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Academic literature on the topic 'Soil formation'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 29 July 2024

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Journal articles on the topic "Soil formation"

1

Yergina, Olena. "Energy and thermodynamic characteristics of soils and substrates of Crimean peninsula." Visnyk of the Lviv University. Series Geography, no. 41 (September 17, 2013): 132–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.30970/vgg.2013.41.1941.

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The basic thermodynamic and energy characteristics substrates soils formations of different ages and soils of the Crimean peninsula considered. In developing strategies for remediation soils suppose to use thermodynamic parameters to assess the potential ability of formations rocks to soil. Proved that the thermodynamic position, process soil formation of autonomous increase energy and thermodynamic characteristics of the substrate on which soils formation. Key words: lattice energy, Gibbs energy, entropy, soil.

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Bilanchyn, Yaroslav, and Iryna Leonidova. "Soil formation potential of natural soil formation factors of Zmiiny island." Visnyk of the Lviv University. Series Geography, no. 44 (November 28, 2013): 17–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.30970/vgg.2013.44.1181.

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The article assesses soil formation potential of several factors allocated on Zmiiny island, particularly the climate and atmospheric conditions of the territory, the solid silicate rocks from the island's surface, and the biological factors of soil formation. This assessment derives from analysis of the natural soil formation factors of Zmiiny island, their geo-genetic specifications and role in soil formation. The biological factor is crucial in formation of the uncommonly rich in humus (10–15 % of humus and more) and NPK rich chornozem soils which possess tendency to increase their chornozem properties and profile depth with time. Key words: Zmiiny island, soil formation potential of the natural soil formation factors.

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Papish, Ihor, and Roman Hnatiuk. "PHASING FEATURES OF THE SOIL-FORMING PROCESS IN AGROCHERNOZEMS OF WATERSHED PLATEU IN THE CENTRAL PART OF PODILLIA." PROBLEMS OF GEOMORPHOLOGY AND PALEOGEOGRAPHY OF THE UKRANIAN CARPATHIANS AND ADJACENT AREAS 02, no. 13 (December 30, 2021): 108–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.30970/gpc.2021.2.3552.

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The development of the paleosoils during the warm stages (thermochrons) of the Pliocene and Pleistocene, being reflected in the structure of soil-loess and red-brown formations of Ukraine, is characterized by a clear regularity. This is manifested in the formation of complex soil layered constructions (pedocomplexes) reflecting the chronological stages of pedogenesis. Agrochernozems of watershed plateu in the central part of Podillia, formed on the loess rocks of the Late Pleistocene age, also show this general regularity of Pliocene-Pleistocene soil formation. Contrasting changes in the physic-geographical conditions of pedolitogenesis in the ancient Holocene (late glacial) and evolutionary trend of soil formation during the following Holocene periods lasting for 10–8 thousand years led to the formation of a two-stage Holocene soil layering on the plakor lands of the region, represented by chernozem-type soils. Morphological signs of staged soil formation are concentrated in one genetic profile, which, along with the sign of anthropization of landscapes and soil formation significantly complicates the detailed identification of soils and their historical and genetic analysis. The early stage of the local soil formation history is recorded in these soils in the form of solid-phase products of soil-forming processes (puppets, soil wormholes, coprolites, moles drains). These relict pedogenic formations are located in the lower part of the soil profile of agrochernozems. In general, in the soil profile of agrochernozems on the watershed plateu in the central part of Podillia the morphologically hidden stages of soil formation are noticeable, which is typical of the first half of the Holocene thermochron. The soil of the initial stage of pedogenesis correlates with the horizon of the mole loess P(h)k and the lower part of the transitional brown-colour horizon Phk or PhI. The humus profile of the plakor agrochernozems has soil characteristics of the early optimal stage, which lasted for 7–8 thousand years from the preboreal to the late subatlantic. There are no pedogenic signs of other stages of development of the pedocomplex. So, modern day soils of this region (agrochernozems) are polygenetic two-stage formations that have not reached the status of full-fledged pedocomplex. Key words: evolution; pedogenesis; agrochernozem; Holocene; stages of soil formation; pedocomplex; Podillіa.

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Tripathy, Dr Biplab, and Subhechya Raha. "Formation Of Soil." Thematics Journal of Geography 8, no. 8 (August 21, 2019): 144–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.26643/tjg.v8i8.8140.

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Soil is a most outer soft most layer of the earth, formed by different process which is generally called soil forming forces. The factors which transformed rocks into soil are differ in different places. Weathering forces are main source of soil particles. Parental frocks changed into soil after crossing either long time or short ways. If each agents work in a balanced way a mature soil is formed. Climate, vegetation, reliefs are the active agents, those helped to formed soil. The biotic activities are also very active factors in dual way. Soil formation process varied in place to place depends on its environment.

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Moskvina, Natalia, Igor Shestakov, and Natalia Mitrakova. "Organic matter of soils and technogenic surface formations of residential areas of the city of Perm." АгроЭкоИнфо 5, no. 47 (October 31, 2021): 27. http://dx.doi.org/10.51419/20215527.

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On the territory of the left-bank part of Perm, the urban pedocomplexes (UPC) were distinguished as a combination of soil and technogenic surface formations on the same soil-forming rocks within a certain functional zone. Within the UPC, formed on eluvial-deluvial loams and clays in the zone of multi-storey buildings, the surface horizons of soils and TSF (technogenic surface formations) were studied. A change in the zonal trend of humus formation in reclaimed soils was observed as an increase in the content of organic matter, as well as in a change in the type of humus to the humate side. The conservation of zonal features of humus formation in non-purposefully recultivated urban soils and TSF was noted. It manifests in a low or medium content of organic carbon, the formation of a humate-fulvate type of humus. Keywords: URBAN ECOLOGY, URBAN SOILS, URBAN PEDOCOMPLEX, HUMUS, HUMUS TYPE, SOIL PROPERTIES

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6

Poyon Kizi, Khayitova Sanobar. "SOIL SCIENCE AND SOIL TERMINOLOGY." European International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Management Studies 02, no. 11 (November 1, 2022): 42–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.55640/eijmrms-02-11-12.

