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Journal articles on the topic 'Songhai Empire'

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Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 6 February 2022

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1

Collet, Hadrien. "LANDMARK EMPIRES: SEARCHING FOR MEDIEVAL EMPIRES AND IMPERIAL TRADITION IN HISTORIOGRAPHIES OF WEST AFRICA." Journal of African History 61, no. 3 (November 2020): 341–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021853720000560.

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AbstractThe history of medieval West Africa is defined by the age of three great empires that succeeded one another: Ghāna, Māli, and Songhay. How did these empires come to frame our view of the West African past? To answer the question, we have to understand first how the European and Eurocentric concept of an empire was imposed on a specific African context and why it thrived. In this respect, the case of Sudanic empires in particular illuminates the process of history writing and scholars’ relationship with their time and object of study. In the last few years, Sudanic empires have made a prominent return to the historical conversation. I propose here a critical reflection on ‘empire’ and ‘imperial tradition’ in the western Sahel based on europhone and non-europhone (Arabic) historiographies, from the first histories written in postmedieval West Africa to those produced by twenty-first-century scholarship.

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2

Singleton, Brent. "Rulers, Scholars, and Invaders: A Select Bibliography of the Songhay Empire." History in Africa 31 (2004): 357–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0361541300003533.

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The Songhay Empire was a remarkable west African state, flourishing in several areas including territorial and trade expansion, development of a strong military and centralized government, unprecedented support for learning and scholarship, and skilful relations with the greater Sudanic and Islamic lands. Songhay arose out of the remains of the Mali empire under the rule of Sonni Ali ca. 1464. Yet it was the empire's second ruler, Askiya Muhammad, who initiated the century-long golden age of peace and stability, bringing Songhay to its zenith. This era was particularly fruitful for the cities of Gao, Timbuktu, and Jenne, the empire's administrative, scholarly, and trade centers respectively. Timbuktu soared to preeminence in the Sudan and became known in other parts of the Muslim world, producing many respected scholars. However, by the later part of the sixteenth century fractious disarray among the descendants of Askiya Muhammad weakened the state, ultimately leading to the Moroccan invasion of 1591. Songhay's capitulation to the invaders ended the age of the great medieval west African states.

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3

Hunwick, John. "Secular Power and Religious Authority in Muslim Society: the Case of Songhay." Journal of African History 37, no. 2 (July 1996): 175–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021853700035180.

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The relationship between political power and religious authority has been a delicate one in Muslim societies. On the one hand, governments may attempt to silence religious authorities; on the other, they may themselves succumb to revolutions in the name of religion. More often governments have attempted to co-opt religious authorities as allies in exercising control or have worked directly in a power-sharing arrangement with them. In Songhay, as in several other states of pre-colonial Sudanic Africa, a more subtle balance was achieved between the ruling estate and the diverse body of scholars, mystics and holymen who made up the religious estate. The askiyas of sixteenth-century Songhay, while exercising full political power, saw it in their interest to maintain harmonious relations with these men of religion. Gifts in cash and kind, including slaves, grants of land and privilege, especially exemption from taxation, as well as recognition of rights of intercession and sanctuary, ensured their moral support and spiritual services and, importantly, protected rulers from their curse. Such a symbiosis was important for the stability of a large and ethnically diverse empire like Songhay, especially as regards its conquered western reaches, which were ethnically non-Songhay and had a strong Islamic cultural tradition. This delicate balance was upset by the Sacdian conquest of Songhay in 1591. Despite Moroccan assertions of Islamic legitimacy, religious authorities in Timbuktu were unsupportive, and harsh measures against them dealt a lasting blow to the equilibrium which had prevailed under the askiyas.

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4

Niezen, Ronald, and Thomas A. Hale. "Scribe, Griot, and Novelist: Narrative Interpreters of the Songhay Empire." Journal of Religion in Africa 22, no. 2 (May 1992): 184. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1580969.

