Journal articles: 'SOMALILAND (Somalia)'

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Madar, Mohamed Jama. "Shaping the Paradox of Somaliland Talks with Somalia." European Journal of Theoretical and Applied Sciences 2, no. 4 (July 1, 2024): 24–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.59324/ejtas.2024.2(4).03.

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Political rigidities created by Somaliland secessionism within Somalia are unsettled, three decades after the failed proclamation of independence in May 1991. Somaliland’s unilateral discourse in search for international recognition encountered significant challenges with no single country officially recognized. Somaliland’s talks with Somalia from 2012 to 2015 collapsed with key issues addressed have not been implemented despite attempts of diplomatic efforts by international facilitators. given the current political landscape in Somaliland's existing political grievances (power arrangements) in the peripherals, recurrent electoral disputes, and the war with Las Anod further exacerbated the political crisis in Somaliland. Despite their protracted and unsuccessful venture, Somaliland should allow internal dialogue with different political actors/stakeholders to debate and discuss the common issues amid future talks through a more inclusive and participatory approach. Consequently, reviving the collapsed talks between Somalia and Somaliland in a situation where Somaliland is facing an internal crisis will weaken Somaliland’s political stand. Yet, both sides should deliberate on the interests of their people. This paper concludes by reshaping the dialogue process by reviewing the factors that led to the collapse of successful dialogue, as well as proposals for future fruitful talks and how to decide the future merger or the relationships between the two sides.

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Abdullah, Abdurisaq Abdurahman. "Legal Basis for Unilateral Secession of Somaliland from Somalia." International Journal of Geopolitics and Governance 2, no. 1 (July 16, 2023): 55–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.37284/ijgg.2.1.1323.

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This article explores the legal basis for Somaliland’s unilateral secession from Somalia and whether it violates Somalia’s territorial integrity under international law. The article provides a brief history of Somaliland’s original independence and its subsequent union with Somalia. Following the collapse of the Somali government, Somaliland declared its secession from Somalia in 1991, while the southern region plunged into anarchy. The article examines the criteria for state recognition, with Somaliland fulfilling three of the four requirements. The article delves into the principles of self-determination, sovereignty, and territorial integrity under international law. Although the right to self-determination is fundamental, some experts argue that it does not apply to unilateral secession, as it is in conflict with territorial integrity. Conversely, others argue that self-determination promotes decolonisation and allows individuals to take part in local decision-making, including secession. The article also discusses the role of the International Court of Justice (ICJ), which considers customary law, and the principle of territorial integrity, which only prohibits foreign interference. Besides, this article provides an overview of the concept of recognition in relation to unilateral secession. It discusses the two main perspectives on recognition, constitutive and declaratory. The article examines several cases of state formation, including Eritrea, South Sudan, Czechoslovakia, and the Soviet Union, and emphasises the importance of mutual consent in the creation of new states. In conclusion, the article provides an overview of the legal basis for Somaliland’s unilateral secession and the principles of self-determination, sovereignty, and territorial integrity. It examines the criteria for state recognition and the role of the ICJ, human rights advocates, and the Security Council in interventions. Ultimately, the recognition of a new state depends on political will, which can have a significant impact on the decision-making process.

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Pijović, Nikola. "Seceding but not Succeeding: African International Relations and Somaliland’s lacking international recognition." Croatian International Relations Review 19, no. 68 (July 1, 2013): 73–105. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/cirr-2013-0004.

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Abstract Somaliland, the northern region of Somalia, declared independence in 1991 and has for the past two decades functioned as an independent political entity with important state-like structures. However, notwithstanding its relatively high accomplishment (especially as compared to Somalia) in state-building, it remains without any international political recognition. This article attempts to expose the politics behind Somaliland’s (non) recognition by analysing key African players and their roles in Somaliland’s international recognition game. The main arguments made are that some continental African states and Somaliland’s neighbours seem to be content keeping the status quo, and Somaliland’s international recognition is not a pressing issue for anyone but Somaliland. The fact that no African country seems to be ready to be the first to recognize Somaliland (while many are happy to be the second) may yet prove the most considerable obstacle for Somaliland’s recognition in the foreseeable future.

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Issa-Salwe, Abdisalam M., and Abdullahi Salah Osman. "Why Has Somaliland Not Been Recognised as A Sovereign State?" Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal 10, no. 4 (April 8, 2023): 8–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.104.14257.

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After the collapse of the Somali state, civil war followed, leading people to turn to their ancestral homeland. Consequently, rudimental local administrations were formed with a provision of becoming part of a decentralised governance system in Somalia. However, one region stood differently by declaring itself a separate state, Somaliland, within the boundaries of the former British Somaliland Protectorate. To overcome the objections of African countries about the session, Somaliland claimed that its declaration of independence in 1991 was supposed to be a dissolution of the union rather than a declaration of separation. This idea follows in the footsteps of other failed federations, such as the United Arab Republic, which included Egypt and Syria from 1958 to 1961, or the Senegambia Confederation, which existed between Senegal and the Gambia from 1981 to 1989. These failed political unions symbolized the breakup of that union and the restoration of the protectorate's original, pre-1960 borders. (Gordon, 2023) Britain granted Somaliland independence on June 26 1960, and after four days, it joined with the former UN Italian Somaliland Trusteeship Territory to form the Republic of Somalia. Thus, Somaliland's case differed markedly from the other regions as it wanted to stand as a separate nation-state within Africa. Yet, over thirty years have passed, and Somaliland has not been recognised as a sovereign entity. To answer why it happened, we have to look at the historical factors on state formation in Africa and how newly independent countries treated colonially inherited boundaries.

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Herring, Eric. "Decolonising Development : Academics, Practitioners and Collaboration." Journal of Somali Studies 7, no. 2 (December 1, 2020): 65–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.31920/2056-5682/2020/7n2a4.

