adopted design approaches as well as to quantify the dissipative (high-damping) effects induced by the rubber foam on the dynamic response of the morphing architecture.
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Ribas Neto, Antonio, Julio Fajardo, Willian Hideak Arita da Silva, et al. "Design of Tendon-Actuated Robotic Glove Integrated with Optical Fiber Force Myography Sensor." Automation 2, no. 3 (2021): 187–201. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/automation2030012.
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People taken by upper limb disorders caused by neurological diseases suffer from grip weakening, which affects their quality of life. Researches on soft wearable robotics and advances in sensor technology emerge as promising alternatives to develop assistive and rehabilitative technologies. However, current systems rely on surface electromyography and complex machine learning classifiers to retrieve the user intentions. In addition, the grasp assistance through electromechanical or fluidic actuators is passive and does not contribute to the rehabilitation of upper-limb muscles. Therefore, this paper presents a robotic glove integrated with a force myography sensor. The glove-like orthosis features tendon-driven actuation through servo motors, working as an assistive device for people with hand disabilities. The detection of user intentions employs an optical fiber force myography sensor, simplifying the operation beyond the usual electromyography approach. Moreover, the proposed system applies functional electrical stimulation to activate the grasp collaboratively with the tendon mechanism, providing motion support and assisting rehabilitation.
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Young, Sam, Hao Zhou, and Gursel Alici. "Gesture Recognition Framework for Teleoperation of Infrared (IR) Consumer Devices Using a Novel pFMG Soft Armband." Sensors 24, no. 18 (2024): 6124. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s24186124.
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Wearable technologies represent a significant advancement in facilitating communication between humans and machines. Powered by artificial intelligence (AI), human gestures detected by wearable sensors can provide people with seamless interaction with physical, digital, and mixed environments. In this paper, the foundations of a gesture-recognition framework for the teleoperation of infrared consumer electronics are established. This framework is based on force myography data of the upper forearm, acquired from a prototype novel soft pressure-based force myography (pFMG) armband. Here, the sub-processes of the framework are detailed, including the acquisition of infrared and force myography data; pre-processing; feature construction/selection; classifier selection; post-processing; and interfacing/actuation. The gesture recognition system is evaluated using 12 subjects’ force myography data obtained whilst performing five classes of gestures. Our results demonstrate an inter-session and inter-trial gesture average recognition accuracy of approximately 92.2% and 88.9%, respectively. The gesture recognition framework was successfully able to teleoperate several infrared consumer electronics as a wearable, safe and affordable human–machine interface system. The contribution of this study centres around proposing and demonstrating a user-centred design methodology to allow direct human–machine interaction and interface for applications where humans and devices are in the same loop or coexist, as typified between users and infrared-communicating devices in this study.
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Morasso, Pietro. "Neural Simulation of Actions for Serpentine Robots." Biomimetics 9, no. 7 (2024): 416. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics9070416.
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The neural or mental simulation of actions is a powerful tool for allowing cognitive agents to develop Prospection Capabilities that are crucial for learning and memorizing key aspects of challenging skills. In previous studies, we developed an approach based on the animation of the redundant human body schema, based on the Passive Motion Paradigm (PMP). In this paper, we show that this approach can be easily extended to hyper-redundant serpentine robots as well as to hybrid configurations where the serpentine robot is functionally integrated with a traditional skeletal infrastructure. A simulation model is analyzed in detail, showing that it incorporates spatio-temporal features discovered in the biomechanical studies of biological hydrostats, such as the elephant trunk or octopus tentacles. It is proposed that such a generative internal model could be the basis for a cognitive architecture appropriate for serpentine robots, independent of the underlying design and control technologies. Although robotic hydrostats have received a lot of attention in recent decades, the great majority of research activities have been focused on the actuation/sensorial/material technologies that can support the design of hyper-redundant soft/serpentine robots, as well as the related control methodologies. The cognitive level of analysis has been limited to motion planning, without addressing synergy formation and mental time travel. This is what this paper is focused on.