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5

McCall, Daniel F., and Thomas A. Hale. "Scribe, Groit, and Novelist: Narrative Interpreters of the Songhay Empire." International Journal of African Historical Studies 23, no. 3 (1990): 577. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/219645.

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6

Furniss, Graham, and Thomas A. Hale. "Scribe, Griot, and Novelist: Narrative Interpreters of the Songhay Empire." Canadian Journal of African Studies / Revue Canadienne des Études Africaines 28, no. 2 (1994): 315. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/485732.

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7

Gomez, Michael, and Thomas A. Hale. "Scribe, Griot, and Novelist: Narrative Interpreters of the Songhay Empire." International Journal of African Historical Studies 25, no. 1 (1992): 146. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/220154.

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8

Stoller, Paul, and Thomas A. Hale. "Scribe, Griot, and Novelist: Narrative Interpreters of the Songhay Empire." Ethnohistory 38, no. 4 (1991): 484. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/482497.

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9

Bühnen, Stephan. "In Quest of Susu." History in Africa 21 (1994): 1–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3171880.

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The political history of the medieval Western Sudan was dominated by a succession of empires exerting their domination over the region: Ghana, Mali, and finally Songhay. Oral tradition is our only evidence for the existence of yet another empire. It was called Susu and exerted its supremacy after the decline of Ghana and before the rise of Mali. Most historical treatises locate enigmatic Susu in the Kaniaga region northwest of Segou. These treatises are mainly based on oral traditions and medieval Arabic chronicles.After rereading the conventional historical sources and examining passages in Portuguese sources thus far untapped for the history of the Western Sudan, I feel induced to present a new identification for Susu. The Portuguese evidence appears to point to a vast but nearly forgotten kingdom in the Futa Jalon and Upper Niger region as the historical descendant of ancient Susu, thus indicating the latter's location. This kingdom was called Jalo and Concho. Its ethnic core were the Susu and Jalonke, and it was on its ruins that the Muslim Fula conquerors erected the state of Futa Jalon in the eighteenth century. My interpretation of oral traditions and Arabic sources also leads me to assume an identity of Susu with the kingdoms of Sankaran and Do. I will attempt to demonstrate the identity of the polities bearing these different names in sections introducing these polities, most of which have never been subjected to close historical investigation.

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10

IRVINE, JUDITH T. "Scribe, Griot, and Novelist: Narrative Interpreters of the Songhay Empire. THOMAS A. HALE." American Ethnologist 19, no. 4 (November 1992): 846–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/ae.1992.19.4.02a00310.

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11

Tamari, Tal. "The Development of Caste Systems in West Africa." Journal of African History 32, no. 2 (July 1991): 221–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021853700025718.

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Endogamous artisan and musician groups are characteristic of over fifteen West African peoples, including the Manding, Soninke, Wolof, Serer, Fulani, Tukulor, Songhay, Dogon, Senufo, Minianka, Moors, and Tuareg. Castes appeared among the Malinke no later than 1300, and were present among the Wolof and Soninke, as well as some Songhay and Fulani populations, no later than 1500. All the West African castes ultimately developed from at most three centers, located among the Manding, Soninke, and/or Wolof. Migration is the key process explaining the current distribution of caste people. Formation of blacksmith and bard castes among the Manding may be related to the Sosso–Malinke war, described in the Sunjata epic, which led to the founding of the Mali empire. As they evolved over time, castes acquired secondary specializations or changed occupations, and moved up or down in rank relative to other social groups. Although marriage alliances took place within a caste or among a limited number of castes, castes did not form demographic isolates. Children of caste men and slave concubines had caste status, while free persons taken captive in war sometimes claimed to be caste members. Assimilation of local artisans to a caste may have occurred when caste institutions were first introduced into a given area.

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12

van Dyke, Kristina. "Beyond Monument Lies Empire: Mapping Songhay Space in Tenth- to Sixteenth-Century West Africa." Res: Anthropology and aesthetics 48 (September 2005): 33–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/resv48n1ms20167675.

