Academic literature on the topic 'Soil animals – Effect of pesticides on'

This study was aimed to investigate pesticides bioaccumulation and their soil pollutant effect. The experiment was included sixteen active greenhouses in Erbil plane, and conducted during September 2017 and March 2018. The present study revealed that the pesticides residue of pyridabine, thiamethoxam, abamectin and spirodiclofen were detected in greenhouse soil samples. The values of soil heavy metals contaminations factor (CF) revealed, that the studied greenhouse soil samples were ranged from low to very high contamination, while for pesticides were ranged from non to high contaminated. Soil pollution load index results supported that, the greenhouse soil was contaminated especially by Cr, Ni and Co. Pollution load index (PLI) was ranged from 7.751 to 0.303; supporting that the soils were contaminated in most sites. It could be concluded that, significant need for the development of pollution prevention and scientific strategies to reduce heavy metal pollution and pesticide accumulation residuals within greenhouses in Erbil plane.

Pesticides are widely used to eradicate insects, weed species, and fungi in agriculture. The half-lives of some pesticides are relatively long and may have the dire potential to induce adverse effects when released into the soil, terrestrial and aquatic systems. To assess the potential adverse effects of pesticide pollution in the aquatic environment, zebrafish (Danio rerio) and Daphnia magna are two excellent animal models because of their transparent bodies, relatively short development processes, and well-established genetic information. Moreover, they are also suitable for performing high-throughput toxicity assays. In this study, we used both zebrafish larvae and water flea daphnia neonates as a model system to explore and compare the potential toxicity by monitoring locomotor activity. Tested animals were exposed to 12 various types of pesticides (three fungicides and 9 insecticides) for 24 h and their corresponding locomotor activities, in terms of distance traveled, burst movement, and rotation were quantified. By adapting principal component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical clustering analysis, we were able to minimize data complexity and compare pesticide toxicity based on locomotor activity for zebrafish and daphnia. Results showed distinct locomotor activity alteration patterns between zebrafish and daphnia towards pesticide exposure. The majority of pesticides tested in this study induced locomotor hypo-activity in daphnia neonates but triggered locomotor hyper-activity in zebrafish larvae. According to our PCA and clustering results, the toxicity for 12 pesticides was grouped into two major groups based on all locomotor activity endpoints collected from both zebrafish and daphnia. In conclusion, all pesticides resulted in swimming alterations in both animal models by either producing hypo-activity, hyperactivity, or other changes in swimming patterns. In addition, zebrafish and daphnia displayed distinct sensitivity and response against different pesticides, and the combinational analysis approach by using a phenomic approach to combine data collected from zebrafish and daphnia provided better resolution for toxicological assessment.

Abstract In many circumstances, pesticides are the only effective means of controlling disease organisms, weeds, or insect pests. Yet, pesticides are toxic and potentially hazardous to humans, other animals and organisms, and the environment. Therefore, people who use pesticides or regularly come in contact with them must understand the relative toxicity, potential health effects, and preventative measures to reduce the exposure to the products they use. Today, farm-level costs include the costs of the pesticides, and their application. This study was conducted to analyse the farm-level economics of pesticide use on the processing and table tomato growing in selected regions of Turkey. Data was collected from 59 processing tomato farmers and 30 table tomato farmers. These farmers were willing to have their data recorded. According to the results of the study, the average usage concerning the active ingredient of pesticides for the processing and table tomatoes were 4,825.02 and 5,273.86 g/ha. Average pesticide and pesticide application costs of the processing and table tomatoes were determined to be $445/ha and $502/ha, respectively. The breakeven yields for the processing and table tomatoes were calculated to be 3,708 and 3,138 kg/ha, repectively.

SummaryThe effect of three herbicides and an insecticide combination on nitrogen fixation in three paddy soils was investigated in a laboratory incubation study. The influence of pesticide combination on N2 fixation was evaluated in the presence and absence of rice straw under flooded and non-flooded conditions. In a non-flooded alluvial soil single or combined application of butachlor and carbofuran significantly stimulated N2 fixation. There was no effect on N2 fixation when thiobencarb was applied alone; but with thiobencarb in combination with carbofuran higher N2 fixation occurred. Both oxadiazone and thiobencarb had no effect on N2 fixation under flooded conditions, but in combination with carbofuran the N2 fixation was high. In acid sulphate saline Pokkali soil, rice straw application stimulated N2 fixation; the stimulatory effect of carbofuran either alone or in combination became more pronounced under flooded conditions. N2 fixation was low in a laterite Sukinda soil and the effect of pesticides was not changed by rice straw amendment. A uniform stimulation of N2 fixation occurred in soils when carbofuran was applied either singly or in combination with other herbicides tested. Results indicate that the effect of pesticides on N2 fixation varied with the rice straw application and water regime.

Pollution is the preface of infect into an environment, may also defined as an unwanted modify in the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of air, water and soil which influence human life, lives of other useful alive plants and animals, industrial progress, alive conditions and florescent property Water is the most necessary & major necessaries of life. One can rarely survive without water also for a few days. At that 2/3 of the world’s float up region is enclosed by water but yet we are blank. An incubation study was conducted to know the toxicity level of Fipronil in soil fauna by using earthworm species Eudrilus eugeniae as a biomarker. The earthworm were incubated in the spiked soil, with concentration of 17ml, 18ml, 19ml, 20ml for a period of 24hours and 48 hours. From the study, 50% mortality was observed in 17ml. The LC50 concentration were calculated from that it was clear that Fipronil is toxic to earthworm.

Pollution is the preface of infect into an environment, may also defined as an unwanted modify in the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of air, water and soil which influence human life, lives of other useful alive plants and animals, industrial progress, alive conditions and florescent property Water is the most necessary & major necessaries of life. One can rarely survive without water also for a few days. At that 2/3 of the world’s float up region is enclosed by water but yet we are blank. An incubation study was conducted to know the toxicity level of Fipronil in soil fauna by using earthworm species Eisenia fetida as a biomarker. The earthworm were incubated in the spiked soil, with concentration of 0.5 ppm, 0.6 ppm, 0.7 ppm,0.8 ppm, 0.9 ppm for a period of 24hours and 48 hours. From the study, 50% mortality was observed in 0.5 ppm. The LC50 concentration was calculated from that it was clear that Cypermethrin is toxic to earthworm.