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This article explores how academics and practitioners can collaborate to decolonise development in relation to Somalia/Somaliland. It does so through theoretical synthesis followed by an inductive thematic empirical analysis and collaborative autoethnography of the Somali First initiative to promote Somaliled development. The initiative has been run by Somali social enterprise Transparency Solutions and the University of Bristol since 2014. The article argues that underpinning the initiative with commitments to sustainable development as a global issue and to locally led, simple, complicated and complex change has been vital to ensuring that it contributes to decolonising development in Somalia/Somaliland. It argues further that the decolonisation of development in this case has been advanced through long term partnership grounded in a shared purpose and complementary capacities; maximisation of funding for and control of funding by Somali entities; decentring English and centring Somali linguistic diversity; promoting a locally led approach; and employing co-production. It concludes that scaling up or transfer of the approach set out in the article would involve reinterpretation by local actors to suit the context to be an effective contribution to decolonising development.

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Adan, Hassan. "Somalia-Somaliland Relations: Assessing Scenarios for Negotiations and Averting Possibility of Fresh Crises in the Horn of Africa." Technium Social Sciences Journal 43 (May 9, 2023): 454–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.47577/tssj.v43i1.8867.

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This paper focuses on the Somalia-Somaliland unresolved politico legal issue on their relationship. The contestation between the two has been dragging for a long time as a domestic issue, but due to the growing interest of both western, (re)emerging eastern and middle eastern powers, the Somalia-Somaliland sovereignty dispute is getting a new momentum and started to involve regional geopolitics. Deep political division within Somaliland over the power and resource sharing precipitated by exclusionary politics and failure of democratization efforts as well as insecurity in Somaliland’s eastern regions has finally led to armed conflict and deadly confrontations in Lasanod in Early February 2023. Because of fragility and the sensitivity of the conflicting political agendas between Somalia including Puntland and Somaliland, it attracted the attention of the United Nations Security Council, and regional bodies. Traditionally, the Horn of Africa has always been volatile for political and security dynamics. Over the past five year, the region has been shaken by the Gulf crises, followed by the US-Chinese competition over the Bab al-Mandeb strait that connects red sea to the gulf and the Indian ocean. To avert possibility of fresh escalations that may lead to regionalizing the dispute, consolidating extremism, or importing international proxy, the paper will assess three potential scenarios as methods to pursue by both authorities and by the United Nations in search for a solution of the Somalia-Somaliland question.

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Lewis, Ioan. "Visible and Invisible Differences: The Somali Paradox." Africa 74, no. 4 (November 2004): 489–515. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/afr.2004.74.4.489.

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AbstractIn exploring the difficulties experienced by the traditionally politically uncentralised Somalis in establishing a stable and effective state, based on their ethnicity, this article compares ethnicity, nationalism and lineage identity. In this case, ethnicity and nationalism are local products, influenced but not created by the colonial experience. They have had to contend with the intractable force of segmentary lineage identity, which has proved extremely difficult to adapt and accommodate to the requirements of modern statehood. In its cultural context, agnation is all the more pervasive and powerful in constituting an ‘invisible’ bond, conceived by Somalis as a biologically based distinction like ‘race’. Unlike race, it is almost infinitely elastic and divisible. Ethnic identity, which rests on external distinctions such as language, culture and religion, cannot be broken down into a series of formally equivalent segments, but is less binding as a social force. Today, after the collapse of the state of Somalia in 1991, following protracted grass‐roots peace‐making between clans, two parts of the nation—the former British Somaliland, and the north‐eastern region of Somalia (‘Puntland’, based on the Majerteyn clan, and other closely related clans)—have developed separate local states. Although Somaliland claims complete independence, which Puntland does not, both polities incorporate parliamentary institutions that accommodate traditional, and modern political leaders and processes. The ex‐Italian residue, Southern Somalia, still without any form of government, is in what appears to be the final throes of its long‐running, fourteenth grandiose international ‘peace’ conference in Kenya. Thousands of delegates, in various configurations, have already spent over eighteen months in these talks. Although its embryonic constitution now recognises ‘clans’ as constituent political units, this attempt to re‐establish Somalia is based on the usual ‘top‐down’ approach, rather than on spontaneous local negotiations amongst ‘stakeholders’ on the ground, such as those on which Somaliland and Puntland are founded. With contingents of foreign ‘experts’, the whole process seeks to reinstate a familiar Eurocentric state model, unadapted to Somali conditions.

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Bile, Abdillahi Mohamed. "A Legal Analysis of Somaliland’s Quest for Statehood under International Law." Journal of Modern Law and Policy 4, no. 1 (January 10, 2024): 1–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.47941/jmlp.1609.

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Purpose: The military dictatorship of Siad Barre in Somalia was overthrown, and Somaliland immediately declared its independence, withdrawing from the union with Somalia on May 18, 1991. Nearly three decades have passed since Somaliland proclaimed its independence, established its own government, maintained stability, and preserved peace. However, the international community has not yet recognized its claim. Among the remaining territories of the former Somali Republic, Somaliland stands out as the only one that has successfully established a democratic, stable government and long-lasting peace in the region. Somaliland, like many other African nations, was once a colony of the British Empire and contends that it should be recognized as an independent state.Methodology: This essay employs a qualitative research methodology, relying on desk reviews and content analysis, as methods for data collection. Findings: It examines the legal conceptions of statehood, from the Montevideo Convention to the more recent emphasis on self- determination, before addressing the situation in Somaliland. Unique contributor to theory, policy and practice: It argues that Somaliland deserves statehood status, and that other nations should recognize it as such, as there is no legal basis under international law to do otherwise.

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BRYDEN, MATT. "SOMALIA AND SOMALILAND." African Security Review 13, no. 2 (January 2004): 23–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10246029.2004.9627282.

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Warbrick, Colin, and Zeray W. Yihdego. "II. Ethiopia's Military Action Against the Union of Islamic Courts and Others in Somalia: Some Legal Implications." International and Comparative Law Quarterly 56, no. 3 (July 2007): 666–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/iclq/lei188.