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13

Conrad, David C. "Narratives of Songhay - Scribe, Griot and Novelist: Narrative Interpreters of the Songhay Empire. By Thomas A. Hale. Gainesville: University of Florida Press. Pp. xvi+313. £23.06." Journal of African History 32, no. 3 (November 1991): 523–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021853700031625.

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14

Messier, Ronald A., and John Hunwick. "Timbuctu and the Songhay Empire: Al-Sa'di's Ta'rikh Al-Sudan down to 1613 and Other Contemporary Documents." International Journal of African Historical Studies 32, no. 2/3 (1999): 462. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/220373.

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15

Cook, Weston F., and John O. Hunwick. "Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire: Al-Sadi's "Tarikh al-Sudan" down to 1613 and Other Contemporary Documents." Sixteenth Century Journal 32, no. 4 (2001): 1131. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3649007.

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16

Pouwels, Randall L., and John Hunwick. "Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire: Al-Sadi's Tarikh al-sudan down to 1613 and Other Contemporary Documents." Journal of the American Oriental Society 123, no. 2 (April 2003): 469. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3217738.

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17

Dorsey, David, and Thomas A. Hale. "Scribe, Griot, and Novelist: Narrative Interpreters of the Songhay Empire, followed by the Epic of Askia Mohammed." World Literature Today 65, no. 2 (1991): 348. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/40147281.

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18

Coquery-Vidrovitch, Catherine. "Simonis Francis, 2010, L’Afrique soudanaise au Moyen Âge. Le temps des grands empires (Ghana, Mali, Songhaï)." Journal des Africanistes, no. 81-1 (October 1, 2011): 263–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.4000/africanistes.3878.

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19

Dunbar, Roberta Ann, Thomas A. Hale, Nouhou Malio, and S. P. Reyna. "Scribe, Griot, and Novelist: Narrative Interpreters of the Songhay Empire Followed by The Epic of Askia Mohammed Rerecounted by Nouhou Malio." African Studies Review 35, no. 1 (April 1992): 154. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/524460.

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20

FARIAS, P. F. M. D. "Scribe, Griot and Novelist: Narrative interpreters of the Songhay Empire, followed by The Epic of Askia Mohammed recounted by Nouhou Malio." African Affairs 91, no. 362 (January 1, 1992): 144–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/afraf/91.362.144.

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21

Mamoudou, Seyni. "Economic and Political Factor of Songhay Empire the Emergence of Kebbi Kingdom Nigeria, <i>c.</i> 1500s." Open Journal of Social Sciences 09, no. 04 (2021): 332–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/jss.2021.94026.

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22

LEVTZION, NEHEMIA. "SONGHAY HISTORY Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire: Al-Sa‘di's Ta'rikh al-Sudan down to 1613 and other Contemporary Documents. By JOHN O. HUNWICK. Leiden: Brill, 1999. Pp. lxv + 412. $140.75 (ISBN 90-04-11207-3)." Journal of African History 41, no. 3 (September 2000): 487–526. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021853700237833.

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23

Vlasak, Rodney. "Book Reviews:Scribe, Griot, and Novelist: Narrative Interpreters of the Songhay Empire. Followed by The Epic of Askia Mohammed, recounted by Nouhou Malio." Journal of Linguistic Anthropology 1, no. 2 (December 1991): 235–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/jlin.1991.1.2.235.

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24

Austen, Ralph. "Imperial Reach Versus Institutional Grasp: Superstates of The West and Central African Sudan in Comparative Perspective." Journal of Early Modern History 13, no. 6 (2009): 509–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/138537809x12575055608408.