Aim and Objectives: Humans continuously use pesticides in the field to control the pest population and weeds for considerable agricultural productivity. Side-by species like grazinganimals, insects and other species are adversely affected by or become resistant to pesticides. Insects, birds and cattle are highly abundant dwellers of the agriculture-field and represent three distinct phyla having versatile physiological features. Besides higher agricultural-productivity, protection to several species will maintain ecological/environmental balance. Studies on the effect of widely used pesticides on their DNA-stability and important enzymatic-activities are insufficient. Materials and Methods: Antioxidant-activity (Superoxide-dismutase; SOD/Catalase- by gelzymogram- assay) and DNA-stability (fragmentation-assay) in hepatic/gut tissues were studied after in vitro exposure of Chlorpyrifos, Fenvalerate, Nimbecidine or Azadirachtin to goat/cow/poultry-hen/insect. Results: In general, all pesticides were found to impair enzymatic-activities. However, lower organisms were affected more than higher vertebrates by azadirachtin-treatment. DNA fragmentation was found more in insects/poultry-birds than that of the cattle in hepatic/gut tissues. Inversely, toxicity/antioxidant marker-enzymes were more responsive in insect gut-tissues. However, mitochondrialtoxicity revealed variable effects on different species. It has been noticed that chlorpyrifos is the most toxic pesticide, followed by Fenvalerate/Nimbecidine (Azadirachtin, AZT). Nevertheless, AZT revealed its higher DNA-destabilizing effects on the field-insects as compared to the other animals. Conclusion: Field-insects are highly integrated into the ecosystem and the local bio-geo-chemical cycle, which may be impaired. Pesticides may have toxic effects on higher vertebrates and may sustain in the soil after being metabolized into their different derivatives. Some of the sensitive biochemical parameters of this organism may be used as a biomarker for pesticide toxicity.

In recent decades an increase usage of chemicals in many ways of modern life is evident. So, the possibility of its intake into organisms, human and animals poisoning and health damage, is nowadays on a high level, especially when it comes to disaster situations caused by using toxic chemicals in terrorist attacks or for military purposes. If we look ahead, the risk of pesticide contamination of the water and soil, as one of the most important resources for surviving, is always present. The wide spectra of pesticide negative effects on the environment initiate the increasing number of investigations of efficient pesticide removal methods, especially from water. The aim of this study was to investigate the efficiency of direct electrochemical oxidation as a method for in-situ degradation of pesticides in the aquatic environment, depending on the concentration of pesticides, present electrolytes, applied current and the pH value of the medium. As a model molecule, the neonicotinoid pesticide thiamethoxam was used. Kinetics of thiamethoxam degradation in aqueous solution was followed by UV/Vis spectrometry.

In Indonesia agriculture practice often used the large scale pesticide application such as insecticide, herbicide, and fungicide. The wide use of toxic pesticide has created numerous problem in increasing environtmental hazard to human and to other animals. Many of soil bacteria had important role to degrading chemical compounds into simpler compounds as a bioremediation agent. The aim of this study was to screen the Chlorantraniliprole tolerant bacteria using soil mineral medium with Prevathon pesticide addition, also teo identificate the species of bacteria. This research was conducted at Microbiology Laboratory, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Udayana University. The research was done in three analysis, (1) bacteria test on Prevathon pesticide addition to mineral medium treatment, (2) characterization of bacteria, (3) Identification of pesticide tolerant bacteria with BD BBL Crystal Enteric/Non FermenterID Kit. The results showed that mineral medium with the addition of pesticides Prevathon treatment able to provide a significant different effect on the enrichment stage 1, stage 2 and stage 3 (P<0.05), there was 5 isolates pesticide tolerant bacteria that isolated from Baturiti Tabanan cultivated soil that was BSP 1, BSP 2, BSP 3 known as gram negative bacteria, and BSP 4, BSP 5 known as Gram positive bacteria, pesticide tolerant bacteria identified as Serratia marcescens which is a Gram negative bacteria group and may cause pathogenic.

Abstract Eco-efficiency is based on environmental, social and economic principles, focusing not only on the use of fewer natural resources (raw materials) and energy but also on the cost-effective use of new technologies (eco-innovation) for the same volume of production and generation of low waste (efficient production). Agro-ecosystems globally, once with the development of the pesticide industry (plant protection products) and under the influence of aggressive marketing, have been based on the large-scale application of big amounts (perhaps too high) of pesticides. Many of the pesticides used in agriculture have a high persistence and degrade very slowly, which leads to the soil, water and even air pollution, with negative effects on plants, animals and, implicitly, humans. If these are used in short term and at low concentrations, pesticides can have beneficial effects (crop protection and their conservation and prevention of vector-borne disease) but in large quantities and applied over a long period of time can be toxic to humans and with a negative impact on the environment and ecosystems (degrading essential ecosystem services).