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Razzaq, Muhammad Yasar, Joamin Gonzalez-Gutierrez, Gregory Mertz, David Ruch, Daniel F. Schmidt, and Stephan Westermann. "4D Printing of Multicomponent Shape-Memory Polymer Formulations." Applied Sciences 12, no. 15 (2022): 7880. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app12157880.
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Four-dimensional (4D) printing technology, as a next-generation additive manufacturing method, enables printed objects to further change their shapes, functionalities, or properties upon exposure to external stimuli. The 4D printing of programmable and deformable materials such as thermo-responsive shape-memory polymers (trSMPs), which possess the ability to change shape by exposure to heat, has attracted particular interest in recent years. Three-dimensional objects based on SMPs have been proposed for various potential applications in different fields, including soft robotics, smart actuators, biomedical and electronics. To enable the manufacturing of complex multifunctional 3D objects, SMPs are often coupled with other functional polymers or fillers during or before the 3D printing process. This review highlights the 4D printing of state-of-the-art multi-component SMP formulations. Commonly used 4D printing technologies such as material extrusion techniques including fused filament fabrication (FFF) and direct ink writing (DIW), as well as vat photopolymerization techniques such as stereolithography (SLA), digital light processing (DLP), and multi-photon polymerization (MPP), are discussed. Different multicomponent SMP systems, their actuation methods, and potential applications of the 3D printed objects are reviewed. Finally, current challenges and prospects for 4D printing technology are summarized.
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Grazioso, Stanislao, Annarita Tedesco, Mario Selvaggio, Stefano Debei, and Sebastiano Chiodini. "Towards the development of a cyber-physical measurement system (CPMS): case study of a bioinspired soft growing robot for remote measurement and monitoring applications." ACTA IMEKO 10, no. 2 (2021): 104. http://dx.doi.org/10.21014/acta_imeko.v10i2.1123.
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The most effective expression of the 4.0 Era is represented by cyber-physical systems (CPSs). Historically, measurement and monitoring systems (MMSs) have been an essential part of CPSs; however, by introducing the 4.0 enabling technologies into MMSs, a MMS can evolve into a cyber-physical measurement system (CPMS). Starting from this consideration, this work reports a preliminary case study of a CPMS, namely an innovative robotic platform to be used for measurement systems in confined and constrained remote environments. The innovative system is a soft growing robot composed of a robot base, to be placed outside the remote environments and a robot body that accesses the site through growth. A pneumatic actuation mechanism enables the controllable growth of the system through lengthening at its tip, as well as its controllable steering. The system can be endowed with sensors to enable remote measurement and monitoring tasks, or can be used to transport sensors in remote locations. A digital twin of the system is developed for simulation of a practical measurement scenario. The ultimate goal is to achieve a self-adapting, fully autonomous system for remote monitoring operations to be used reliably and safely for the inspection of unknown and/or constrained environments.
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Srivastava, Sudhanshu, Nayan J. Patel, Mehul Padhiyar, and Ravi Bhardwaj. "Morphing Aircraft Wing: Development and Application." International Journal of All Research Education and Scientific Methods 13, no. 05 (2025): 1294–302. https://doi.org/10.56025/ijaresm.2025.1305251294.
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Morphing aircraft wings represent a transformative advancement in aerospace engineering, offering the ability to dynamically alter wing geometry in real time based on varying flight conditions. This capability enables substantial performance improvements across a wide range of flight regimes, including enhanced lift-to-drag ratios, increased maneuverability, optimized fuel efficiency, and better aerodynamic control. The potential benefits of morphing wings are far-reaching, impacting both military and commercial aviation by providing adaptive solutions that traditional fixed-wing designs cannot achieve. In recent decades, research in this area has transitioned from theoretical concepts to practical applications through the development of experimental platforms, advanced materials, and sophisticated control technologies. Pioneering programs such as NASA’s Mission Adaptive Wing (MAW), DARPA’s CRANE (Control of Revolutionary Aircraft with Novel Effectors), and Airbus’s AlbatrossOne have showcased the feasibility and performance potential of morphing systems in real-world environments. The growing incorporation of morphing wing technologies in unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and future air mobility vehicles further emphasizes the increasing readiness for widespread implementation. Despite these advances, significant challenges remain, including the need for scalable, durable smart materials, efficient actuation systems, reliable real-time control algorithms, and standardized certification procedures. Addressing these challenges requires cross-disciplinary collaboration in areas such as aerodynamics, materials science, structural engineering, control systems, and regulatory frameworks. Looking forward, innovations in soft robotics, artificial intelligence, and multifunctional composites will likely expedite the adoption of morphing wings, paving the way for more adaptable and sustainable aircraft designs in both military and civilian aviation.