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AbstractThe history of five states in the African West and Central Sudan—Songhay, Borno, Segu, Samory and the Sokoto Caliphate—is analyzed for a period from ca. 1500 to ca. 1900. Recent scholarship has stressed the non-territorial nature of these “states without maps”, an issue that needs to be dealt in a more nuanced manner, given the efforts by local regimes to control both multiple urban centers of commerce and rural zones of agricultural production as well as maintaining regular systems of taxation. None of these states used writing or salary payments to maintain an effective bureaucracy, basing their power instead upon various combinations of lineages with claims to ruling or aristocratic status, associations of young unmarried male initiates, segregated occupational groups (bards, smiths and fisher folk) and finally, slaves. Warfare was the main occupation of Sudanic empires but despite the introduction of firearms in the late 1500s, weapons and tactics did not undergo a “gunpowder revolution,” continuing instead to center around horses and armor. Sudanic rulers controlled access to these resources more easily than European monarchs and they also proved effective in the major goal of campaigns: not territorial competition with other states but rather raiding for slaves. Islam played an increasing role in general life and politics of Sudanic Africa (the most powerful of these empires, Sokoto, was a nineteenth-century jihadist state). However, the potential that such a scriptural faith offered for transforming administration, law and commercial life was not fully realized by the time the region came under European rule and thus moved from its early modern to modern history.

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25

JACK, B. "Review. Scribe, Griot, and Novelist: Narrative Interpreters of the Songhay Empire. Followed by 'The Epic of Askia Mohammed' recounted by Nouhou Malio. Hale, Thomas A." French Studies 47, no. 2 (April 1, 1993): 244. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/fs/47.2.244.

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26

Agyepong. "A Glorious Age in Africa, Ghana, Mali, and Songhay: The Story of Three Great African Empires, Daniel Chu and Elliott Skinner." Africa Today 60, no. 1 (2013): 130. http://dx.doi.org/10.2979/africatoday.60.1.130.

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27

Niezen, Ronald. "HALE, Thomas A., Scribe, Griot, and Novelist: Narrative Interpreters of the Songhay Empire, Gainesville, University of Florida Press, 1990, 313 pp., US$ 29.95 / £ 23.06, 0 8130 0981 2." Journal of Religion in Africa 22, no. 2 (1992): 184–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/157006692x00536.

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28

Warren, Dennis Michael. "Islam in Nigeria." American Journal of Islam and Society 5, no. 1 (September 1, 1988): 161–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.35632/ajis.v5i1.2888.

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Islam in Nigeria is the product of A. R. I. Doi's twenty years of research on the spread and development of Islam in Nigeria. Professor Doi, currently the director of the Centre for Islamic Legal Studies at Ahmadu Bello University in Zaria, has also taught at the University of Nigeria at Nsukka and the University of lfe. His lengthy tenure in the different major geographical zones of Nigeria is reflected in the book. The twenty-one chapters begin with a general introductory overview of the spread of Islam in West Africa. Part I is devoted to the impact of Islam in the Northern States of Nigeria, Part II deals with the more recent spread of Islam into the Southern Nigerian States and Part III explicates a wide variety of issues germane to the understanding of Islam at the national level. The book is comprehensive, thoroughly researched, and is based on analyses of secondary sources as well as primary field research conducted in all parts of Nigeria. The book has nine maps, seventy-three photographs, detailed notes at the end of each chapter, a bibliography and an index. Professor Doi traces the spread of Islam through North Africa into the Ancient Empires of Ghana, Mali and Songhai. As Islam moved into the Northern part of Nigeria, it had a dramatic impact on the seven Hausa states and on the Fulani peoples who carried out the jihad under Shehu Utham Dan Fodio and the Fulani Sultans of Sokoto. A link was established between the Umawz Arabs and the Kanem-Bornu State. Islam also influenced the Nupe and Ebirra peoples. With the arrival of the Royal Niger Company, British Imperialism and Christian missions began to move into Northern Nigeria about 1302 AH/1885 AC. The impact of colonialism and Christianity upon Islam in Northern Nigeria is analyzed by Dr. Doi. Of particular interest is the analysis of syncretism between Islam and the indigenous cultures and religions of Northern Nigeria. The Boori Cult and the belief in al-Jinni are described. The life cycle of the Hausa-Fulani Muslims includes descriptions of the ceremonies conducted at childbirth, the naming of a new child, engagement, marriage, divorce, and death. Non-Islamic beliefs which continue to persist among Muslims in Northern Nigeria are identified ...