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2005.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The agricultural sector in South Africa relies heavily on the use of pesticides to protect crops against pest organisms. Pesticides can affect non-target organisms such as the meso- and macrofauna in the soil detrimentally. Since these organisms play an important role in the processes of mineralization and decomposition in the soil and contribute to soil fertility, it is important that they are protected. A large amount of published literature exists on the biological importance of soil meso- and macrofauna and the effects that various agricultural practices have on them. The main aim of this study was to investigate the influence of agricultural practices on the abundance and diversity of meso- and macrofauna in different vineyard soils. A comparative study was conducted of an organically managed, conventionally managed and an uncultivated control soil. A secondary aim was to determine the effect of these agricultural management practices on the biological activity of these animals. Soil samples were taken, from which mesofauna (Collembola and Acari) were extracted with a modified Tullgren extractor, identified and counted. Earthworms were extracted from the soil using hand sorting methods. Soil parameters such as pH, water holding capacity, organic matter content, soil texture and soil respiration were determined. Bait lamina and litter-bags were also used to help determine the biological activity within the soil. The mesofauna diversity was quantified using the Shannon Weiner diversity index, as well as a diversity index described by Cancela da Fonseca and Sarkar (1996). Differences in abundance of both the meso-and macrofauna were statistically measured using ANOVA's. Biological activity results were also interpreted using ANOV A's. Results indicate that the abundance of the meso fauna was the highest at the organically treated vineyard soil and lowest in the conventionally managed soil where pesticide application took place. The earthworms also showed the same trend as the mesofauna, but were much more influenced by seasonal changes. Biological activity, according to the bait lamina and the litter-bag results, was higher in both the conventionally and organically managed soils than in the control, but no statistical significant differences were found between the two experimental soils. The soil respiration (C02-flux), also indicating biological activity, was highest in the organically treated soil and lowest in the conventionally treated soil. The different sampling techniques used gave variable results and although the organically managed soil proved to have higher abundances of both meso- and macrofauna, the biological activity did not show the same trends. In conclusion the data did not give enough evidence as to whether organic management practices were more beneficial than conventional management practices for the maintenance of soil biodiversity.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Suid Afrikaanse Landbousektor steun hewig op die gebruik van verskillende chemiese pestisiede om oeste teen pes organismes te beskerm. Pestisiede kon ook verskeie ander nie-teikenorganismes soos die meso- en makrofauna in die grond negatief affekteer. Hierdie organismes behoort beskerm te word omdat hulle 'n belangrike rol speel in grondprosesse soos mineralisering, en die afbreek van organiese materiaal. Hierdie organismes dra ook by tot die vrugbaarheid van die grond. Daar is heelwat gepubliseerde literatuur beskikbaar wat verband hou met die biologiese belangrikheid van grond meso- en makrofauna en die effekte wat verskeie landbou behandelings op hulle het. Die primêre doel van hierdie studie was om vas te stel watter invloed konvensionele landboupraktyke op die hoeveelheid en diversiteit van meso- en makrofauna in verskillende wingerdgronde het. 'n Vergelykende studie is gedoen om wingerdgronde wat konvensioneel en organies behandel is sowel as 'n onbehandelde kontrolegrond met natuurlike plantegroei met mekaar te vergelyk. 'n Sekondêre doel van hierdie studie was ook om die effek van die verskillende boerderymetodes op die biologiese akitiwiteit in die grond te ondersoek. Grondmonsters is geneem, waaruit die meso fauna (Collembola en Acari) deur middel van 'n aangepaste Tullgren ekstraktor ge-ekstraheer, geïdentifiseer en getel. Die erdwurms is deur middel van handsorteringsmetodes versamel. Die volgende grond parameters is gemeet: pH, waterhouvermoë, organiese materiaal inhoud, grondtekstuur en grondrespirasie. "Bait lamina" en "litter bags" is ook gebruik om biologiese aktiwiteit in die grond te bepaal. Die diversiteit van mesofauna is bepaal met die Shannon Weiner diversiteitsindeks, as ook 'n diversiteitsindeks wat deur Cancela da Fonseca en Sarkar (1996) ontwikkel is. Die resultate van beide die meso- en makrofauna hoeveelhede in die verskillende wingerdgronde is met mekaar vergelyk deur van ANOV A's gebruik te maak. Die resultate van die biologiese aktiwiteit is ook deur middel van ANOVO's statisties met mekaar vergelyk. Die resultate het aangetoon dat die hoeveelheid mesofauna die hoogste in die organies behandelde grond en die laagste in konvensionele grond was. Die erdwurms het dieselfde patroon as die mesofauna getoon, maar is baie meer deur seisoenale faktore geaffekteer, bv. reënval. Volgens die resultate van die "bait lamina" en die "litter bags" was die biologiese aktiwiteit in die grond hoër in beide die eksperimentele grond as in die kontrolegrond. Die grondrespirasie (C02-puIs) was hoër in die kontrolegrond as in die ander eksperimentele gronde. Daar was groot variasie tussen die resultate wat met die verskillende tegnieke verkry is en alhoewel die organiese perseel hoër hoeveelhede van beide meso- en makrofauna gehad het, het die biologiese aktiwiteit nie dieselfde tendens gewys nie. Vanuit die data wat verkry is kon daar dus nie met sekerheid afgelei word dat organiese boerderymetodes beter vir die biodiversiteit van gronde,soos hier gemeet, is as konvensionele boerderymetodes nie.