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Soil science involves the study of the formation and distribution of soil, the biological, chemical and physical properties and processes of soil and how these processes interact with wider systems to help inform environmental management, industry and sustainable development.

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Kyrylchuk, A. "Contemporary approaches towards the problem of evaluation of soil formation potential." Visnyk of the Lviv University. Series Geography, no. 45 (May 20, 2014): 159–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.30970/vgg.2014.45.1161.

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At the given stage of soil science development the problem of soil formation potential diagnostics is of great importance, for it is directly linked to the soil fertility reproduction. The evaluative characteristic of soil formation factor ability to provide the formation of soils and their specific properties within a certain period of time is the soil formation potential of those factors. The article reviews in detail contemporary conceptions of soil formation potential evaluation proposed by different authors. Key words: soil, soil formation factors, the problem of diagnostics, the evaluation of soil formation potential.

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Bilanchyn, Yaroslav, Mykola Tortyk, Iryna Leonidova, and Andrii Buyanovskyy. "Soils of Zmiiny island – a mirror of his landscape ecological past, present and future." Visnyk of the Lviv University. Series Geography, no. 51 (December 27, 2017): 33–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.30970/vgg.2017.51.8735.

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Zmiiny island soils described as a function of a mirror of past, present and future of his landscape and ecological conditions and soil-forming processes. The article estimates the generalized scheme of soil-formation on the on dense acidic rocks of the island that includes gradually changing stages of weathering of rocks and formation of rubble-rocky crust of their weathering and local curuda formation - primitive soil formation - black soil formation under the steppe herbaceous vegetation on areas with a crust of weathering capacity of more than 10–12 cm. The soils profile here usually grows up as the biomass grows above-ground vegetation. There are two main scenarios of soil-forming and soils evolution have been proposed – optimistic with steep herbaceous vegetation preservation and further soil formation, and hazardous with herbaceous vegetation cover destroying. The strategy of measures to preserve the unique steppe landscape of the island with peculiar black soils recommends to prioritize tourist-recreational, health-improving and educational activities and systematic monitoring of the natural and ecological environment. Key words: Zmiiny island, soils and soil cover, landscapes, soils and soil-forming evolution.

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Ben-Hur, Meni, and Marcos Lado. "Effect of soil wetting conditions on seal formation, runoff, and soil loss in arid and semiarid soils—a review." Soil Research 46, no. 3 (2008): 191. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/sr07168.

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Soil surface sealing is one of the main causes for low infiltration rate (IR) and high runoff and soil loss under raindrop impact conditions in arid and semiarid regions. Many studies have focused on the effects of soil properties on seal formation under fast wetting conditions. However, in the field, soils can be exposed to different wetting conditions, before an intense rainfall event, which can affect the role of the soil properties on seal formation. The present paper reviews the effects of different initial wetting conditions and their interactions with soil properties on seal formation, IR, runoff, and soil loss in smectitic soils. Fast wetting of soil causes aggregate slaking, which enhances seal formation, runoff, and soil loss under rainfall, mainly in soils with > 40% clay content. An increase in clay content of the soil increases aggregate strength, but at the same time increases the slaking forces. Hence, in soils with low clay content (<40%) and low aggregate stability, raindrop impact alone was sufficient to break down the aggregates and to develop a seal. In contrast, in soils with > 40% clay content and high aggregate stability, slaking plays an important role in aggregate breakdown and seal formation. An increase of raindrop kinetic energy, from 8 to 15.9 kJ/m3, decreased the effect of the slaking forces on seal formation and runoff. It was suggested that the effects of raindrop kinetic energy and of the slaking forces on aggregate disintegration and seal formation are complementary. An increase in soil exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP), from 0.9 to 20.4%, decreased the effect of slaking forces on seal formation and runoff production under rainfall with 15.9 kJ/m3 kinetic energy. Probably, increasing the ESP increased the soil dispersivity, and therefore diminished the effect of the slaking forces on aggregate disintegration and seal formation. Aging (the time since wetting) of soil increased the stability of soil structure, decreased the seal formation, maintained high IR, and diminished soil loss amounts. These effects of soil aging depend on both the prewetting rate of the soil and soil texture.

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Mergelov, N. S., S. V. Goryachkin, E. P. Zazovskaya, D. V. Karelin, D. A. Nikitin, and S. S. Kutuzov. "Supraglacial Soils and Soil-Like Bodies: Diversity, Genesis, Functioning (Review)." Почвоведение, no. 12 (December 1, 2023): 1522–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.31857/s0032180x23601494.

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In the 21st century, glaciers are percepted as a distinct biome that has taken on special significance in today’s world of retreating ice. Here we review the results of recent studies of organomineral formations on glaciers, their diversity, processes, functioning and the role in the biosphere. The question is raised about the possibility of involving supraglacial organomineral formations in the range of objects of soil science. We review the supraglacial zone as an area of soils and soil-like bodies, which biogeochemical processes affect the glacial biome and its surrounding landscapes. Interpretation of supraglacial organomineral formations from a soil scientist point of view revealed the following processes: accumulation and stabilization of organic matter (OM), its heterotrophic transformation, formation of dark-colored humified OM and accumulation of residual solid-phase products of functioning in situ, fine earth aggregation, and biochemical weathering. Among supraglacial formations, we distinguish pre-soils and soil-like bodies in ice and snow, metastable soil-like bodies on cryoconite and soils with microprofiles under moss communities on ice, as well as relatively stable soils with macroprofiles on fine-earth-detrital deposits with underlying glaciers and dead ice. Labile water-soluble OM, accumulated and transformed in supraglacial soils and soil-like bodies, has a significant impact on the periglacial zone, leading to the reservoir and priming effects. The studies of supraglacial organomineral systems are of fundamental importance for understanding the evolution of ecosystems on Earth as well as for modeling supraglacial formations of extraterrestrial bodies with a vast cryosphere. Supraglacial soil formation is also a model object for studying common soils under conditions of a constant external input of organic and mineral components, which contribution outside the glaciers is no less significant, but is masked by the polymineral substrate of soils and parent rocks.