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Somalia has been without government since 1991. A transitional government was established in 2004 under the presidency of Abdullahi Yusuf, with the backing of the United Nations, the African Union (AU), the Arab League and the Inter-governmental Agency for Development (IGAD). The Government sat in Baidoa in southern Somalia from June 2005 until December 2006. In June 2006 the Union of Islamic Courts (UIC) took control of much of southern and central Somalia, including the capital, Mogadishu, but not Puntland and Somaliland. They declared and tried to establish an Islamic State. Somalis were told to comply with stringent Islamic rules or face harsh punishment. In the meantime, efforts to achieve national reconciliation were ongoing under the auspices of IGAD, though without much success. It was reported that on 20 July 2006 Ethiopian troops crossed into Somalia. Ethiopia only admitted to having military trainers to help the Somali Government (estimated to be 400 military personnel). On 21 July, the UIC declared a ‘holy war’ against Ethiopia. In September 2006 the Somali interim President survived an assassination attempt in Baidoa. On 25 October 2006 Ethiopia said that it was ‘technically at war’ with the Islamic Courts. After few days the UIC claimed to have ambushed and killed Ethiopian troops near the Ethiopian border.1

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Hastings, Justin V., and Sarah G. Phillips. "Order beyond the state: explaining Somaliland's avoidance of maritime piracy." Journal of Modern African Studies 56, no. 1 (March 2018): 5–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022278x17000519.

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How do some places with weak institutional capacity avoid being caught in the cycles of violence and criminality so often associated with African institutions in the ‘failed states’ literature? This paper exploits in-country variation in piracy incidence across different regions of Somalia to investigate how some territories with low state capacity can nonetheless deter piracy and provide relative order. We find that the usual explanation – state ‘failure’ in Somalia, compared with a reasonably functional government in Somaliland – does not withstand scrutiny. Somaliland's lack of piracy was not due to ‘strong’ state institutions, but can be attributed to the strength of a discourse that emphasises Somaliland's ‘inherent’ capacity for order against the disorder supposedly endemic to the rest of Somalia. The exploration of the discursive underpinnings of Somaliland's supposed ‘piratelessness’ has implications for understanding the relationship between state institutions, political order and violence, particularly where the state does not exercise a monopoly on force.

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Hoehne, Markus V. "Mimesis and Mimicry in Dynamics of State and Identity Formation in Northern Somalia." Africa 79, no. 2 (May 2009): 252–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/e0001972009000710.

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In this article, mimesis and mimicry are used as analytical concepts to explore dynamics of state and identity formation in Somaliland and Puntland since the early 1990s. Mimesis captures endeavours to imitate well-established models of social and political organization. Mimicry involves the deceptive imitation of such models in order to reach a certain aim. In the particular setting of northern Somalia, miming and mimicking in state and identity formation are also related to conflict escalation. The article first presents relevant political and legal positions on state collapse and secession. This helps to grasp the theoretical and policy implications of the empirical material. Then, the establishment of Somaliland and Puntland through mimesis and mimicry is sketched. The outline of the repeated military confrontations between both sides, particularly the last round of fighting in and around the town of Laascaanood in late 2007, indicates the relation of state and identity formation to military conflict. These localized dynamics are embedded into the continuing conflict in southern Somalia that involves a number of internal and external actors. The article concludes that miming and mimicking underlie many of Somaliland's and Puntland's internal developments and their conflictive relationship. Moreover, since the conflict in northern Somalia concerns state formation, it might have far-reaching consequences for the future of Somalia as a whole. This finally leads to the suggestion that the international norms regarding state collapse and secession have to be re-evaluated in the light of the empirical realities at hand.

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Jalloh, Alusine. "Divine Madness." American Journal of Islam and Society 12, no. 1 (April 1, 1995): 120–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.35632/ajis.v12i1.2396.

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This book is a welcome addition to the few book-length biographiesof important African historical figures. The study, which consists of anintroduction and six chapters, offers a fresh and balanced perspective onone of Africa's most controversial nationalists: Mohammed AbdulleHassan, the mullah of present-day Somalia. Not only is he relevant tounderstanding modem Somali nationalism, but he also occupies a significantrole in the wider context of African resistance to western imperialism.In brief, he represents the clash between Islamic and western values incolonial Africa.Divine Madness begins with an examination of the early, colonial,and contemporary literature on the subject in various languages. In fact,one of its strengths is the author's use of a variety of foreign and indigenoussources. Sheik-Abdi draws extensively on archival and documentarydata in Italian, Arabic, English, French, and Somali. Moreover, heincorporates oral accounts from Somalis to complement his archivaland documentary research, a method that enhances the indigenous perspectiveon Mohammed Abdulle Hassan and his activities in the Hornof Africa.In addition, the author presents, in the first and second chapters, anoverview of Somaliland in its historical context. This serves as the backgroundin recounting Hassan’s life and times. Along with a detailedexamination of the Cushitic inhabitants of Somaliland, Sheik- Abdi discussesthe background to the mullah-led Dervish uprising by focusing onthe European colonization of Somaliland and its attendant problems.Perhaps the main response of the colonized Cushitic people to westernimperialism was a deeper and more intense commitment to Islam andpan-Islamic unity, which brought about religious militancy and revivalism ...

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Carcangiu, Bianca Maria. "Somaliland al femminile." Poiésis - Revista do Programa de Pós-Graduação em Educação 3, no. 6 (December 30, 2010): 140. http://dx.doi.org/10.19177/prppge.v3e62010140-153.

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Sarebbe arduo parlare del ruolo politico della donna in Somaliland, piccolo stato del Corno d’Africa autoproclamatosi indipendente nel 1991, senza riferirsi alla condizione femminile durante il período di governo di Siad Barre in tutta la Somalia. Con il suo colpo di stato dell’ottobre 1969 e l’istituzione della piattaforma politica del Partito socialista rivoluzionario somalo, cambiò, inizialmente, non solo l’eccessiva frantumazione partito-clanica, ma anche, almeno sulla carta, la situazione privata e pubblica delle donne.

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Gascon, Alain. "Lewis, Ioan M. — Understanding Somalia and Somaliland." Cahiers d'études africaines, no. 205 (March 15, 2012): 283–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.4000/etudesafricaines.14353.

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Mantzikos, I. "Understanding Somalia and Somaliland, by Ioan Lewis." African Affairs 109, no. 437 (September 9, 2010): 679–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/afraf/adq052.

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Adad, Mohamoud Saed. "Citizen Centered Approach to Preventing Violent Extremism: A Case of Somaliland." Eximia 11 (June 20, 2023): 33–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.47577/eximia.v11i1.275.