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Dämmer, Gabriel, Hartmut Bauer, Rüdiger Neumann, and Zoltan Major. "Design, additive manufacturing and component testing of pneumatic rotary vane actuators for lightweight robots." Rapid Prototyping Journal 28, no. 11 (2022): 20–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/rpj-03-2021-0052.
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Purpose This study aims to investigate the suitability of a multi-step prototyping strategy for producing pneumatic rotary vane actuators (RVAs) for the development of lightweight robots and actuation systems. Design/methodology/approach RVAs typically have cast aluminum housings and injection-molded seals that consist of hard thermoplastic cores and soft elastomeric overmolds. Using a combination of additive manufacturing (AM), computer numerical control (CNC) machining and elastomer molding, a conventionally manufactured standard RVA was replicated. The standard housing design was modified, and polymeric replicas were obtained by selective laser sintering (SLS) or PolyJet (PJ) printing and subsequent CNC milling. Using laser-sintered molds, actuator seals were replicated by overmolding laser-sintered polyamide cores with silicone (SIL) and polyurethane (PU) elastomers. The replica RVAs were subjected to a series of leakage, friction and durability experiments. Findings The AM-based prototyping strategy described is suitable for producing functional and reliable RVAs for research and product development. In a representative durability experiment, the RVAs in this study endured between 40,000 and 1,000,000 load cycles. Frictional torques were around 0.5 Nm, which is 10% of the theoretical torque at 6 bar and comparable to that of the standard RVA. Models and parameters are provided for describing the velocity-dependent frictional torque. Leakage experiments at 10,000 load cycles and 6 bar differential pressure showed that PJ housings exhibit lower leakage values (6.8 L/min) than laser-sintered housings (15.2 L/min), and PU seals exhibit lower values (8.0 l/min) than SIL seals (14.0 L/min). Combining PU seals with PJ housings led to an initial leakage of 0.4 L/min, which increased to only 1.2 L/min after 10,000 load cycles. Overall, the PU material used was more difficult to process but also more abrasion- and tear-resistant than the SIL elastomer. Research limitations/implications More work is needed to understand individual cause–effect relationships between specific design features and system behavior. Originality/value To date, pneumatic RVAs have been manufactured by large-scale production technologies. The absence of suitable prototyping strategies has limited the available range to fixed sizes and has thus complicated the use of RVAs in research and product development. This paper proves that functional pneumatic RVAs can be produced by using more accessible manufacturing technologies and provides the tools for prototyping of application-specific RVAs.
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Choi, Hyouk Ryeol, Kwang Mok Jung, Ja Choon Koo, Jae Do Nam, Young Kwan Lee, and Mi Suk Cho. "Electrostatically Driven Soft Polymer Actuator Based on Dielectric Elastomer." Key Engineering Materials 297-300 (November 2005): 622–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/kem.297-300.622.
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ElectroActive Polymers (EAPs) are emerging as new actuating means replacing the existing technologies such as piezoelectric, electrostatic, SMA etc. The dielectric elastomer actuator is regarded as the one of the most practically applicable actuators in the near future among the EAPs. In this paper, we introduce a new material capable of being employed as the dielectric elastomer actuator. The proposed material, which is a kind of the synthetic rubber, produces larger deformation as well as higher enegy efficiency, since it has a much higher dielectric constant compared to the previous ones. Beginning with the method of material synthesis, we give the description of its basic material properties by comparing with those of the existing materials for the dielectric elastomers. Also, the advantages of the proposed material as the actuating means are discussed with the several results of the experiments.