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2002.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Food demands for the ever-increasing human population is increasing the pressure on the agricultural sector to produce more food. In order to satisfy these demands, farmers are turning to chemical biocides for the control of pest species to produce greater crop yields. All pesticides must be toxic or poisonous to the target species they intend to control. Unfortunately, most pesticides are toxic or poisonous to non-target organisms as well, with detrimental effects on their health. Organic farming was developed to enhance the overall health of the farm's natural soilmicrobe- plant-animal biodiversity. No synthetic fertilisers and/or pesticides are used when farming organically. Life in the soil consists of intricate food webs and interactions between the soil dwelling invertebrates. The soil-organisms are divided into three main groups, viz., Micro-organisms (e.g. protozoa, bacteria and fungi) mesofauna (nematodes, Collembola and Acari) and macro-fauna (e.g. millipedes, isopods, insects, molluscs and earthworms). The invertebrates are very susceptible to chemical contamination by chemical biocides in natural and agro-ecosystems. The soil invertebrate communities are responsible for the decomposition of organic material in soil, thereby remineralising the soil. The decomposition processes start with comminution of the large pieces of organic material by meso- and macro-fauna and ends with the micro-fauna and microbial organisms that complete these processes by returning the nutrients in an inorganic form to the soil. The aim of this study was to investigate whether, and to what extent the soil organisms are influenced by different management practices viz., organic management practices versus conventional management practices. A vineyard on the farm Plaisir de Merle, in Simondium, Western Cape was used for the present study. One half of a one hectare vineyard was managed organically and the other half conventionally. Within each vineyard block six different treatments were performed. Three of the treatments were strictly organic and the other three were strictly conventional. Four replicates of each management treatment were performed. The bait-lamina technique was used to assess the feeding activity of the soil organisms exposed to the different management treatments. In addition to the bait-lamina trials in the vineyard itself, bait-lamina tests were performed in microcosm studies with soil from the organically and conventionally managed vineyard blocks under controlled conditions. In order to assess the impact of the various pesticides that are used in the vineyards in the conventional way, on the soil fauna, standard acute toxicity tests and behavioural tests were performed on Eisenia fetida, the compost worm. The bait-lamina tests in the vineyard revealed that the moisture content of the soil plays an important role in the biological activity of soil fauna. The different management treatments did affect the biological activity of the soil fauna, but seasonal changes also proved to be one of the important factors governing biological processes in the soil. The acute toxicity tests showed that the active ingredients (mancozeb, penconazole and trifloxystrobin) of three of the pesticides that were tested in this study, had negatively affected E. fetida at their recommended application concentrations. The remaining two pesticides' active ingredients (glyphosate and N-acetyl salicylic acid) did not affect the earthworms negatively at the recommended application concentrations. The preference behavioural trials showed that E. fetida could detect and avoid contaminated substrates at the LCso-concentrations of the different pesticides. All the earthworms were influenced positively in the preference behaviour experiments. Because of certain limitations of the bait-lamina technique, it was difficult to formulate conclusions on what happens in the soil. A possible explanation for the differences in feeding activity of soil fauna could be attributed to the migration of the soil fauna to more habitable soil horizons during the dry summer conditions, when most of the pesticides are applied. The ecological relevance of the acute toxicity tests conducted need to be investigated further. It is clear that the acute toxicity tests provided important information that should be considered, but care should be taken and the necessary safety factors be determined and considered when doing risk assessment studies. The results of the preference behaviour studies showed that for certain pesticides E. fetida can be a sensitive bioindicator of acute and/or sub-acute lethal toxicity testing but this might not necessarily be the case for other pesticides. The goal of doing laboratory studies is to gain as much information to make reliable extrapolations to field situations from laboratory data. Laboratory-to-field extrapolations are very complicated because of the physico-chemical composition of soil, the unpredictable way pesticides behave within soil and the reaction of soil organisms to the soil and to the chemical biocides that are used. Further studies need to be done in order to fully understand to what extent the soil fauna were affected by the different management practices applied to the vineyard at Plaisir de Merle.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Voedsel aanvraag vir die toenemende menslike bevolking plaas groot druk op die landbou sektor om meer kos te produseer. Om aan die voedsel eise te voldoen, gebruik boere al meer chemiese biosiede om pesspesies te bestry. Alle pestisiede moet toksies of giftig wees vir die teiken organisme waarvoor dit bestem is. Ongelukkig is die meeste pestisiede ook toksies of giftig vir nie-teiken organismes, wat tot nadelige effekte op hul gesonheid kan lei. Organiese boerdery is ontwikkel om die algehele gesondheid van die plaas se natuurlike grond-mikrobe-plant-dier biodiversiteit te bevorder. Geen sintetiese bemestingstowwe en/of pestisiede mag gebruik word wanneer daar organies geboer word nie. Die lewe in die grond bestaan uit ingewikkelde voedselwebbe en interaksies tussen die grondlewende invertebrate. Die grond invertebrate word verdeel in drie hoof groepe, nl. mikro-organismes (bv. Protozoa, bakterieë en fungi) meso fauna (Nematoda, Collembole en Acari) en makrofauna (bv. Millipoda, Isopoda, Insecta, Mollusca en erdwurms). Die Invertebrata is die mees vatbaarste vir chemiese kontaminasie deur chemiese biosiedes in natuurlike en landbou ekosisteme. Die grond invertebraat gemeenskappe is verantwoordelik vir die afbreek van alle organiese materiaal in die grond en dus vir remineralisering van die grond. Die afbreekproses begin by die komminusie van groter stukke organiese materiaal deur die meso- en makrofauna en eindig met die mikrofauna en mikrobes wat die prosesse voltooi deur die nutriente terug te plaas in die vorm van anorganiese produkte in die grond. Die doel van hierdie studie was om te ondersoek of, en tot watter mate, grond organismes geraak word deur verskillende grondbestuurspraktyke, nl. Organiese grondbestuurspraktyke teenoor die konvensionele grondbestuurspraktyke. 'n Wingerd op die plaas Plaisir de Merle, in Simondium, Wes-Kaap, was gebruik vir die huidige studie. Een helfte van 'n een hektaar wingerd is organies bestuur en die ander helfte is op die konvensionele manier bestuur. Op elk van die twee wingerd blokke is ses verskillende behandelings toegepas. Drie van die behandelings was streng organies en die ander drie was streng konvensioneel van aard. Vier replikate van elke behandeling is toegepas op elk van die twee wingerdblokke. Die bait-lamina metode is gebruik om die voedingsaktiwiteit van die grond organismes te asses seer. As toevoeging tot die bait-lamina proewe in die wingerd self, is bait-lamina toetse ook in mikro-kosmosse in die laboratorium gedoen met grond afkomstig vanaf die twee wingerdblokke. Om die impak van die verskillende pestisiede op die grondorganismes te ondersoek, is standaard akute toksisteitstoestse en gedragstoetse uitgevoer met die komposerdwurm, Eisenia fetida. Die bait-lamina resultate in die wingerd het getoon dat die voginhoud van die grond die belangrikste rol speel wat die biologiese aktiwiteit van die grondorganismes beïnvloed. Die verskillende behandelings het die biologiese aktiwiteit van die grond fauna geaffekteer, maar seisoenale veranderings is ook uitgesonder as een van die bepalende faktore wat die biologiese prosesse in die grond stuur. Die akute toksisiteitstoetse het getoon dat die aktiewe bestandeie van drie van die pestisiede (mancozeb, penconazole en trifloxystrobin), E. fetida negatief beïnvloed het teen die aanbeveelde konsentrasies wat toegedien is. Die aktiewe bestandeie van die ander twee pestiede (glyphosate en N-asetiel sallisiel suur) het nie die erdwurms nadelig beïnvloed teen die aanbeveelde konsentrasies wat toegedien is nie. Die gedragsproewe het getoon dat E. fetida die LCso-konsentrasies van al die verskillende pestisiede kan waarneem en vermy. Al die erdwurms is positief beïnvloed in die gedragseksperimente met die verskillende pestisiede. Omdat die bait-laminametode sekere beperkings het, was dit moeilik om tot gevolgtrekkings te kom oor wat presies in die grond gebeur. 'n Moontlike verklaring vir die verskillende voedingsaktiwiteite van die grond fauna kan toegereken word aan die migrasie van die grondorganismes na meer leefbare grondhorisonne gedurende die droë somer toestande, wat toevallig met die spuit van die meeste pestisiede ooreenstem. Die ekologiese relevansie van die akute toksisiteitstoetse wat uitgevoer is, moet meer deeglik ondersoek word. Die belangrikheid van die akute toksisteitstoetse is duidelik en het waardevolle informasie gelewer, maar sorg moet geneem word, en die nodige veiligheids faktore moet bepaal word en in ag geneem word, wanneer riskobepalingstudies gedoen word. Die gedragsproewe het getoon dat vir sekere pestisiede E. fetida 'n sensitiewe bioindikator van akute en/of sub-akute letale toksisiteits toetse kan wees, maar nie noodwendig vir ander pestisiede nie. Die doel van laboratoriumstudies is om so veel as moontlik inligting te versamelom vertroubare ekstrapolasie te kan maak na situasies in die veld vanaf laboratorium data. Laboratorium-na-veld ekstrapolasies is dikwels baie gekompliseerd as gevolg van die fisies-chemiese samestelling van die grond, die onvoorspelbare manier waarop chemiese pestisiede met die grond reageer en die reaksie van die grondorganismes op chemiese biosiede in die grond. Verdere studies moet gedoen word om so deeglik maanlik die mate van die impak wat die verskillende bestuurspraktyke op die grond fauna het, te verstaan op Plaisir de Merle.