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The Horn of Africa region has been tackling prolonged ideology-based extremism for over two decades. Several factors are believed to have fueled the rise of extremism in the region, including but not limited to poverty, marginalization, lack of youth engagement, limited integration among regional states, limited access to formal education, and religious misconceptions. Somaliland, which is internationally part of Somalia but declared independence and regulated itself for the last 30 years; has succeeded in controlling both extremism and other forms of violence such as the pirates with a unique approach to citizens' engagement as a community policing. Violent extremism massively penetrated the region with its strong base in Somalia. Despite progress in countering and preventing violent extremism with regional effort and international community support, there is no single strategy and best practices applied by all regional governments to prevent violent extremism. Therefore, this paper will assess the new paradigm of prevention with the Somaliland approach of citizen engagement and how these elements contributed prevention of extremism spread across the border to neighboring countries and beyond. This study will employ a Trust-Based, Qualitative Methodology developed by ICEPCVE. The reason is to assess the impacts of National and Regional Efforts in Countering and Preventing Violent Extremism explicitly and accurately. This paper will unpack Somaliland's approaches to tackling these global and regional challenges of violent extremism and the secret of stability for more than 30 years, what other countries can learn about it, and how with thoughtful recommendations.

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Anonymous. "Government recognition in Somalia and regional political stability in the Horn of Africa." Journal of Modern African Studies 40, no. 2 (June 2002): 247–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022278x02003907.

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A year after the establishment of the Transitional National Government (TNG), Somalia and in particular the southern part of the country remained fragmented and riven by armed confrontations between clans and faction leaders. The TNG succeeded in re-assuming Somalia's seat in the United Nations and all relevant regional organisations, while the breakaway north-western region of ‘Somaliland’ failed to gain any international recognition, despite the widely acknowledged establishment of a relatively stable administration. This paper tries to explain this apparent discrepancy by arguing that state or government recognition is an instrument of international relations, designed to influence rather than passively acknowledge political reality. In Somalia, granting or withholding recognition to one or other political leadership has been driven by specific interests, thus complicating the process of political stabilisation and national reconciliation.

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Abdulahi, Hamdi I. "Elections and Electoral Processes in Somaliland: A Fading Democracy." Journal of African Elections 21, no. 2 (October 1, 2022): 76–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.20940/jae/2022/v21i2a4.

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After declaring its independence from Somalia in 1991, Somaliland has built a system to deliver basic services to its citizens. Despite having relatively good security, Somaliland has to date received no international recognition. With the presidential term extension made by the House of Elders (the Guurti) in October 2022, politics in Somaliland is at fever pitch. Public demonstrations, sporadic clashes, mass arrests, and hate speech add to a general sense of political disorder. Several factors have shaped the current outlook for democracy in Somaliland, including clan politics, a rent-seeking mentality, and weak institutional and legal frameworks. This study seeks to emphasise the contentious way in which elections have been held in Somaliland, and which have led to a loss of confidence in the country. The results, as witnessed in the 2017 presidential election, led to disputes, mass protests, and loss of life. Election time in Somaliland has therefore been a cause of concern for both political parties and the Somaliland Election Commission. In the battle for political leadership, the pre- and post-electoral aftermath has become conventional. But the main victim of the battle for political leadership has been the Somaliland Election Commission which is torn between contesting political parties.

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Herring, Eric, Peter Campbell, Mustafe Elmi, Latif Ismail, Sandra McNeill, Abdi Rubac, Asma Saed Ali, Amel Saeed, and Mohamed Shidane. "COVID-19 Responses and Education in Somalia/Somaliland." Sociology Mind 10, no. 04 (2020): 200–221. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/sm.2020.104013.

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Kibble, Steve. "Somaliland: Surviving Without Recognition; Somalia: Recognised but Failing?" International Relations 15, no. 5 (August 2001): 5–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/004711701015005002.

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Herring, Eric, Peter Campbell, Mustafe Elmi, Latif Ismail, Jamal Jama, Sandra McNeill, Abdi Rubac, Asma Saed Ali, Amel Saeed, and Muna Yusuf. "COVID-19 and sustainable development in Somalia/Somaliland." Global Security: Health, Science and Policy 5, no. 1 (January 1, 2020): 93–110. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/23779497.2020.1824584.

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Pasqualone, Antonella, Francesca Vurro, Erin Wolgamuth, Salwa Yusuf, Giacomo Squeo, Davide De Angelis, and Carmine Summo. "Physical-Chemical and Nutritional Characterization of Somali Laxoox Flatbread and Comparison with Yemeni Lahoh Flatbread." Foods 12, no. 16 (August 14, 2023): 3050. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/foods12163050.

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The physical–chemical and nutritional characteristics of Somali laxoox and Yemeni lahoh flatbreads have not been studied to date, nor have their possible similarities been investigated. Fieldwork was carried out in Somaliland (northwest Somalia), at nine different households, to collect Somali and Yemeni flatbreads. The nutritional characteristics (12.47–15.94 g/100 g proteins, 2.47–4.11 g/100 g lipids) and the total phenolic compounds (5.02–7.11 mg gallic acid equivalents/g on dry matter) were influenced by the natural variability of manual food preparation, as well as variability in the recipes used. All the breads had a porous structure. Cell density varied from 22.4 to 57.4 cells/cm2 in the Somali flatbreads, reaching 145 cells/cm2 in the Yemeni flatbreads. Higher amounts of refined flour increased the pale color of the breads. The principal component analysis highlighted differences between Yemeni and Somali flatbreads, pointing out a certain variability within the latter, with two samples forming a separate subgroup.

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Khayrullin, T. R. "The Struggle for Leadership of the Qatari-Turkish Alliance in Somalia." Islam in the modern world 17, no. 4 (January 14, 2022): 187–200. http://dx.doi.org/10.22311/2074-1529-2021-17-4-188-200.

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The article examines the struggle of the Qatari- Turkish alliance for regional leadership in the Federal Republic of Somalia. The analysis revealed that the foreign policy activity of Turkey and Qatar in Somalia began during the events of the Arab Spring. Ankara and Doha used diplomatic, military and fi nancial instruments to strengthen their infl uence in the country. Moreover, Qatari money played an important role in promoting pro-qatari candidates to power during the 2012 and 2017 presidential elections. However, the eff orts of the Turkish- Qatari alliance to strengthen its position in Somalia have clashed with the interests of the Saudi- Emirati bloc seeking regional dominance. On the other hand, the inability to close the main cooperation with the central government in Somalia forced the UAE to support such autonomous regions as Somaliland, thereby intensifying the destabilization processes in the country.