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Pitzalis, Roberto Francesco, Daegeun Park, Darwin G. Caldwell, Giovanni Berselli, and Jesús Ortiz. "State of the Art in Wearable Wrist Exoskeletons Part II: A Review of Commercial and Research Devices." Machines 12, no. 1 (2023): 21. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/machines12010021.
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Manual handling tasks, both in daily activities and at work, require high dexterity and the ability to move objects of different shapes and sizes. However, musculoskeletal disorders that can arise due to aging, disabilities, overloading, or strenuous work can impact the natural capabilities of the hand with serious repercussions both in working and daily activities. To address this, researchers have been developing and proving the benefits of wrist exoskeletons. This paper, which is Part II of a study on wrist exoskeletons, presents and summarizes wearable wrist exoskeleton devices intended for use in rehabilitation, assistance, and occupational fields. Exoskeletons considered within the study are those available either in a prototyping phase or on the market. These devices can support the human wrist by relieving pain or mitigating fatigue while allowing for at least one movement. Most of them have been designed to be active (80%) for higher force/torque transmission, and soft for better kinematic compliance, ergonomics, and safety (13 devices out of 24, more than 50%). Electric motors and cable transmission (respectively 11 and 9 devices, out of 24, i.e., almost 50% and 40%) are the most common due to their simplicity, controllability, safety, power-to-weight ratio, and the possibility of remote actuation. As sensing technologies, position and force sensors are widely used in all devices (almost 90%). The control strategy depends mainly on the application domain: for rehabilitation, CPM (control passive motion) is preferred (35% of devices), while for assistance and occupational purposes, AAN (assistance-as-needed) is more suitable (38% of the devices). What emerges from this analysis is that, while rehabilitation and training are fields in which exoskeletons have grown more easily and gained some user acceptance (almost 18 devices, of which 4 are available on the market), relatively few devices have been designed for occupational purposes (5, with only 2 available on the market) due to difficulties in meeting the acceptance and needs of users. In this perspective, as a result of the state-of-the-art analysis, the authors propose a conceptual idea for a portable soft wrist exoskeleton for occupational assistance.
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Hays, Emilly, Jack Slayton, Gary Tejeda-Godinez, et al. "A Review of Rehabilitative and Assistive Technologies for Upper-Body Exoskeletal Devices." Actuators 12, no. 4 (2023): 178. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/act12040178.
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This journal review article focuses on the use of assistive and rehabilitative exoskeletons as a new opportunity for individuals with diminished mobility. The article aims to identify gaps and inconsistencies in state-of-the-art assistive and rehabilitative devices, with the overall goal of promoting innovation and improvement in this field. The literature review explores the mechanisms, actuators, and sensing procedures employed in each application, specifically focusing on passive shoulder supports and active soft robotic actuator gloves. Passive shoulder supports are an excellent option for bearing heavy loads, as they enable the load to be evenly distributed across the shoulder joint. This, in turn, reduces stress and strain around the surrounding muscles. On the other hand, the active soft robotic actuator glove is well suited for providing support and assistance by mimicking the characteristics of human muscle. This review reveals that these devices improve the overall standard of living for those who experience various impairments but also encounter limitations requiring redress. Overall, this article serves as a valuable resource for individuals working in the field of assistive and rehabilitative exoskeletons, providing insight into the state of the art and potential areas for improvement.
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Sokolov, Oleksandr, Aleksander Hosovsky, Vitalii Ivanov, and Ivan Pavlenko. "Movement Monitoring System for a Pneumatic Muscle Actuator." Journal of Engineering Sciences 10, no. 1 (2023): A1—A5. http://dx.doi.org/10.21272/jes.2023.10(1).a1.
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Recent advancements in soft pneumatic robot research have demonstrated these robots’ capability to interact with the environment and humans in various ways. Their ability to move over rough terrain and grasp objects of irregular shape, regardless of position, has garnered significant interest in developing new pneumatic soft robots. Integrating industrial design with related technologies holds great promise for the future, potentially bringing about a new lifestyle and revolutionizing the industry. As robots become increasingly practical, there is a growing need for sensitivity, robustness, and efficiency improvements. It is anticipated that the development of these intelligent pneumatic soft robots will play a critical role in serving the needs of society and production shortly. The present article is concerned with developing a system for monitoring a pneumatic robot’s parameters, including a spatial coordinate system. The focus is on utilizing the relationship between the coordinates and pressure to model the movement of the soft robot within the MATLAB simulation environment.