Thesis (MSc)--University of Stellenbosch, 2004.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Agricultural environments are usually contaminated with mixtures of antropogenically introduced chemicals as a result of pesticide spraying, which can affect beneficial, nontarget soil invertebrates, such as earthworms negatively. Most studies on mixture toxicity have focused on interactions of chemicals with similar structures and mechanisms. However, chemical mixtures may occur as conglomerates of diverse structures and toxicological mechanisms in the environment. This study was aimed at assessing the effects of pesticides singly, and in a mixture, on earthworms, using lifecycle parameters (growth and reproduction) and biomarkers (neutral red retention (NRR) assay and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition) as endpoints. Thus, to determine whether any interactions occurred between the pesticides as shown by the measured endpoints. Another aim was to validate the use of the chosen biomarkers for assessing mixture toxicity. The pesticides used were from three groups: organophosphates, heavy metal-containing pesticides and pyrethroids. From these three groups, four of the most commonly used pesticides in the orchards and vineyards of the Western Cape, South Africa, were chosen, namely chlorpyrifos (organophosphate), azinphos-methyl (organophosphate), copper oxychloride (heavy metal-containing fungicide) and cypermethrin (pyrethroid). Earthworms were exposed in the laboratory to a range of concentrations of chlorpyrifos and copper oxychloride singly, and in 1:1 mixtures of these pesticides in artificial soil, for four weeks. After the exposure period, the biomass change was determined as measure of growth, and cocoon production, hatching success and number of hatchlings per cocoon were determined as measures of reproduction. Growth (biomass change) and reproduction (cocoon production) were affected by the highest concentration treatment (20mg/kg) of chlorpyrifos, but copper oxychloride and the mixture of the two pesticides showed no observable effects on lifecycle parameters. Dose related effects on NRR times were however determined for both pesticides and the mixture. Dose related effects on AChE activity were found for chlopyrifos and the mixture of the two pesticides, but not for copper oxychloride. Short-term exposures (48 hours) of earthworms to the following pesticides in artificial groundwater: chlorpyrifos, copper oxychloride, azinphos-methyl, cypermethrin, chlorpyrifos-copper oxychloride, chlorpyrifos -azinphos-methyl and chlorpyrifos-cypermethrin, were done followed by the determination of AChE inhibition. Dose related effects were exhibited on the AChE activity of earthworms exposed to chlorpyrifos, a mixture of chlorpyrifos and copper oxychloride, azinphos-methyl, and a mixture of azinphos-methyl and chlorpyrifos. Copper oxychloride, cypermethrin and the mixture of chlorpyrifos and cypermethrin had no effect on AChE activity. Earthworms died at the highest exposure concentration of the mixture of chlopyrifos and cypermethrin. Results have shown that although the pesticides did not cause observable effects on lifecycle parameters, there were effects at subcellular and biochemical level, as shown by the biomarkers. Mixtures of pesticides, in some instances, affected earthworms differently from their single components, indicating interactions between the pesticides in mixtures, as shown by the measured endpoints. The NRR assay proved to be a good general biomarker of soil contamination, and the AChE activity could also be a valuable tool in assessing the effects of organophosphate mixtures and mixtures of organophosphates and pesticides from other groups.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Nie-teiken organismes, soos erdwurms, word negatief beïnvloed deur mengsels van antropogeniese chemikalieë in landbou-omgewings. Die meeste studies wat handel oor die toksisiteit van chemiese mengsels het tot dusver gefokus op chemikalieë van dieselfde aard en met dieselfde meganismes van werking. Mengsels van chemiese stowwe kan egter as konglomerate van 'n verskeidenheid strukturele eienskappe en met verskillende toksiese meganismes in die omgewing aangetref word. Tydens die studie is gepoog om die effekte van enkel pestisiede sowel as mengsels daarvan op erdwurms te bestudeer, deur van lewensloop kenmerke (groei en voortplanting) en biomerkers (neutraalrooi retensietyd - NNR en inhibisie van asetielcholienesterase -AChE) as eindpunte gebruik te maak. 'n Verdere doel van die studie was om vas te stel of daar enige wisselwerkings tussen die verskillende pestisiede plaasvind, soos aangetoon deur die gemete eindpunte, en verder ook om die gebruik van die gekose biomerkers as maatstawwe van mengseltoksisiteit te evalueer. Die pestisiede wat gebruik is, is van drie verskillende groepe afkomstig: organofosfate, swaarmetale en piretroiede. Van hierdie drie groepe is vier van die pestisiede wat vry algemeen in boorde en wingerde in die Weskaap, Suid-Afrika, gebruik word, geïdentifiseer. Hierdie stowwe is chlorpyrifos (organofosfaat), azinphos-metiel (organofosfaat), koperoksichloried (swaarmetaalbevattende fungisied) en sipermetrien (piretroied). Erdwurms is in die laboratorium aan 'n reeks konsentrasies van chlorpyrifos en koperoksichloried as enkel toksikante en as 1:1 mengsels in kunsmatige grond, vir vier weke blootgestel. Voor en na die blootstellingsperiode is die biomassa van die wurms, as maatstaf van groei, bepaal en kokonproduksie, uitbroeisukses en getal nakomelinge per kokon bepaal as maatstawwe van voortplantingsvaardigheid. Groei (biomassaverandering) en voortplanting (kokonproduksie) is beinvloed deur behandeling met die hoogste konsentrasie (20 mg/kg) chlorpyrifos, terwyl geen effek van koperoksichloried of die mengsel van hierdie twee pestisiede gevind is nie. Daar is gevind dat beide die pestisiede, enkel en in die mengsel, die NRR tye beinvloed het. Die AChE aktiwiteit is beinvloed deur chlorpyrifos en die mengsel, maar nie deur die koperoksichloried nie. Korttermyn blootstellings van erdwurms (48 uur), in kunsmatige grondwater, van erdwurms aan chlorpyrifos, koperoksichloried, azinphos-metiel en sipermetrien as enkel toksikante en mengsels van chlorpyrifos-koperoksichloried, chlorpyrifos-azinphos-metiel en chlorpyrifos-sipermetrien, is gedoen en gevolg deur die bepaling van AChE inhibisie. Koperoksichloried, cypermetrien en die chlorpyrifos-sipermetrien mengsel het geen waarneembare effek op die AChE aktiwiteit gehad nie ?????. Die erdwurms wat blootgestel is aan die hoogste konsentrasie in die mengsel van chlorpyrifos-sipermetrien het doodgegaan. Die resultate het getoon dat die pestisiede nie in die korttermyn die lewensloopkenmerke in enige waarneembare mate geaffekteer het nie maar daar was effekte op sellulêre en biochemiese vlakke soos aangetoon deur die biomerkers. Sommige mengsels van die pestisiede het die erdwurms verskillend van die enkelstowwe geaffekteer. Daar het dus wisselwerking tussen sommige van die pestisiede wat in mengsels aangewend is, plaasgevind, soos aangetoon deur die gemete eindpunte. Die NRR toets, as breë-spektrum biomerker was 'n goeie maatstaf van kontaminasie in grond en daar is aanduidings dat die AChE aktiwiteit, as 'n spesifieke biomerker, 'n nuttige maatstaf kan wees om die effekte van organofosfaatmengsels en mengsels van hierdie chemiese groep en die van ander chemikalieë aan te toon.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2011.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Species differ in their sensitivities to toxicants and these differences are exploited in ecological risk assessment methods such as species sensitivity distributions (SSDs). The most commonly used endpoints for ecotoxicity testing and thus to generate data for use in SSDs are on the whole-organismal level, and usually include the evaluation of survival and reproduction. However, suborganismal biomarker responses are in many instances more sensitive than these whole-organismal responses. Therefore, this study investigated and compared responses on various biological organisational levels to determine their suitability for use in SSDs. Five terrestrial oligochaete species (earthworms) were selected as model test organisms, and were exposed to a range of concentrations of a well-studied pesticide, copper oxychloride. The investigated responses included survival, biomass change and reproduction on the whole-organismal level. In order to investigate responses on the suborganismal level, cells (coelomocytes) were extracted non-invasively. The spectrophotometric neutral red retention (NRR) assay was used to determine cell survival and the MTT assay to determine mitochondrial metabolic activity of the coelomocytes. The alkaline single cell gel electrophoresis (comet) assay was used to assess DNA integrity in these cells. The amount of Cu taken up by earthworms was also determined and compared to their responses. Species differences were observed in all responses, and EC50 and EC10 values were calculated for the whole-organismal endpoints and used to generate SSDs. From these SSDs, the hazardous concentrations where 5% of all species would be detrimentally affected (HC5) were calculated, which indicated that the most sensitive whole-organismal endpoint was mass change, followed by reproduction and survival. It was found that earthworms avoided feeding on the contaminated substrate in high copper oxychloride concentration exposures. The concentration where this behaviour occurred could be estimated for each species, and an SSD was constructed with these data. The HC5 value indicated that this response is more sensitive than earthworm survival, but less sensitive than the other responses. It was shown that the earthworms regulated their body Cu concentrations in a species-specific manner. This regulation of Cu was reflected in the suborganismal responses, and the species that had taken up the highest amount of Cu was the most sensitive species for all three suborganismal assays. Due to this regulation of Cu, the resulting dose-responses for the suborganismal endpoints did not allow for the calculation of EC50 values in most of the species and such data could thus not be used to generate SSDs. Sufficient EC10 values were however generated to construct SSDs from the results of the NRR and comet assays. The HC5 values obtained from SSDs constructed with EC10 values for both suborganismal and whole-organismal endpoints indicated that the NRR assay was the most sensitive endpoint, followed by both the comet assay and earthworm mass change, and subsequently the other whole-organismal endpoints. In conclusion, the majority of the responses on the various levels of biological organisation investigated during the present study were shown to be suitable to determine species sensitivity relationships in the terrestrial oligochaete species studied.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Spesies verskil van mekaar ten opsigte van hulle sensitiwiteit vir toksikante, en hierdie verskille word in ekologiese risikobepalingsmetodes soos spesie-sensitiwiteitsverspreidings (SSVs) gebruik. Die mees algemene eindpunte vir ekotoksisiteitstoetse, en wat dus gebruik word om data te genereer vir SSVs, is op die heelorganismevlak, en sluit gewoonlik die bepaling van oorlewing en voortplanting van die toetsorganismes in. Hierdie eindpunte is egter in die meeste gevalle minder sensitief as suborganismiese biomerker-response. Hierdie studie het dus die response op verskeie vlakke van biologiese organisasie ondersoek en vergelyk om te bepaal of hulle geskik is vir gebruik in SSVs. Vyf terrestriële spesies van die klas Oligochaeta is gekies as toetsorganismes en is blootgestel aan 'n reeks konsentrasies van die goed bestudeerde pestisied koperoksichloried. Die response oorlewing, massaverandering en voortplanting is op die heelorganismevlak ondersoek. Vir die suborganismiese response is selle (selomosiete) met behulp van 'n nie-ingrypende proses vanuit die erdwurms geïsoleer. Die suborganismese toetse wat op hierdie selle gedoen is, was die neutraalrooi-retensietoets (NRR toets) om sel-oorlewing te bepaal, die MTT toets om mitochondriese metabolisme te bepaal en die alkaliese komeettoets om DNS-integriteit te bepaal. Die hoeveelheid Cu wat die erdwurms opgeneem het, is ook bepaal en met hulle response vergelyk. Verskille is tussen die spesies waargeneem vir al die response. Beide EK50 en EK10 waardes is bereken vir die heelorganismiese eindpunte om SSVs te genereer. Vanaf hierdie SSVs kon die gevaarlike konsenstrasie, waar 5% van alle spesies nadelig beïnvloed kan word (GK5), bereken word. Hierdie GK5 waardes het aangedui dat massaverandering die mees sensitiewe heelorganismiese eindpunt was, gevolg deur voortplanting en oorlewing. Die erdwurms het opgehou vreet aan die gekontamineerde substraat by hoë koperoskichloriedkonsentrasies. Die konsentrasie waar hierdie gedrag plaasgevind het kon vir elke spesie vasgestel word, en 'n SSV is met behulp van hierdie data genereer. Hierdie GK5 waarde het aangedui dat hierdie respons meer sensitief was as oorlewing, maar minder sensitief as die ander response. Die erdwurms kon die konsentrasie van Cu in hulle liggame op 'n spesie-spesifieke manier reguleer. Hierdie regulering van interne Cu is weerspieël in die suborganismiese response, waar die spesie wat die meeste Cu opgeneem het, ook die mees sensitiewe was vir al drie suborganismiese toetse. As gevolg van hierdie regulering van Cu en die gevolglike dosis-responsverhoudings, kon EK50-waardes nie vir al die spesies bereken word nie, en dus was daar geen EK50-data beskikbaar om SSVs mee te genereer nie. Genoegsame EK10 waardes kon egter bereken word vir die NRR- en komeettoetse, en gebruik word om SSVs te genereer. Die GK5-waardes wat bereken kon word vanuit die SSVs met EK10 waardes vir beide suborganismese en heelorganismiese response, het aangedui dat die mees sensitiewe eindpunt die NRR toets was, gevolg deur beide die komeettoets en massaverandering van erdwurms, en daarna die ander heelorganismiese eindpunte. Die gevolgtrekking is dat daar aangetoon kon word dat die meerderheid van die response wat gedurende hierdie studie ondersoek is, geskik is om sensitwiteitsverhoudings van hierdie groep spesies te bepaal.