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Qayad, Mohamed Gedi, and Gianfranco Tarsitani. "Evaluation of Borama tuberculosis control program in Somaliland, Somalia." Journal of Infection in Developing Countries 11, no. 02 (February 28, 2017): 115–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.3855/jidc.7676.

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Introduction: The Borama TB program in Somalia lost resources for TB operations in 2003. We evaluated the impact of the loss on the program. Methodology: Pre-event (2002–2003) and post-event (2007) design were used. All TB patients registered in Borama and a sample of four months from Hargeisa (comparison) TB patients in both periods were abstracted. The following TB treatment outcomes were estimated: treatment success, treatment failure, case fatality, treatment interruption and transfer rates, along with percentage of patients with sputum specimen prior to treatment, percentage of patients from neighboring countries, and monthly average patients enrolled in treatment. The pre-event to post-event outcomes and measures were compared using descriptive and multivariate analyses. Results: In total, 3,367 TB cases were abstracted. In Borama, the TB treatment success rate increased 6% in the post-event. The treatment failure and interruption rates both declined 75%. Monthly average TB patients declined 55%. Percentage of patients smear tested prior to the initiation of the treatment declined 9%. Percentage of TB patients from neighboring countries and other parts of Somalia declined 51%. Treatment interruption/transfer rates declined significantly in the post-event, compared to the pre-event period. Treatment failure/death rate did not change in the post-event period. In Hargeisa, the treatment success, failure/death, and interruption/transfer rates were similar in both periods. The RR did not change in these measures after adjusting for age and gender. Conclusions: This study indicates a significant setback to the Borama TB control program in the majority of measures evaluated, except the TB success rate.

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Omaar, Rakiah. "Peace-building and democracy — Lessons of Somalia and Somaliland." Whitehall Papers 62, no. 1 (January 2004): 83–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02681300408523027.

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Kłosowicz, Robert. "Somaliland i Tajwan – współpraca państw nieuznawanych w cieniu rozgrywki geopolitycznej mocarstw w Rogu Afryki." Politeja 20, no. 4(85) (November 16, 2023): 161–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.12797/politeja.20.2023.85.09.

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SOMALILAND AND TAIWAN – THE COOPERATION OF UNRECOGNIZED COUNTRIES IN THE SHADOW OF THE GEOPOLITICAL GAME OF SUPERPOWERS IN THE HORN OF AFRICA Separated by thousands of kilometers and very different cultures, histories, and economies, Taiwan and Somaliland appear to have little in common. Like Taiwan, Somaliland was created in the aftermath of a civil war. The consequences of those conflicts continue to shape the political status of both countries. Since the declaration of independence from Somalia in 1991, Hargeisa, like Taipei, has been trying to secure its existence, because both states cannot count on international recognition, and their independence is contested by the states from which they seceded. Despite being forced to exist on the periphery of the international community, both de facto states still try to be active participants in global affairs. Relations between unrecognized states are also an element of the game between the main players in this region, the US and China. Washington, concerned about Beijing’s political and economic expansion in the Horn of Africa, is trying to limit it, and one of the elements of this policy is indirect support for the strategically located Somaliland through its ally from Taipei.

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MAZUCH, TOMÁŠ, JIŘÍ ŠMÍD, THOMAS PRICE, PETRA FRÝDLOVÁ, AHMED IBRAHIM AWALE, HASSAN SH ABDIRAHMAN ELMI, and DANIEL FRYNTA. "New records of one of the least known snakes, Telescopus pulcher (Squamata: Colubridae) from the Horn of Africa." Zootaxa 4462, no. 4 (August 29, 2018): 483. http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4462.4.2.

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Telescopus pulcher is an enigmatic colubrid snake only known from the holotype and paratype specimens described from ‘Migiurtinia’ in Puntland (Somalia) in 1935. Herein we recorded the third and fourth-ever known specimens of this species from the Toon village, Woqooyi Galbeed Region, and 15 km southeast of Sheikh, Saahil Region, Somaliland. The species is endemic to Somaliland and adjoining parts of Ethiopia and Puntland. Data on morphology and natural history, as well as the first photographs of live specimens are provided. We also provide a detailed description of the paratype. The coloration of the species resembles that of the vipers of the genus Echis and we hypothesize that T. pulcher mimics these common and sympatric vipers in the Horn of Africa.

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Jones, Robert Wynn. "Smaller Benthonic Foraminifera from the Gahodleh Shales (Late Jurassic) of Somalia, and their Stratigraphic Significance." Journal of Micropalaeontology 12, no. 2 (December 1, 1993): 175–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/jm.12.2.175.

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Abstract. The smaller benthonic foraminifera identified by MacFadyen (1935) from the Gahodleh Shales of the former British Somaliland are reviewed, and several species are reidentified. The stratigraphie implications are discussed.

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Ameh, Charles, Adetoro Adegoke, Jan Hofman, Fouzia M. Ismail, Fatuma M. Ahmed, and Nynke van den Broek. "The impact of emergency obstetric care training in Somaliland, Somalia." International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics 117, no. 3 (March 24, 2012): 283–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgo.2012.01.015.

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Barkworth, Mary E., Ahmed Ibrahim Awale, and Faisal Jama Gelle. "Dacar Cas/Somali Red Aloe: a new species of Aloe (Asphodelaceae) from Somaliland." PhytoKeys 117 (February 7, 2019): 85–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.3897/phytokeys.117.28226.

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A new species of Aloe (Asphodelaceae) is described from Somaliland. It differs from other species in forming large clumps and in having sap that is initially yellow but quickly turns bright red and then dark red or reddish-brown, paniculate red-flowered inflorescences and uniformly coloured leaves with red teeth. Its recognition raises the number of species known from the combined area of Somaliland and Somalia s.s. from 31 to 36. A map portraying species density of Aloe by country, as that genus is now interpreted, shows that Aloe has its highest density on islands in the Indian Ocean but that, within Africa, the greatest density is in countries along the eastern highlands. The data also reinforce the importance of field botanists in determining a country’s known plant diversity.