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Bernat, Jakub, Jakub Kołota, Piotr Gajewski, Agnieszka Marcinkowska, Maciej Komosinski, and Szymon Szczęsny. "Damage Prediction for Integrated DEAP and MRE Soft Actuators." Energies 17, no. 11 (2024): 2745. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en17112745.
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Soft robotics is a hot scientific topic in areas such as medicine and medical care, implantology, haptic technologies, and the design of various flexible structures. Integrated actuators (DEAP and MRE) are characterized by special functionality and a wider range of operations than when used individually. Such actuators can later be controlled with high voltages ranging from several to a dozen or so kV. Unfortunately, the production process of integrated actuators is multi-stage and therefore more complicated. Thus, at the stage of prototyping, microscopic errors often occur that cannot be detected using simple measurement methods. The result of such errors is actuator damage at the testing stage or in subsequent application. Unfortunately, due to high voltages, actuator damage usually leads to it catching fire, which is potentially dangerous. This work presents an approach that enables the prediction of actuator damage at the testing stage. The results of modeling damaged actuators, a modified safe testing method, and a complete supervising system for testing the actuator with protection are shown. The work is also enriched with a set of data from the analyzed damage to DEAP and MRE actuators, which may prove useful in other research on the actuators of soft robotics.
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Grabowski, Przemysław, Jakub Haberko, and Piotr Wasylczyk. "Photo-Mechanical Response Dynamics of Liquid Crystal Elastomer Linear Actuators." Materials 13, no. 13 (2020): 2933. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma13132933.
Full textAbstract:
With continuous miniaturization of many technologies, robotics seems to be lagging behind. While the semiconductor technologies operate confidently at the nanometer scale and micro-mechanics of simple structures (MEMS) in micrometers, autonomous devices are struggling to break the centimeter barrier and have hardly colonized smaller scales. One way towards miniaturization of robots involves remotely powered, light-driven soft mechanisms based on photo-responsive materials, such as liquid crystal elastomers (LCEs). While several simple devices have been demonstrated with contracting, bending, twisting, or other, more complex LCE actuators, only their simple behavior in response to light has been studied. Here we characterize the photo-mechanical response of a linear light-driven LCE actuator by measuring its response to laser beams with varying power, pulse duration, pulse energy, and the energy spatial distribution. Light absorption decrease in the actuator over time is also measured. These results are at the foundation of further development of soft, light-driven miniature mechanisms and micro-robots.
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Zaidi, Shadab, Martina Maselli, Cecilia Laschi, and Matteo Cianchetti. "Actuation Technologies for Soft Robot Grippers and Manipulators: A Review." May 20, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43154-021-00054-5.
Full textAbstract:
The new paradigm of soft robotics has been widely developed in the international robotics community. These robots being soft can be used in applications where delicate yet effective interaction is necessary. Soft grippers and manipulators are important, and their actuation is a fundamental area of study. The main purpose of this work is to provide readers with fast references to actuation technologies for soft robotic grippers in relation to their intended application. The authors have surveyed recent findings on actuation technologies for soft grippers. They presented six major kinds of technologies which are either used independently for actuation or in combination, e.g., pneumatic actuation combined with electro-adhesion, for certain applications. A review on the latest actuation technologies for soft grippers and manipulators is presented. Readers will get a guide on the various methods of technology utilization based on the application.
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Song, Xiaowen, Weitian Zhang, Haoran Liu, Limeng Zhao, Qi Chen, and Hongmiao Tian. "3D printing of liquid crystal elastomers-based actuator for an inchworm-inspired crawling soft robot." Frontiers in Robotics and AI 9 (August 10, 2022). http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/frobt.2022.889848.