In the past 10 years we have witnessed the beginnings of the study of soil ecology as a unified science, and the general realization by soil scientists, farmers, and land managers that many of the most important economic aspects of soil health are controlled by biological factors. This research focuses on alterations in a tropical soil microarthropod community under differing intensive agricultural protocols: native vegetation, pastures and cropland, during June, July and August 1998. The effect of pesticides in potato cultivation was also studied. In the Ecuadorean montane forest, 361 morphospecies of soil arthropods, were classified during the three sampling months. August was the month with highest abundance and diversity. Acari, Coleoptera, Collembola, Diptera and Homoptera were the most abundant orders present in all the three types of land management. The native vegetation had the most abundant and diverse representation of all soil arthropod taxa compared to the pastures and croplands. Coleoptera, Diptera, Diplopoda, Diplura and Hemiptera were significantly more diverse in native vegetation than in pastures and croplands. The most abundant functional groups were the fungivores, herbivores and predators. The abundance of functional groups was significantly higher in the native vegetation for predators, herbivores and detritivores. 115 morphospecies of soil arthropods were identified in the study of arthropod response to pesticides in a complete randomized potato plot. Seasonal effects were documented for Acari, Collembola, Diptera, and Homoptera. Predators were most abundant in July and fungivores decreased in September. Neither arthropod orders nor functional groups showed a significant change in abundance between different treatments. Only Homoptera showed an increase in its abundance in the third sampling date and only in the Antracol plots. The potato plants in the whole block showed poor productivity, suggesting that the whole system was stressed by the fungal pest.
Graduation date: 2000