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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Soil formation"

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Francis, Michele Louise. "Soil Formation on the Namaqualand Coastal Plain." Link to the Internet, 2008. http://hdl.handle.net/10019/806.

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Levine, Steven Joel. "Genesis of soils derived from the Kaibab Formation of the Colorado Plateau, Arizona." Diss., The University of Arizona, 1987. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/184299.

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Important pedogenic processes of soils formed on dolomitic limestones are affected by the degree of in-situ weathering of the underlying bedrock. Decalcification and silicate clay illuviation of Haplustalfs and Calciustolls of the Colorado Plateau in northwestern Arizona results from the establishment of effective porosity in the parent rock. The underlying carbonate strata, the Kaibab Formation, are a complex limestone-dolomite-chert marine sediment of Permian age. Diagenetic processes have modified the initial porosity present at the time the sediment was deposited. Pleistocene meteoric waters, percolating downward, have resulted in the solutioning and partial removal of the calcium carbonate and the establishment of a porous dolomitic framework. Under these conditions, soils forming in residuum are able to decalcify and to form argillic horizons. However, in more resistant limestones, compaction during burial has resulted in a nonporous micrite which retards calcite removal by meteoric waters. Under these conditions, soil profiles maintain a high CaCO₃ content and silicate clay illuviation does not occur. Micaceous clay minerals of residual origin are converted to montmorillonite in the Alfisols. A probable sequence of events for this transformation to occur is: (1) the removal of calcite from the dolomitic limestone bedrock and the formation of a dolomitic framework, (2) the slow dissolution of dolomite and release of Mg⁺⁺ into solution, (3) the incorporation of Mg⁺⁺ into the octahedral layer of the mica and the release of K⁺ from the mica interlayer position, and (4) the illuviation of montmorillonite to form the argillic horizon. Eolian dust is also important to soil genesis on the Colorado Plateau. In particular, quartz in the coarse silt fraction (31-44 um) and quartz and biotite in the very fine and fine silt fractions (2.0-16 um). Two alluvial soils of Pleistocene age shows important morphological differences. Thick carbonate accumulations of ground water origin are present in the older soil. The effects of the Pleistocene-Holocene climatic change on this area are: (1) modification of karst topographic features, (2) aggradation of valley bottoms, and (3) the influence of Holocene slope wash Pleistocene soil properties such as calcite, dolomite and organic matter.

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Thornber, John Henry. "Cultivating fertile soil: Formation for canonical governance." Thesis, Australian Catholic University, 2012. https://acuresearchbank.acu.edu.au/download/93f5300704710cf29ec3b84daf004cd42b257c06d100c83777f929a58633b595/2955761/65109_downloaded_stream_334.pdf.

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The fall in the number of religious staying in or joining religious life has become a significant issue for the governance of Church ministries, especially those in health, education and social welfare. Increasing numbers of lay people are becoming involved in senior management and governance responsibilities. The level of involvement of the laity had not been envisaged in the Code of Canon Law. Further the nature and importance of such roles raises the question of appropriate formation of the laity in governance informed by, and under the jurisdiction of Canon Law, i.e., canonical governance. This study researched the formation needs of lay people to undertake canonical governance roles and sought to develop a framework which would be relevant to address their needs.

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Meulemans, Germain. "The lure of pedogenesis : an anthropological foray into making urban soils in contemporary France." Thesis, University of Aberdeen, 2017. http://digitool.abdn.ac.uk:80/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=232635.

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This thesis is an anthropological inquiry into the emergence of urban soils as matters of concern in the worlds of soil scientists and other fields more traditionally involved with cities. Through the lens of soil-making practices, it seeks to elucidate the specificity of urban pedogenesis, including the growth of soils and the lives of the humans associated with them. City soils have typically been neglected in modern thinking about nature and urbanism. They have long been framed solely as a technical question for engineers which seemed to require no further pondering until – in the last two decades – they entered the scope of the soil sciences. This thesis draws on over thirteen months of multi-locale fieldwork conducted in Paris and Lorraine with soil scientists, gardeners and foundation builders. The research does not define a priori what should count as 'urban', 'agricultural' or 'natural' soils. Building on scholarship in anthropology, the soil sciences, science studies, and speculative philosophy, it follows how these actors learn to be affected in the material performance of different relations between people and soils. The chapters are built in counterpoint to one another, occasionally turning to narrative to complement analysis and more traditional ethnography. Each chapter pulls a different diffractive string from the mesh of urban soil matters, and follows where it leads. As ways of knowing that emerge from soil construction are described, the question of what making soils does to knowing them becomes a central thread of the thesis. In this, it looks at how soils participate in apparatuses where they become 'lures for feelings' – affective interweavings in which worlds are experienced.

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Nciizah, Adornis Dakarai. "Cattle manure, scalping and soil wetness effects on some physical properties of a hardsetting soil and associated early maize growth." Thesis, University of Fort Hare, 2011. http://hdl.handle.net/10353/349.

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Most soils in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa are shallow and are low in organic matter. Therefore these soils are structurally fragile and highly susceptible to inherent degradative processes like hardsetting. The objective of this study was to determine the effect of cattle manure, scalping and soil wetness on aggregate stability, penetration resistance and early maize growth in hardsetting soils. Glasshouse and field studies were conducted to determine the effect of cattle manure on aggregate stability and penetration resistance of freshly exposed topsoils by scalping at 0, 10 and 20 cm depths. In the glasshouse cattle manure was applied at 0 and 20 Mg/ha and matric suction was kept at ~ 30 and ~ 400 kPa; contrasting high and low soil wetness. Three soils were put in pots and arranged in a randomized complete block 3 2 2 factorial design. The field study was done at the University of Fort Hare research farm and the treatments were arranged in a split-plot complete randomized design with three replications. Scalping treatment was the main plot whilst the quantity of the cattle manure applied was the sub plot. Cattle manure increased mean weight diameter (MWD) by between 48% and 71% under glasshouse and between 18% and 33% under field conditions, depending on the soil wetting rate. Cattle manure reduced MWD when the soil under field condition was subjected to mechanical shaking. Soil penetration resistance decreased linearly, with increasing soil wetness but it rapidly increased with increase in matric suction up to ~200 kPa and thereafter the rate of increase reduced. In the glasshouse, all treatments had no significant effects on shoot dry weight but low matric suction increased root dry weight by 133%. Interaction of cattle manure and low matric suction reduced shoot length by 6%, shoot fresh weight by 25%, root surface area by 36%, root length by 5% and root fresh weight by 29% compared to the control. In contrast, application of cattle manure and high matric suction increased shoot length by 37%, shoot fresh weight by 136%, root surface area by 159%, root length by 94% and root fresh weight by 119%. In the field, cattle manure application increased root length density and shoot dry matter by 26% and 30% respectively. Cattle manure improved the stability of aggregates of the hardsetting soil under rapid or slow water intake conditions experienced during rainfall or irrigation. However, under field conditions cattle manure acted as a deflocculant and decreased the stability of aggregates when mechanical stress was applied. The effectiveness of cattle manure in improving maize growth in hardsetting soils was determined by matric suction.