Full textAbstract:
Liquid crystal elastomers (LCEs) have shown great potential as soft actuating materials in soft robots, with large actuation strain and fast response speed. However, to achieve the unique features of actuation, the liquid crystal mesogens should be well aligned and permanently fixed by polymer networks, limiting their practical applications. The recent progress in the 3D printing technologies of LCEs overcame the shortcomings in conventional processing techniques. In this study, the relationship between the 3D printing parameters and the actuation performance of LCEs is studied in detail. Furthermore, a type of inchworm-inspired crawling soft robot based on a liquid crystal elastomeric actuator is demonstrated, coupled with tilted fish-scale-like microstructures with anisotropic friction as the foot for moving forwards. In addition, the anisotropic friction of inclined scales with different angles is measured to demonstrate the performance of anisotropic friction. Lastly, the kinematic performance of the inchworm-inspired robot is tested on different surfaces.
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Deng, Chengyao, and Zhenkun Li. "Review: Advanced Drive Technologies for Bionic Soft Robots." Journal of Bionic Engineering, February 6, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42235-025-00664-1.
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Abstract This article provides a comprehensive exploration of the current research landscape in the field of soft actuation technology applied to bio-inspired soft robots. In sharp contrast to their conventional rigid counterparts, bio-inspired soft robots are primarily constructed from flexible materials, conferring upon them remarkable adaptability and flexibility to execute a multitude of tasks in complex environments. However, the classification of their driving technology poses a significant challenge owing to the diverse array of employed driving mechanisms and materials. Here, we classify several common soft actuation methods from the perspectives of the sources of motion in bio-inspired soft robots and their bio-inspired objects, effectively filling the classification system of soft robots, especially bio-inspired soft robots. Then, we summarize the driving principles and structures of various common driving methods from the perspective of bionics, and discuss the latest developments in the field of soft robot actuation from the perspective of driving modalities and methodologies. We then discuss the application directions of bio-inspired soft robots and the latest developments in each direction. Finally, after an in-depth review of various soft bio-inspired robot driving technologies in recent years, we summarize the issues and challenges encountered in the advancement of soft robot actuation technology.
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Zhang, Chao, Yiman Duan, Zhongdong Jiao, et al. "Functional Fluid‐Based Soft Robotic Actuation." Advanced Materials, June 2025. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202502669.
Full textAbstract:
AbstractSoft robots actuated by fluids offer a series of inherent benefits, including safe human–robot interaction, cost‐effectiveness, and geometry adaptability for manipulating delicate objects, making them highly promising in wearable devices, medical equipment, and bio‐inspired robots, etc. However, the foremost challenge in fluidic actuation lies in developing standardized, universal actuation methods that are flexible, portable, powerful, fast, low‐cost, and safe, rather than still relying on existing rigid pumps and valves originally developed for traditional mechatronic systems. Recent advancements in responsive fluid materials have enabled the emergence of novel functional fluid actuation technologies that convert electrical, magnetic, thermal, chemical, and acoustic energies into fluidic energy without mechanical movable components. These technologies have great potential to provide flexible, portable, and powerful fluidic actuation customized for soft robotics. Here, functional fluid actuation generated from different energies, and their basic principles, structure designs, and robotic applications are introduced. Finally, the advantages and disadvantages of different functional fluid actuation are discussed, and their future trends are prospected. It is hoped this review can provide guidance for the development of fluidic actuation technology specifically tailored for soft robotics.
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Gruzdenko, Alexandra, and Ingo Dierking. "Liquid crystal-based actuators." Frontiers in Soft Matter 2 (November 14, 2022). http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/frsfm.2022.1052037.
Full textAbstract:
Liquid crystal polymer networks (LCNs) have a great potential in soft actuator technologies. In contrast to other materials, LCNs offer a wide range of external stimuli which can trigger their actuation. These are for example based on changes of temperature, photo-induced or via the application of electric fields. We here discuss the main LCN actuation mechanisms and classify them into several groups based on the used stimulus. Specific recent examples are provided for liquid crystal actuators and several general applications of such materials in connection to actuation mechanisms are exemplary outlined.