Undecomposed residues of organophosphorus compounds (OPC) after treatment with pesticides of plants or animals often fall into natural objects (water, soil and air). Modern approaches to the immobilization of enzymes allowing obtaining of stable biological products are described, as well as the possible using of immobilized enzymes for the decomposition of different OPC: paraoxone, methyl and ethyl paraoxone, coumaphos, parathion, methyl and ethyl parathion, chlorpyrifos, soman, VX, methylphosphonic acid and its isobutyl and diisobutyl ethers, diisopropyl fluorophosphate.

Humans made use of pesticides to kill pests infesting crops. This was done to increase agricultural yields and improve public health. Pesticides however turn out to be damaging for the environment, causing many harmful impacts. Certain pesticides after being applied to the environment show long-term residual effects while others show acute fatal effects particularly to aquatic life. For example, organochlorine pesticides are persistent in the environment; as a result of this, these pesticides find their way to contaminate ground water, surface water, food products, air, soil, and may also affect human beings through direct contact. Pesticide exposure to humans has been found to be an important cause of some diseases such as cancer, respiratory diseases, skin diseases, endocrine disruption, and reproduction disorders. It is this aspect of pesticides in the environment that has raised concern among environmental scientists to study their behavior in the environment and then come out with a sound alternative so as to rescue the human population from their adverse effects. Fifty years (half a century) after Rachel Carson's warning to the world about the devastating effect pesticides have on birds and beneficial insects, pesticides continue to be in use. Continued usage of pesticides can be described as a massive chemical assault on our environment which threatens the survival of many birds, fish, insects, and small aquatic organisms that form the basis of the food web. More generally, pesticides reduce species diversity in the animal kingdom and contribute to population decline in animals and plants by destroying habitats, reducing food supplies, and impairing reproduction. Organisms in ecosystems exist in complex interdependent associations such that losses of one keystone species as a result of pesticides (or other causes) can have far reaching and unpredictable effects. A keystone species is a species that is disproportionately connected to more species in the food-web. The many connections that a keystone species holds mean that it maintains the organization and structure of entire communities. The loss of a keystone species results in a range of dramatic effects that alters trophic structure, other food-web connections, and can cause the extinction of other species in the community. A pesticide may eliminate a species essential to the functioning of the entire community, or it may promote the dominance of undesired species or it may simply decrease the number and variety of species present in the community. This may disrupt the dynamics of the food webs in the community by breaking the existing dietary linkages between species.

In recent years, soil contamination with pesticides has become a crucial news issue with serious short- and long-term effects on human health and its environment. Pesticides play a significant role in the success of modern farming and food production. These compounds have potential for toxicity and adverse effects on human health and ecological soil systems. Pentachlorophenol (PCP) is one of the most recalcitrant chemicals polluting the environment for its stable aromatic ring system and chloride content. Nowadays, many sites are contaminated with this substance. In these areas, concentrations may stay high for a long time because of slow degradation in the soil due to the negative effects that PCP has on soil microbial populations. Bioremediation of PCP contaminated sites can be realized introducing directly, into a contaminated system, microorganisms able to consume selectively the target compound (bioaugmentation) or increasing the microbial indigenous population by addiction of nutrients in form of organic and/or inorganic fertilizers and biosolids (biostimulation). In the present chapter, we present an overview of the effect of PCP pesticide contamination on soil microbial populations (density and diversity), enzymatic activity and physicochemical parameters. Additionally, the bioremediation process will be detailed.

A relationship between the quality of environment and incidence of human health has been recognized in recent years. While the diseases such as carcinogenesis, respiratory diseases, skin disorders are often correlated with exposure to environmental toxins, the possibility of a link between blood coagulation and chemical contaminants in food, water and air has rarely been suspected. Wide usage of DDT in public health and plant protection programmes have led to a considerably higher levels of the pesticide in the blood and body fat of Indian population. Therefore, in order to explore the possibilities of an alteration in blood coagulation and fibrinolysis in response to pesticide insult, a study was undertaken in experimental animals.Adult male albino rats were administered technical grade DDT, 100 mg per kg body weight i.p. for 3 consecutive days for acute exposure study and fed food containing the pesticide at a concentration of 100 mg per kg diet for a duration of 90 days for chronic exposure. Coagulation and fibrinolytic status was assessed at the end of exposure period. Acute exposure to DDT significantly increased platelet count but decreased wall adherence of blood while chronic exposure to DDT elevated platelet counts by 21% and increased wall adherence of blood by 28%. Plasma clotting times were found to be shortened considerably both in acute and chronically exposed animals. DDT seemed to activate both extrinsic and intrinsic pathway of coagulation as evident by marked acceleration in prothrombin time and partial thromboplastin time. Plasma fibrinogen concentrations were found to be higher by 31.6% in rats given acute treatment but 40% lower in chronically exposed animals. A marked increase in fibrinolytic activity was observed in both acutely and chronically exposed animals. Thus, administration of chlorinated pesticides like DDT seemed to have a prothrombotic effect in experimental animals.