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Yasin, Gulled Mohamed, and Rachel Monde Kabeta. "Status of pedagogical practices in Somaliland higher education institutions." Journal of Education and Learning (EduLearn) 17, no. 4 (November 1, 2023): 526–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.11591/edulearn.v17i4.20914.

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Recently, there has been a concern in many parts of the world about the teaching strategies employed at higher education institutions (HEI). Empirical evidence shows that pedagogical practices affect the student engagement and academic excellence. Despite progress on the new innovative pedagogies globally, Somaliland HEI are still struggling with the old didactic teaching method which impedes students lifelong learning and future endeavors. Traditional teaching methods of HEI in Somaliland prevented students to unleash their potentials. Guided by the human capital theory, this study examined the status of lecturers’ application to modern pedagogical practices. The 35 lecturers at the University of Hargeisa, Somalia from the different faculties who had received postgraduate diploma in education provided by the university participated in this study. Employed by micro-teaching observation protocol of quantitative research design, the study found out lecture method as the most prevalent in their teaching practicum, with very low student cognitive engagement, inconsistencies with the instructional behavior and inadequate instructional aids. The study therefore proposed a cooperative jigsaw method as a veritable strategy for effective classrooms and better student engagement. The study recommends Somaliland higher education to adopt the policies, guidelines and regulations that guide the universities across the country.

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Azam, Jean-Paul. "The Birth of a Democracy: Homegrown Bicameralism in Somaliland." Peace Economics, Peace Science and Public Policy 20, no. 2 (April 1, 2014): 245–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/peps-2013-0047.

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AbstractSomaliland has recently developed an unexpected democracy after seceding from chaos-ridden Somalia, while turning its port of Berbera into a success story, competing successfully with the long established ones in the Horn of Africa. A simple game-theoretic model is used to explain why the home-grown bicameral democratic system that emerged in Somaliland is a key factor in controlling violence and providing the required security along the transport infrastructure linking Berbera to neighboring landlocked Ethiopia. The model shows that redistributing some of the fiscal resources levied on this trade is necessary for sustaining this efficient political equilibrium.

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Iazzolino, Gianluca, and Ahmed M. Musa. "The political economy of connectivity in the Somali Horn of Africa." International Affairs 100, no. 4 (July 2024): 1511–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiae138.

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Abstract This article focuses on the political economy of connectivity in the Somali Horn of Africa (HoA). On the one hand, it charts the emergence of firms in Somalia and Somaliland at the intersection of telecommunication and finance, eventually controlling logistics through digital platforms that enable the circulation of people, goods and value across the region. On the other, it examines the historical and political elements that have shaped a peculiar instance of digital capitalism against a backdrop of protracted insecurity and state fragility. It uses the specific case-study of digital platforms in the Somali HoA to provide insights into the multiple shapes that digital capitalism can take. To advance the authors' analysis, the article links the notions of digital infrastructural power and ‘extrastatecraft’. Empirically, it delves into the case of digital platforms in the Somali HoA to illustrate how the unique digital landscape of the region has evolved over fifty years of political instability and economic volatility. Theoretically, the article navigates the implications of the state's heavy reliance on privately owned and managed platforms amid the backdrop of variegated digital capitalism narratives, which have predominantly centred on the global North.

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Krug, Teresa. "The Trap of International Intervention: How Somaliland Succeeded where Somalia Failed." SAIS Review of International Affairs 36, no. 1 (2016): 121–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/sais.2016.0010.

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Ylönen, Aleksi. "External Relations and Local Agency in the Horn of Africa." Current History 122, no. 844 (May 1, 2023): 185–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/curh.2023.122.844.185.

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Strategic and security analysis of the Horn of Africa systematically portrays the roots of instability as external. However, the region’s stability or instability is largely determined by local actors and conditions. Local agency and context largely set the conditions for the involvement of external actors. This article discusses how state and nonstate actors have conducted their engagement with outside powers, especially the Gulf states, at a time of increasing rivalry for influence in the Horn of Africa, with examples ranging from Ethiopia to Somalia, and from Djibouti to Somaliland.

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Askar, Ahmed, Malekafzali Ardakani, and Reza Majdzade. "Bridging gaps in health information systems: a case study from Somaliland, Somalia." Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal 23, no. 11 (November 1, 2017): 764–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.26719/2017.23.11.764.

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THULIN, MATS, ANJANETTE DECARLO, and STEPHEN P. JOHNSON. "Boswellia occulta (Burseraceae), a new species of frankincense tree from Somalia (Somaliland)." Phytotaxa 394, no. 3 (March 1, 2019): 219. http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/phytotaxa.394.3.3.

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The new species Boswellia occulta is described from a small area in the Ceel Afweyn District of Somaliland (northwestern Somalia), where it is locally of considerable socio-economic importance. Although used for frankincense production by many generations of local harvesters, it has been unknown to science until now. Apart from the recently collected type material, it is also known from a sterile and hitherto misunderstood collection made in 1945. The simple-leaved Boswellia occulta is morphologically compared with B. sacra and B. frereana, the two major frankincense-producing species in the region, both with imparipinnate leaves, and it appears to be most closely related to B. sacra. The new species is the only simple-leaved species of Boswellia known outside Socotra.

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Rodríguez. "Against All Odds: The History of Archaeological Research in Somaliland and Somalia." Northeast African Studies 18, no. 1-2 (2018): 271. http://dx.doi.org/10.14321/nortafristud.18.1-2.0271.

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Handuleh, Jibril, Victor Periera-Sanchez, and Daniel Fekadu Wolde-Giorgis. "Innovative psychiatry medical education initiative: empowering and supervising trainees for future teaching in psychiatry training program establishment in Somaliland." BJPsych Open 7, S1 (June 2021): S141. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjo.2021.400.