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Lorz, C. "Ein substratorientiertes Boden-Evolutions-Konzept für geschichtete Bodenprofile : Genese und Eigenschaften von lithologisch diskontinuierlichen Böden /." Berlin : Gebrüder Borntraeger, 2008. http://d-nb.info/987000470/04.

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Bray, Andrew William. "Mineral weathering and soil formation : the role of microorganisms." Thesis, University of Leeds, 2014. http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/6848/.

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Mycorrhizal fungi play a significant role in primary mineral weathering and soil formation. Due to their direct access to solar energy through symbiotic plant partners, fungi are able to extend into soils, acting as biosensors for nutrients which they subsequently uptake and supply to their plant partners. Mycorrhizal fungi operate at the individual hypha scale, mechanically forcing and chemically altering minerals to extract nutrient elements. The hyphae acidify their local environment by exuding organic acids, which are also involved in mineral breakdown. To extend the work on mycorrhizal fungal biotite weathering completed as part of the Weathering Science Consortium the mechanisms and kinetics of biotite dissolution were investigated. This was done by characterising the biotite surface as a function of fluid composition and measuring dissolution rates. During contact with dilute solutions, the chemical composition of the biotite surface changed dramatically as a function of pH. The rapid release of elements during these experiments was not stoichiometric but was highly pH dependent. A combination of electrokinetic measurements and potentiometric titrations further highlighted the variable composition of the biotite surface by yielding two values for zero points of charge, separated by ~7 pH units. Abiotic dissolution of biotite progressed by the formation of a dissolution front depleted in K Mg, Fe and Al, the extent of which varies spatially and with pH. The presence of the organic ligands, citric acid, oxalic acid and DFOB (desferrioxamine B) slightly enhanced the overall biotite dissolution rate in lightly acidic and near neutral pH conditions. The growth rate of mycorrhizal fungi over the surface of biotite was quantified at two levels of atmospheric CO2, 350 ppm and 1500 ppm. Initial growth rate calculations in the 1500 ppm experiments revealed hyphae to grow at an average of 10 μm d-1. Finally, changes in the biochemistry of fungal hypha were observed using μ-FTIR. Results suggested that biochemical changes present could be related to changes in fungal functionality spatially in future work.

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Algharaibeh, Mamoun. "Effect of influx of Eolian materials on soil formation." Diss., The University of Arizona, 2000. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/289093.

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The quantity of quartz and its size distribution was determined in soils formed from quartz free basaltic tephra on Greens Peak, Apache County, Arizona. The soils showed a decrease in quartz content from the east side to the west side of the peak. The percentage of averaged weighed quartz content in the upper soil horizons ranged from (36.1%-13.9%) on the east side and (19.9%-12.3%) on the west side. The content of quartz was higher in the surface soil horizons than in the lower horizons. Large amounts of quartz occurred in the sand and silt fraction, whereas no quartz was detected in the clay fractions. Quartz is concentrated mostly in the coarse silt (22-53 μm) fraction (50%). Quartz particle size distribution in these soils is dominantly in the range of 17-53 μm particle count based, and (17-63 μm) mass based. The abundance of silt and very fine sand quartz, and the paucity of aerosolic quartz 1-10 μm in these fractions is indicative of dust transported short distances from the local sources. It is suggested that the quartz was added as loess sized material of mainly local origin brought into the profiles by eolian transport.

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Lucas, Shawn T. "MANAGING SOIL MICROBIAL COMMUNITIES WITH ORGANIC AMENDMENTS TO PROMOTE SOIL AGGREGATE FORMATION AND PLANT HEALTH." UKnowledge, 2013. http://uknowledge.uky.edu/pss_etds/24.

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The effects of managing soil with organic amendments were examined with respect to soil microbial community dynamics, macroaggregate formation, and plant physio-genetic responses. The objective was to examine the possibility of managing soil microbial communities via soil management, such that the microbial community would provide agronomic benefits. In part one of this research, effects of three amendments (hairy vetch residue, manure, compost) on soil chemical and microbial properties were examined relative to formation of large macroaggregates in three different soils. Vetch and manure promoted fungal proliferation (measured via two biomarkers: fatty acid methyl ester 18:2ω6c and ergosterol) and also stimulated the greatest macroaggregate formation. In part two of this research, effects of soil management (same amendments as above, inorganic N fertilization, organic production) on soil chemical and microbial properties were examined relative to the expression of nitrogen assimilation and defense response genes in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.). Soil management affected expression of a nitrogen assimilation gene (GS1, glutamine synthetase) and several defense-related genes. The GS1 gene was downregulated with inorganic N fertilization, expression of the pathogenesis-related PR1b gene (which codes for the pathogenesis-related PR1b protein) was increased in plants grown in soil amended with compost, vetch, and N fertilizer, and expression of three other defense-related genes coding for chitinase (ChiB), osmotin (Osm), and β-1,3-glucanase (GluA) were decreased in plants from soil amended with manure and in plants from the organically managed soil. Differential expression of defense-related genes was inversely related to the relative abundance of Gram-negative bacteria. The relative abundance of the 18:1ω7c Gram‑negative bacterial biomarker was greatest in manure treated soil and in organically managed soil (which recieves seasonal manure applications). These treatments also had the lowest expression of ChiB, Osm, and GluA, leading to speculation that manure, through increases in Gram-negative bacteria, may have suppressed populations of soil organisms that induce a defense response in plants, possibly allowing for less-stressed plants. Outcomes of this research may be useful for those interested in developing management strategies for maintaining or improving soil structure as well as those interested in understanding management effects plant physio-genetic responses.