The natural biochemical, biophysical and biological processes in the soil is changing due to the intensive use of pesticides. At present, it is actual fertilization technologies, which are based on non-fertilizer rates increase bat on their rational use because in the fertilizer is unnecessary chemical compounds that promote mineral nutritional elements leaching. Have been studied the effect of biological preparations BactoMix, AgroMik and Rizobakterin on soil physical properties. Experiments were carried out in 2015–2016 at the Experimental Station of Aleksandras Stulginskis University on Calcari-Endohypogleyic Luvisol. The mean annual temperature of the study site is 6.0–6.5 °C, mean annual precipitation is 600–650 mm and mean annual length of sun shine is 1750–1800 hour (Lithuanian Hydrometeorological Service). Biological preparations sprayed on the soil surface and incorporated in the soil by sowing spring wheat. The use of biological preparations had a tendency to reduce soil density (from 2.3 to 5.3 %), to increase soil porosity (from 0.6 to 2.1 %). Biological preparations had no significant influence on quantity couples filled with moisture and air. The hardness of the soil after spring wheat harvest was the smallest in the fields sprayed by Rizobakterin preparation. The use of biological preparations BaktoMix and Rizobakterin significantly increased soil moisture. The following preparations significantly decreased soil pulverized fractions (micro structure) and significantly increased amount of particles larger than 10 mm.

The intensification of agricultural production, which involves the use of highly productive plant varieties, high-performance equipment, high doses of mineral fertilizers and pesticides leads to soil degradation and environmental contamination. In this regard, alternative methods of agricultural production replace agricultural intensification. To increase the sustainability and environmental friendliness of garden agrocenoses it is necessary to reduce the chemical load and intensify biological processes by planting green manure crops and perennial herbs, as well as increase microbial diversity through application of microbial fertilizers. We offer the use of various methods of gardening biologization: sod-humus or green manure row spacing systems with different grasses and microbial fertilizers. We conducted comprehensive studies of the effect of MP on the growth and productivity of seedlings of stone fruit plants. The most effective MPs, their doses and methods of application for growing grafted annual seedlings of peach, cherry, apricot and cherry plum, as well as their effect on soil properties, have been determined. A joint positive effect of soil sodding with a mixture of cereal-bean perennial herbs and the use of MP on soil properties and ampelocenosis state in the foothill Crimea was established. In general, the use of biologization elements can increase soil fertility and fruit plants and grapes productivity by 10- 20 %.

The accelerated rate of development of modern technology has greatly expanded the range of health hazards. Lead, a widely used industrial material, is a significant environmental pollutant that contaminates food, water, soil and air. Although much progress has been made in elucidating its adverse effects on various systems of the body like hepatic, CNS, renal etc., its effect on coagulation remains to be established. In view of this an experimental study was carried out in animals to understand how lead influences hemostasis.Male albino rats were exposed to lead either acutely by administering 20 mg lead acetate per kg body weight daily i.p. for 3 days or chronically by administering lead through drinking water containing 5 ppm lead for 150 days. Acute exposure to lead caused severe coagulopathy characterized by significant prolongation of plasma recalcification time, decrease in platelet count and decreased wall adherence of blood, decreased fibrinogen and euglobulin lysis time and significant increase in prothrombin time, thrombin time, and partial thromboplastin time. Similar observations were found in chronically exposed animals. It is concluded that exposure to heavy metals like lead may lead to a state of hypocoagulability.

Agriculture and food manufacturing have a considerable effect on the environment emissions: holdings and farms play an important role about greenhouse gas emissions and water consumption. This study aims at evaluating the environmental impact of one of the most important Italian DOP product: organic Parmesan Cheese. Environmental performances of the whole dairy supply chain have been assessed according to the life cycle assessment approach (LCA). In this analysis Parmesan Cheese is made from an organic dairy farm in Emilia Romagna, which uses the milk from three different organic livestock productions. Organic agriculture is different from conventional; the major difference is represented by the avoidance of the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides made in chemical industry process. Organic agriculture uses organic fertilizers to encourage the natural fertility of the soil respecting the environment and the agro-system. In this case, life cycle approach is used to assess the carbon footprint and the water footprint of organic Parmesan Cheese considering the milk and cheese production. The object at this level is investigating the environmental impact considering the situation before some improvement changes. The functional unit is represented by 1 kg of organic Parmesan Cheese; inventory data refer to the situation in year 2017 and system boundaries consider the inputs related to the cattle and dairy farm until the ripening (included). The carbon footprint is investigated using IPCC 2013 Global Warming Potential (GWP) 100a method, developed by Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, and reported in kg of CO2eq. Otherwise, water footprint allows to measure the water consumption and in this work it is assessed using AWARE method (Available Water REmaining).

Abstract Crude oil leaking in rivers may cause serious damages, such as environmental pollution and death of river animals. The crude oil spreading in rivers could be much faster than that on lands, as the leaking crude oil may flow rapidly downstream with the flowing water. Therefore, accurately estimating the transient crude oil spreading area in rivers is a vital task for emergency response and disaster rescue. However, the estimating methods in the literature mainly refer to spreading process in underwater, ocean and soil, which commonly happened in the history. The crude oil transportation pipelines in China pass through many rivers with very complex channel geometries, introducing the necessity of estimating of leaking crude oil spreading in actual river channels. In the current study, the crude oil spreading process along an actual river channel is numerically simulated. The river channel geometry is extracted from a map database, which is further treated using image binarization and edge extraction to obtain the discrete river channel data. The river channel data is then smoothed by picking less data representing main geometric characteristics. The smoothed data is used to reconstruct the river geometry and generate calculation mesh. The mesh is a two-dimensional structured grid with several possible leaking points along the actual crude oil transportation pipeline passing through the river. A multi-fluid MIXTURE model is used to simulate the crude oil spreading process on the water surface, meaning crude oil blending in the flowing water. Cases with a leaking mass flow rate of 240 kg/s and a river flow velocity of 1.58 m/s are simulated for 10 possible leaking sources on the traversing pipeline. The effect of leaking locations and river channel bending on crude oil spreading on river surface were significant according to the simulation results. Sudden widening river channel may result in vortexes and slightly delays the crude oil spreading. The simulated data could be used to make the rescue strategy of crude oil leaking in this specific river.