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AimsSomaliland is a de facto state in the horn of Africa. It unilaterally declared independence from rest of Somalia in 1991. Medical education in Somaliland started in the year 2000.Aim of the study is to explore the feasibility of teaching program for the country by its future potential psychiatry educators. The initiative started in 2019 to seek trainees with interest in academic psychiatry and support them with medical education skills. This is intended to prepare them for leading future teaching roles in both undergraduate and residency/fellowship in psychiatryAmoud University wanted to empower junior doctors at the university to have teaching skills needed to set up residency program. The Somaliland government asked Ethiopian ministry of health to offer psychiatry residency program for general practitioners in Somaliland to have future residency and fellowship in psychiatry. Several psychiatry trainees worked with the visiting professor from the United Kingdom who joined Somaliland medical school as visiting professor in psychiatryMethodThe visiting professor supported the trainee in setting up a psychiatry undergraduate training curriculum in line with Somaliland medical school curriculum. Before the teaching methods were didactic and role play based. The faculty introduced different teaching methods including flipchart, small/large group teaching which was student centered education. Students received a online survey to reflect on psychiatry teaching they received. post course survey was conducted at the end of the teaching to evaluate the teaching initiative.ResultSurvey revealed interesting pattern that students preferred class room based teaching in comparison to online teaching. 90 percent of the attendees showed interest in flipchart teaching compared to didactic model. They expressed increasing understanding of the subject matter when they read and discuss among themselves instead of lectures. 70% of students prefer more clinical teaching compared to online sessions.52% liked the new teaching module compared to the lecturing sytle.ConclusionSupervision of early career psychiatrists to undertake future academic psychiatry roles is an important step in building psychiatry faculty in medical schools. As the case of Somaliland this retains trainees in teaching roles in the future to teach undergraduates mental health courses. The other benefit is empowering them to set up psychiatry training program to close the service delivery gap with skilled psychiatrists in the future. Somaliland plans to set up its psychiatry residency/fellowship programs soon after this initiative.

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Nelson-Nuñez, Jami, and Christopher Cyr. "Women’s Work in Fragile States: Evidence from a Firm-Level Dataset in Somaliland." Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State & Society 26, no. 3 (November 30, 2018): 419–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/sp/jxy037.

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Abstract What explains variation in women’s employment in fragile states with conflict-affected histories and limited state capacity? Employment builds stability and including women in labor markets can yield peace dividends. We use data from a firm-level survey in Somaliland, a de facto state in northern Somalia, to investigate why some firms employ more women than others. We analyze firm characteristics affected by state fragility and conflict, including female firm ownership, diaspora ownership and management, and limited access to services. This research contributes to our understanding of economic growth in fragile contexts and identifies opportunities to address gender inequalities in the developing world.

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Muse, Zakarie Yusuf. "The Application of International Human Rights and Humanitarian Law to the Current Las'anod Conflict." East African Scholars Journal of Education, Humanities and Literature 6, no. 03 (March 11, 2023): 117–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.36349/easjehl.2023.v06i03.003.

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In the last days of January 2023, an armed conflict has broken out between the Somaliland government and the local population in the city of Las’Anod, the administrative capital of Sool region of Somalia. Serious acts of violence jeopardizing well-being and lives of people living there have been widely reported by media. This Article focuses and explains how international law protects life, property and human dignity in such critical situations. It presents the applicable human right standards as well as rules of war that must be observed during an armed conflict. Finally, the Article addresses possibility of classifying the situation as violations of international humanitarian law.

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Adimora, Nancy. "Leadership and Development in Postcolonial Africa: The cases of Botswana, Somalia and Somaliland." Leadership and Developing Societies 1, no. 1 (September 23, 2016): 1–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.47697/lds.3434702.

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Scholars have routinely identified weak and ineffective institutions as the root cause of underdevelopment across Africa. Such findings, which place emphasis on ‘institutional systems’ and ‘state mechanisms’, too often neglect the critical leadership dimensions of development challenges. Whilst the scientific study of leadership is commonly associated with organisational behaviour, a venture beyond scholarly guidelines reveals how leadership finds relevance at all levels of social interaction. The study of postcolonial nation building is amongst the finest ways to assess the interconnectedness of leadership and development. At government infancy, where there are no systems or state institutions to speak of, a group of elite individuals occupy a space to which the process of leadership is enacted to its greatest potential. In order to interrogate this further, this article focuses primarily on Botswana and Somalia; two countries conveniently positioned on either end of Africa’s development spectrum.

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Hussein, Abdifatah Osman. "Role of the Humanitarian – Development – Peace (HDP) Nexus evidence in Tackling Protracted Environmental Conflicts in Somalia." Journal of International Relations and Policy 2, no. 1 (July 23, 2023): 1–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.47941/jirp.1363.

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Purpose: The work-based paper considered how each of the HDP components could be combined to strengthen the overall approach and outcomes of tackling Protracted Environmental Conflicts. Methodology: The work-based paper methodology rested on mixed methods research whereby converged and merged quantitative and qualitative data collected by KOBOTOOLBOX software were used to validate the Role of the (HDP) Nexus evidence in Tackling Protracted Environmental Conflicts in Somalia. Utilizing the TOC theory and HDP frameworks, the Work based work-based paper aims revolved around creating a logic model based on contextual and background factors of the HDP model. The work-based paper Sample size consisted of 112 humanitarian stakeholders, non-staff and staff personnel operating in Somaliland. Results: results showed gendered differences; (64.5%;40) of males and female participants (22,35.5%) responded to the interviews implying that males’ personnel dominated humanitarian operations. The mean age of all respondents was 37.15 years, while the minimum and maximum ages were 24 and 61, respectively.50(81%) of respondents were familiar with the HDP nexus approach, while 19% had no idea. A further 12 (24%) had incorporated medium to long-term strategies in their organisations.92% of respondents felt that that the triple nexus was appropriate to address the protracted crisis in Somalia.qualitative result indicated barriers to HDP operationalization were economic, political, donor, technology and environmental peacebuilding in Somali strengthened the local community’s capacity to manage the use of and competition over natural resources thus reduce/prevent conflicts as depicted by a majority observations. Scoping HDP evidence revealed that the HDP model was in use and highly successful in many conflict areas although practical local based variations of HDP nexus application in Somalia provided mixed results. Consequently, an integrated logic model ‘PHDPNRS’; pathways of HDP nexus reality in Somali’ was created to solve PEV. Unique Contribution to Theory, Policy and Practice: The work-based paper contributes to the literature on the HDP nexus by demonstrating its potential to tackle protracted environmental conflicts in Somalia. It introduces a new logic model called 'PHDPNRs' that can guide future research and implementation. The work-based paper provides policy recommendations for enhancing the operationalization of the HDP nexus in Somalia. These include the need for medium to long-term strategies, increased funding, and local-based variations of the approach. The work-based paper provides practical insights into the barriers and facilitators of operationalizing the HDP nexus in conflict-affected areas. It recommends strengthening the local community's capacity to manage natural resources to prevent conflicts.