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Girmay, Berhane. "Criteria for recognising pedogenesis in buried Quaternary deposits in north-west Wales." Thesis, Bangor University, 1995. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.261729.

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Books on the topic "Soil formation"

1

Breemen, Nico van. Soil formation. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 2001.

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van Breemen, Nico, and Peter Buurman. Soil Formation. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 2002. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/0-306-48163-4.

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van Breemen, Nico, and Peter Buurman. Soil Formation. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 1998. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-0-585-31788-5.

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Breemen, N. van. Soil formation. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1998.

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Breemen, N. van. Soil formation. 2nd ed. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 2002.

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P, Buurman, ed. Soil formation. 2nd ed. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 2002.

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Fanning, Delvin Seymour. Soil. New York: Wiley, 1989.

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Bowman, Chris. Soil. Minneapolis, MN: Bellwether Media, 2014.

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Di︠u︡karev, A. G. Landshaftno-dinamicheskie aspekty taezhnogo pochvoobrazovanii︠a︡ v Zapadnoĭ Sibiri. Tomsk: Izd-vo Nauch.-tekhn. lit-ry, 2005.

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Kühn, Peter. Spätglaziale und holozäne Lessivégenese auf jungweichselzeitlichen Sedimenten Deutschlands. Greifswald: Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Universität, 2003.

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Book chapters on the topic "Soil formation"

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Lavelle, Patrick, and Alister V. Spain. "Soil Formation." In Soil Ecology, 143–200. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 2001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-5279-4_2.

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O’Sullivan, Lilian, Brian McConnell, Ray Scanlon, Séamus Walsh, and Rachel Creamer. "Soil Formation." In World Soils Book Series, 11–37. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71189-8_2.

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Jeffrey, David W. "Soil formation." In Soil~Plant Relationships, 97–108. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 1987. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-6076-6_7.

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Thoresen, Kimberley, Kimberley L. Chandler, and William Mary. "Soil Formation." In The Earth Beneath Our Feet, 67–72. New York: Routledge, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003238775-14.

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Bajracharya, Roshan Man. "Soil Formation." In The Soils of Nepal, 53–62. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80999-7_6.

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Crompton, E. "Soil Formation." In Selected Papers in Soil Formation and Classification, 1–15. Madison, Wisconsin, USA: Soil Science Society of America, Inc., 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.2136/sssaspecpub1.c1.

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Mukherjee, Swapna. "Soil Formation." In Current Topics in Soil Science, 3–9. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-92669-4_1.

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Barnes, G. E. "Soil Formation and Nature." In Soil Mechanics, 1–11. London: Macmillan Education UK, 1995. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-13258-4_1.

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Barnes, Graham. "Soil formation and nature." In Soil Mechanics, 1–15. London: Macmillan Education UK, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-51221-5_1.

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Barnes, Graham. "Soil formation and nature." In Soil Mechanics, 1–13. London: Macmillan Education UK, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-0-230-36677-0_1.

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Conference papers on the topic "Soil formation"

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Liepa, Sindija, Dace Butenaite, Jovita Pilecka-Ulcugaceva, Kristaps Siltumens, and Inga Grinfelde. "FORMATION OF N2O ISOTOPES IN AGRICULTURAL SOILS." In 23rd SGEM International Multidisciplinary Scientific GeoConference 2023. STEF92 Technology, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.5593/sgem2023/4.1/s19.36.

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Agricultural activity accounts for two-thirds of the total anthropogenic nitrogen oxide (N2O) emissions worldwide. Most of the N2O emissions from agricultural soils come from the use of inorganic fertilizers and/or manure. As agricultural activity intensifies worldwide, N2O emissions are currently increasing by 0.25% per year. In order to investigate the feedback of soil N2O emissions with changes in environmental conditions, an improved understanding based on the wider use of isotopic tracer methods is needed. The aim of this study is to find out the formation of N2O in agricultural soils, as well as to find out other significant influencing factors that influence the formation of isotopes. To perform the experiment in laboratory conditions, 16 mixed soil samples from different experimental plots were collected. The fields have different types of management, there are both conventional and organic fields. For each experimental plot, two soil samples were created with different moisture regimes, one container with normal moisture regime and the other with over moistened conditions, such soil regimes were chosen to create both moist aerobic and moist anaerobic conditions. Soil samples were also measured for ph. N2O isotope measurements were performed using a Picarro G5131-i instrument. Measurement data were collected, processed and further analyzed. The formation of N2O isotopes in the soil is influenced by several factors, both soil moisture and physical properties of the soil, soil ph. level and microbiological activity in the soil.

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Sabbah, A. B., R. Kusumawardani, and R. Kurniadhi. "Investigation of soil improvement on embankment road: Case study of soft soil in the Tegal area." In CONSTRUCTION: THE FORMATION OF LIVING ENVIRONMENT: FORM-2022. AIP Publishing, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/5.0129271.

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Ouhadi, M. H. "Ettringite formation in soil-cement interaction process." In 2011 International Conference on Electrical and Control Engineering (ICECE). IEEE, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/iceceng.2011.6058197.

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Nathan, Rebecca, Ian C. Forbes, and Zsuzsanna Balogh-Brunstad. "BASALT SURFACE ALTERATION DURING INCIPIENT SOIL FORMATION." In GSA Annual Meeting in Indianapolis, Indiana, USA - 2018. Geological Society of America, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/abs/2018am-322379.

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Tharp, Thomas M. "Cover-Collapse Sinkhole Formation and Soil Plasticity." In Ninth Multidisciplinary Conference on Sinkholes and the Engineering and Environmental Impacts of Karst. Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers, 2003. http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/40698(2003)9.

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Mihut, Casiana, Valeria Ciolac, Anisoara Duma Copcea, Adalbert Okros, and Daniela Scedei. "ANALYSIS OF THE INFLUENCE OF PEDOGENESIS FACTORS ON SOIL FORMATION USING MODERN METHODS." In 22nd SGEM International Multidisciplinary Scientific GeoConference 2022. STEF92 Technology, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.5593/sgem2022/3.1/s13.27.

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The main objective of this study is to analyse the main pedogenesis factors that have contributed to the formation of soils in Seca?, Timi? County, Romania, using modern methods. The pedological data found in the study are represented by the transformation of analogue maps into digital maps using the GIS method. To begin with, the study area, geomorphology, geology, hydrology and hydrography of the locality, climate and vegetation conditions, decisive factors in the formation of soils in the study area were delimited. Anthropic activity is an important factor in the formation and maintenance of soil fertility, the use of soils in a correct and efficient way with respect for the environment by practicing a sustainable, efficient and high-quality agriculture does nothing but increase the level and quality of life on Earth. The data taken from specialised studies, from the town hall of the Secas and from O.S.P.A. Timi? were supplemented with data from the field and, then, processed using modern methods; they were finally completed by the elaboration of maps that show land configuration, slopes, and hydrography and hydrology and how to use soils in the locality. Following the elaboration of maps using modern methods, an assessment of soils in the area can be made, taking into account these pedogenesis factors and the quality of the land; one can also determine the most suitable crops depending on the type and subtype of soil and, in the case of less productive soils, what measures must be taken to increase their fertility.

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Liepa, Sindija, Dace Butenaite, Jovita Pilecka-Ulcugaceva, Kristaps Siltumens, and Inga Grinfelde. "EFFECT OF SOIL GRANULOMETRIC COMPOSITION AND MOISTURE ON THE FORMATION OF N2O ISOTOPES." In 23rd SGEM International Multidisciplinary Scientific GeoConference 2023. STEF92 Technology, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.5593/sgem2023v/4.2/s19.24.

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Nitrous oxide (N2O) is one of important greenhouse gas (GHG) whose main sources are agricultural soils. N2O forms in soil as a result of microbial processes, reinforced by the use of nitrogen-containing fertilizers. This study will look at how the formation of N2O in soil is affected by soil moisture and soil granulometric composition. Soil N2O isotopes of ?15N? (central nitrogen position) and ?15N? (end nitrogen position) which could help to identify natural and anthropogenic sources of N2O emissions and the involvement of microorganisms in N2O production. N2O isotopes ?15NSP and ?15Nbulk can be traced or N2O produced by nitrification or denitrification. The study used total of 92 soil samples collected in 2020 and 2022. The study uses three types of agricultural soil with a different granulometric compositions. Soil from each agricultural plot was weighted into two samples, each of 1.5 kilograms to provide different humidity conditions � wet aerobic and wet anaerobic. The measurements were performed in a laboratory with the CRDS device Picarro G5131-i. The G5131-i analyzer measures nitrous oxide isotopes ?15N, ?15N?, ?15N?, and ?18O with an accuracy of 0.7 �, and N2O concentration with an accuracy of less than 0.05 ppb (all measurements are averaged over 10 minutes). The data processing did not use all the data obtained from the Picarro G5131-i, but was selected by evaluating the changes in N2O concentrations when the concentrations had stabilized. In this research, three types of soil were used, from which it can be concluded that the type of soil, its inherent physical properties and reaction to the moisture regime play an important role in the formation of N2O isotopes.

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Sjoblom, Kurt J. "Modeling Soil Crust Formation by Discrete Element Method." In Geo-Congress 2014. Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/9780784413272.101.

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Akhmiyeva, R. B. "Ecological aspects of soil formation in technogenic ecosystems." In IV INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC AND PRACTICAL CONFERENCE “NEW INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES IN THE ARCHITECTURE AND CONSTRUCTION” (NITAC 2021). AIP Publishing, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/5.0116289.

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Sheudzhen, Askhad, and Oksana Gutorova. "Changes in the Magnetic Susceptibility of Kuban Soils Depending on Soil Formation Conditions." In IV International Scientific and Practical Conference 'Anthropogenic Transformation of Geospace: Nature, Economy, Society' (ATG 2019). Paris, France: Atlantis Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.2991/aer.k.200202.053.

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Reports on the topic "Soil formation"

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Acton, D. F. Soils As a Resource: Soil Formation [Chapter 11: Quaternary Resources in Canada]. Natural Resources Canada/ESS/Scientific and Technical Publishing Services, 1989. http://dx.doi.org/10.4095/131666.

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Савосько, Василь Миколайович, Юлія Бєлик, and Юрій Васильович Лихолат. Ecological and Geological Determination of the Initial Pedogenesis on Devastated Lands in the Kryvyi Rih Iron Mining & Metallurgical District (Ukraine). Journ. Geol. Geograph. Geoecology, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.31812/123456789/3643.

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In our time, a very urgent problem is the cessation of negative impacts on the environment and the return to the practical use of the territories of devastated lands. In this regard, it is important to find out the basic laws of primary soil formation in the area of these man-made neoplasms. The initial soil formation conditions were analyzed on 19 experimental sites which represent the main varieties of devastated land in the Kryvyi Rih Iron Mining and Metallurgical District (Central Ukraine): (i) waste rock dumps of old iron mines (old name “Forges”), (ii) tailing storage facility of underground iron mines, (iii) waste rock dumps of the Iron Ore Mining and Dressing Plant, (iv) waste rock dumps of the Granite Quarry Plant. It was established that on the devastated lands in Kryvyi Rih District, the initial soil formation occurs in very difficult conditions. Therefore, over 25- 100 years only very primitive soils were formed. The following features are inherent to them: (1) primitive soil profile (thickness 10-100 mm), (2) low levels of soil organic substance content (9.5-11.5 %), (3) alkaline indicators of the soil solution (pHH2O – 8.08-8.92, pHKCl – 7.42-8.23), (4) low levels of cation exchange capacity (6.34-8.47 mMol /100 g). By results of correlation calculations, among the factors of soil formation time (duration of soil formation) and input of plant ash elements’ fall are characterized by the maximum number of statistically significant correlation coefficients and their numerical values. In terms of chemical composition of the technosol, the values of organic matter content and exchangeable acidity (pHKCl) were the most predictable soil formation factors. Generally physical / chemical characteristics of geological rocks (as parent material) and time were the two most important factors in determining the initial pedogenesis on devastated lands in the Kryvyi Rih Iron Mining & Metallurgical District (Ukraine).