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Onama, Victor, and Geoffrey Babughirana. "Access and Utilization of Maternal Newborn and Child Health Services in the Fragile Context of Somalia." Asploro Journal of Biomedical and Clinical Case Reports 6, no. 2 (June 26, 2023): 146–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.36502/2023/asjbccr.6307.

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Background: The humanitarian situation in Somalia is characterized by unstable government, insecurity, fragility, and limited investments in funding essential public services and maternal newborn and health services are not spared. The health system in Somalia remained under-resourced to meet the urgent lifesaving, essential, and preventive health services. This study sought to assess the access and utilization of maternal and newborn child health services in Somalia. Methodology: A cross-sectional design was used in this study. Descriptive and inferential statistical data analysis was conducted to establish the performance of indicators and relationships. The study targeted mothers of children 0-59 months. Results: The results show a low (13.1%) attendance of focused (4th visit) antenatal care among the mothers. 23.3% of the mothers from Somaliland attended at least three antenatal care visits, while the rest of the states only achieved less than 10%. At least 41.5% of the deliveries occurred at the health facility. Skilled attendants assisted 42.7% of the deliveries. No significant difference was observed in the number of women having an extra meal during pregnancy or delivery at the health facility or in predicting the number of ANC visits. Nonetheless, 43.2% of the infants in Somalia had not been exclusively breastfed for the first six months of life. The results equally demonstrated poor nutritional index with only 38.4% of the pregnant women having an extra meal during pregnancy. In Somalia, early health care seeking for common childhood illnesses is still low, with Respiratory Tract infections (RTIs) at 40%, malaria at 56.6%, and diarrhea at 63.4%. Conclusion and Recommendations: There is a need for deliberate efforts to improve low-performing indicators and hence improve the survival of mothers and children.

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Hussein, Abdifatah Osman. "Opportunities of HDP – Nexus in Tackling Recurring Environmental Conflicts in Somalia." International Journal of Conflict Management 3, no. 2 (July 23, 2023): 22–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.47941/ijcm.1366.

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Purpose: The primary goals of this paper was to identify Opportunities HDP – nexus in tackling recurring environmental conflicts in Somalia Methodology: A five-step thematic methodology was used to transcribe qualitative data from the non-structured probing question added by the researcher wanting more views on familiarity and Experience of HDP among the interviewees. The five-step included data Familiarizing, generating initial code, defining and collating interpretive code for entire data framed into themes, and defining and naming pieces.The Sample size was 112 humanitarian stakeholders, non-staff and staff personnel operating in Somaliland. Results: Results showed gendered differences; 64.5% of males (40) and female participants (22)35.5% responded to the interviews implying that males dominated humanitarian operations. The Mean Age of respondents was 37.15 years, while the minimum and maximum ages were 24 and 61, respectively. Overall, HDP nexus can be concluded in playing a massive role in shaping HDP opportunities (humanitarian, funding, and programs) due to theinter link of HDP inputs, outputs, and outcomes involved. Unique Contribution to Theory, Policy and Practice:.Consequently, this paper recommends HDP – nexus Opportunities efforts approach in tackling recurring environmental conflicts in Somalia.

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Pirkkalainen, Päivi. "The Role of the Diaspora in the Civil Society Development of Somalia/Somaliland: Reflections on the Finland-based Somali Diaspora." Journal für Entwicklungspolitik 31, no. 1 (2015): 83–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.20446/jep-2414-3197-31-1-83.

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Hussein, Abdifatah Osman. "Towards Effective Positive Interventions in Protracted Somali Environmental Conflicts: An HPD Operationalization Framework Informed by Socio-Demographics, Familiarity, and Experience." International Journal of Developing Country Studies 3, no. 1 (July 23, 2023): 27–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.47941/ijdcs.1367.

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Purpose: The primary goal of this workbased project is creating an Hpd Operationalization Framework For Positive Interventions In Protracted Somali Environmental Conflicts: Considering Socio-Demographics, Familiarity, And Experience Factors" Methodology: The use of convergent parallel mixed data design, data collection and analysis strategies implied that the researcher converged and merged both quantitative and qualitative data. The researcher collected both primary and secondary data roughly and simultaneously integrated and analyzed both online and offline data outputs so as to enable the findings reflect a work-based paper. A five-step thematic methodology was used to transcribe qualitative data from the non-structured probing questionaires admisntered to resoondents. Secondary data on familiarity and experience of HDP was collected from validated humanitarian websites. Qualitative data was analysed using a five-step analytical framework that encompassed data familiarizing, generating initial codes, defining and collating interpretive codes for entire data framed into themes, defining and naming final recurrent pieces.the sample size was 112 respodents drawn from humanitarian stakeholders operating in somaliland. Results:.Results showed gendered differences; 64.5% of males (40) and female participants (22)35.5% responded to the interviews implying that males dominated humanitarian operations. The mean age of respondents was 37.15 years, while the minimum and maximum ages were 24 and 61, respectively. Qualitative result summary results showed that barriers to HDP operationalization in somalia tabulated from the questionnaire were economic, political, finnacial, instution,programs ,technology. Success factors to the operationalization of HDP nexus were leadership and governance, transparency, feedback: participation: institutions, design, monitoring and evaluation, and technology. Unique Contribution To Theory, Policy And Practice: The HDP framework proposed integrates coherent HDP interventions needed to tackle protracted environmental conflicts in Somalia.

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Mills, Michael SL, Callan Cohen, Julian Francis, and Claire N. Spottiswoode. "A survey for the Critically Endangered Liben Lark Heteromirafra archeri in Somaliland, north-western Somalia." Ostrich 86, no. 3 (June 4, 2015): 291–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.2989/00306525.2015.1049670.

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Ahmed, Zahra Abdi, Saif Hassan Alrasheed, and Waleed Alghamdi. "Prevalence of refractive error and visual impairment among school-age children of Hargesia, Somaliland, Somalia." Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal 26, no. 11 (November 1, 2020): 1362–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.26719/emhj.20.077.

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Journal articles on the topic 'SOMALILAND (Somalia)'

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