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Berkowitz, Jacob, and Christine VanZomeren. Approaches to identify and monitor for potential acid sulfate soils in an ecological restoration context. Engineer Research and Development Center (U.S.), February 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.21079/11681/43349.

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Potential acid sulfate soils include materials with the capacity to generate acidity under certain environmental conditions. As such, these soils can pose challenges to ecological restoration projects occurring in wetlands and nearshore environments. To provide guidance for ecosystem restoration practitioners, the following technical note describes acid sulfate soil formation and distribution and then describes techniques for identifying and monitoring acid sulfate soil conditions prior to and following implementation of restoration activities. Finally, this technical note outlines a number of tools and recently published resources to help avoid unintended consequences of acid sulfate soil disturbance and achieve ecological restoration objectives.

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Berkowitz, Jacob, Christine VanZomeren, and Nicole Fresard. Rapid formation of iron sulfides alters soil morphology and chemistry following simulated marsh restoration. Engineer Research and Development Center (U.S.), September 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.21079/11681/42155.

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Many marshes show signs of degradation due to fragmentation, lack of sediment inputs, and erosion which may be exacerbated by sea level rise and increasing storm frequency/intensity. As a result, resource managers seek to restore marshes via introduction of sediment to increase elevation and stabilize the marsh platform. Recent field observations suggest the rapid formation of iron sulfide (FeS) materials following restoration in several marshes. To investigate, a laboratory microcosm study evaluated the formation of FeS following simulated restoration activities under continually inundated, simulated drought, and simulated tidal conditions. Results indicate that FeS horizon development initiated within 16 days, expanding to encompass > 30% of the soil profile after 120 days under continuously inundated and simulated tidal conditions. Continuously inundated conditions supported higher FeS content compared to other treatments. Dissolved and total Fe and S measurements suggest the movement and diffusion of chemical constituents from native marsh soil upwards into the overlying sediments, driving FeS precipitation. The study highlights the need to consider biogeochemical factors resulting in FeS formation during salt marsh restoration activities. Additional field research is required to link laboratory studies, which may represent a worst-case scenario, with in-situ conditions.

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Berkowitz, Jacob, and Christine VanZomeren. Evaluation of iron sulfide soil formation following coastal marsh restoration – observations from three case studies. Engineer Research and Development Center (U.S.), January 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.21079/11681/35275.

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Zhang, Renduo, and David Russo. Scale-dependency and spatial variability of soil hydraulic properties. United States Department of Agriculture, November 2004. http://dx.doi.org/10.32747/2004.7587220.bard.

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Water resources assessment and protection requires quantitative descriptions of field-scale water flow and contaminant transport through the subsurface, which, in turn, require reliable information about soil hydraulic properties. However, much is still unknown concerning hydraulic properties and flow behavior in heterogeneous soils. Especially, relationships of hydraulic properties changing with measured scales are poorly understood. Soil hydraulic properties are usually measured at a small scale and used for quantifying flow and transport in large scales, which causes misleading results. Therefore, determination of scale-dependent and spatial variability of soil hydraulic properties provides the essential information for quantifying water flow and chemical transport through the subsurface, which are the key processes for detection of potential agricultural/industrial contaminants, reduction of agricultural chemical movement, improvement of soil and water quality, and increase of agricultural productivity. The original research objectives of this project were: 1. to measure soil hydraulic properties at different locations and different scales at large fields; 2. to develop scale-dependent relationships of soil hydraulic properties; and 3. to determine spatial variability and heterogeneity of soil hydraulic properties as a function of measurement scales. The US investigators conducted field and lab experiments to measure soil hydraulic properties at different locations and different scales. Based on the field and lab experiments, a well-structured database of soil physical and hydraulic properties was developed. The database was used to study scale-dependency, spatial variability, and heterogeneity of soil hydraulic properties. An improved method was developed for calculating hydraulic properties based on infiltration data from the disc infiltrometer. Compared with the other methods, the proposed method provided more accurate and stable estimations of the hydraulic conductivity and macroscopic capillary length, using infiltration data collected atshort experiment periods. We also developed scale-dependent relationships of soil hydraulic properties using the fractal and geostatistical characterization. The research effort of the Israeli research team concentrates on tasks along the second objective. The main accomplishment of this effort is that we succeed to derive first-order, upscaled (block effective) conductivity tensor, K'ᵢⱼ, and time-dependent dispersion tensor, D'ᵢⱼ, i,j=1,2,3, for steady-state flow in three-dimensional, partially saturated, heterogeneous formations, for length-scales comparable with those of the formation heterogeneity. Numerical simulations designed to test the applicability of the upscaling methodology to more general situations involving complex, transient flow regimes originating from periodic rain/irrigation events and water uptake by plant roots suggested that even in this complicated case, the upscaling methodology essentially compensated for the loss of sub-grid-scale variations of the velocity field caused by coarse discretization of the flow domain. These results have significant implications with respect to the development of field-scale solute transport models capable of simulating complex real-world scenarios in the subsurface, and, in turn, are essential for the assessment of the threat posed by contamination from agricultural and/or industrial sources.

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MOORE, ROBERT C., HONGTING ZHAO, CHARLES ANTHONY SANCHEZ, KATHLEEN C. HOLT, FRED SALAS, AHMED ALI MOHAMED HASAN, and DANIEL A. LUCERO. In Situ Formation of Apatite in Soil and Groundwater for Containment of Radionuclides and Heavy Metals. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), November 2002. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/805864.

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Dinovitzer. L52303 Development of Techniques to Assess the Long-Term Integrity of Wrinkled Pipeline. Chantilly, Virginia: Pipeline Research Council International, Inc. (PRCI), September 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.55274/r0010332.

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The objective of the project was to develop a numerical model than may be used to predict the wrinkle formation and post formation behavior of a pipeline considering the effect of soil confinement and define the specifications for the development of a comprehensive wrinkle integrity assessment process. The result of this research is the development of wrinkle assessment techniques that could be used directly or could be used to codify maintenance guidelines. This project focused specifically on the pipe soil interaction modeling wrinkle formation as a result of the relative movement of the pipe and soil. The structural model developed and validated in this program and previous work could be applied to wrinkle bends, however, this issue is not specifically addressed in this report. In addition, the project development efforts focused on the monotonic soil interaction event of idealized (e.g., no secondary degradation like corrosion features) pipe segments. The project completed a critical review of existing structural and soil modelling techniques to identify the most suitable technologies for this application. The soil-pipe interaction under soil movement was found to be best represented using the LS-DYNA Multi-material Eulerian technique which permitted the application of a number of suitable soil constitutive models. This analysis tool permitted the consideration of a range of soil types and large soil displacements. Having defined the most suitable tool set, several pipe soil interaction models were developed. These models were used to illustrate the types of analyses that could be completed and the capabilities of the models to illustrate the sensitivity of the scenario loads, displacements to changes in soil, pipe and other parameters. The modeling results were discussed to demonstrate that their trends and results were in line with intuitive assumptions and engineering judgment. Additional models were developed to simulate large scale pipe-soil interaction laboratory test programs. The results of the simulated test programs were compared with the laboratory results as an initial validation of the modeling techniques and tools. The simulated soil displacement patterns, pipe strains and pipe displacement were shown to agree well with experimental results and as such illustrated the ability of the models to reproduce idealized pipe-soil interaction events. Full-scale soil displacement events were modeled to illustrate the application of the modeling tools to forecast or predict the effects of axial and transverse soil movements on buried pipeline segments. These results were used to illustrate the methods and assumptions inherent in the application of the modeling tools to predict soil loading on pipeline systems.

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Thomas, Douglas, and Mellon Michael. Sublimation of terrestrial permafrost and the implications for ice-loss processes on Mars. Engineer Research and Development Center (U.S.), July 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.21079/11681/41244.

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Sublimation of ice is rate-controlled by vapor transport away from its outer surface and may have generated landforms on Mars. In ice-cemented ground (permafrost), the lag of soil particles remaining after ice loss decreases subsequent sublimation. Varying soil-ice ratios lead to differential lag development. Here we report 52 years of sublimation measurements from a permafrost tunnel near Fairbanks, Alaska, and constrain models of sublimation, diffusion through porous soil, and lag formation. We derive the first long-term in situ effective diffusion coefficient of ice-free loess, a Mars analog soil, of 9.05 × 10⁻⁶ m² s⁻¹, ~5× larger than past theoretical studies. Exposed ice-wedge sublimation proceeds ~4× faster than predicted from analogy to heat loss by buoyant convection, a theory frequently employed in Mars studies. Our results can be used to map near-surface ice-content differences, identify surface processes controlling landform formation and morphology, and identify target landing sites for human exploration of Mars.

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Russo, David, and William A. Jury. Characterization of Preferential Flow in Spatially Variable Unsaturated Field Soils. United States Department of Agriculture, October 2001. http://dx.doi.org/10.32747/2001.7580681.bard.

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Preferential flow appears to be the rule rather than the exception in field soils and should be considered in the quantitative description of solute transport in the unsaturated zone of heterogeneous formations on the field scale. This study focused on both experimental monitoring and computer simulations to identify important features of preferential flow in the natural environment. The specific objectives of this research were: (1) To conduct dye tracing and multiple tracer experiments on undisturbed field plots to reveal information about the flow velocity, spatial prevalence, and time evolution of a preferential flow event; (2) To conduct numerical experiments to determine (i) whether preferential flow observations are consistent with the Richards flow equation; and (ii) whether volume averaging over a domain experiencing preferential flow is possible; (3) To develop a stochastic or a transfer function model that incorporates preferential flow. Regarding our field work, we succeeded to develop a new method for detecting flow patterns faithfully representing the movement of water flow paths in structured and non-structured soils. The method which is based on application of ammonium carbonate was tested in a laboratory study. Its use to detect preferential flow was also illustrated in a field experiment. It was shown that ammonium carbonate is a more conservative tracer of the water front than the popular Brilliant Blue. In our detailed field experiments we also succeeded to document the occurrence of preferential flow during soil water redistribution following the cessation of precipitation in several structureless field soils. Symptoms of the unstable flow observed included vertical fingers 20 - 60 cm wide, isolated patches, and highly concentrated areas of the tracers in the transmission zone. Soil moisture and tracer measurements revealed that the redistribution flow became fingered following a reversal of matric potential gradient within the wetted area. Regarding our simulation work, we succeeded to develop, implement and test a finite- difference, numerical scheme for solving the equations governing flow and transport in three-dimensional, heterogeneous, bimodal, flow domains with highly contrasting soil materials. Results of our simulations demonstrated that under steady-state flow conditions, the embedded clay lenses (with very low conductivity) in bimodal formations may induce preferential flow, and, consequently, may enhance considerably both the solute spreading and the skewing of the solute breakthrough curves. On the other hand, under transient flow conditions associated with substantial redistribution periods with diminishing water saturation, the effect of the embedded clay lenses on the flow and the transport might diminish substantially. Regarding our stochastic modeling effort, we succeeded to develop a theoretical framework for flow and transport in bimodal, heterogeneous, unsaturated formations, based on a stochastic continuum presentation of the flow and a general Lagrangian description of the transport. Results of our analysis show that, generally, a bimodal distribution of the formation properties, characterized by a relatively complex spatial correlation structure, contributes to the variability in water velocity and, consequently, may considerably enhance solute spreading. This applies especially in formations in which: (i) the correlation length scales and the variances of the soil properties associated with the embedded soil are much larger than those of the background soil; (ii) the contrast between mean properties of the two subdomains is large; (iii) mean water saturation is relatively small; and (iv) the volume fraction of the flow domain occupied by the embedded soil is relatively large.

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