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29

Norris, H. T. "The Near and Middle East - John Hunwick: Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire, Al-Sa‘dī’s Ta'rīkh al-sūdan down to 1613 and other contemporary documents. 412 pp. Leiden, Boston and Cologne: Brill, 1999. Guilders 239, $140.75." Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 63, no. 1 (January 2000): 112. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0041977x00006583.

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30

Voll, John O. "JOHN HUNWICK, Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire: Al-Sa⊂di's Ta⊃rikh al-s―ud―an Down to 1613 and Other Contemporary Documents, Islamic History and Civilization: Studies and Texts (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1999). Pp. 477. $141.00 cloth." International Journal of Middle East Studies 32, no. 4 (November 2000): 532–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020743800002695.

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Al-Sa⊂di's Ta⊃rikh al-sudan is an essential source for the history of West Africa in the 15th and 16th centuries and a significant volume in the library of Muslim history. Although a French translation by Octave Houdas has been available for more than a century, al-Sa⊂di's history has been used primarily by specialists and is known more generally only through references to it in textbooks and monographs. The publication of John Hunwick's translation makes this important work readily available to a broad audience in a readable and very usable form.

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31

Lange, Dierk. "Les Rois de Gao-Sané et les Almoravides." Journal of African History 32, no. 2 (July 1991): 251–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s002185370002572x.

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In recent years the impact of the Almoravid movement on the sahelian societies has been the object of some debate. Ancient Ghana seemed to be the most rewarding area of investigation, since al-Zuhrī (1154) and Ibn Khaldūn (end of the fourteenth century) suggested its ‘conquest’ by Almoravid forces. The evidence provided by these narrative sources has been disputed, but it could not be discarded.A new field of investigation was opened by the discovery in 1939 of a number of royal tombstones in Gao-Sané close to the old capital of the Gawgaw empire. The dates of the epitaphs extend from the early twelfth to the late thirteenth century. However, none of the Arabic names given to the rulers of Gao-Sané seemed to correspond to any of the names provided in the chronicles of Timbuktu, the T. al-Sūdān and the T. al-Fattāsh. A closer look at the epitaphs shows that the third ruler of Gao-Sané, called ‘Umar b. al-Khaṭṭāb and also Yāmā b. K.mā and who died in 1120, is in fact identical with Yama Kitsi mentioned in the chronicles. The available evidence suggests that by 1080 the local Berbers of Gao-Sané were able to seize power from the earlier Qanda/Kanta dynasty of Old Gao. This change of dynasty was certainly not the result of a military conquest, although it is likely that Almoravid propagandists contributed to arouse the religious fervour of the local Muslims in both Gao-Sané with its community of traders and Old Gao with its Islamic court members and dynastic factions. The clear message of the Gao epitaphs is that the new rulers of Gao-Sané, the Zāghē, tried to establish good relations with members of the former ruling clan resorting to a policy of intermarriage. By the middle of the thirteenth century the Zāghē rulers were so much integrated into the local Mandé society that they adopted the title Z.wā (Zā) which was originally the title of the Kanta rulers. Thus it would appear that in spite of the far-reaching dynastic effects resulting from the religious and political upheaval of the Almoravid period, there was no major incursion of Berber people into the kingdom of Gawgaw. Indeed, there are reasons to believe that the basic institutions of the original‘Mande’ society were destroyed only in the course of the fifteenth century, when Songhay warrior groups from the east under the leadership of the Sonni radically changed the ethnic set-up of the Middle Niger. In spite of these changes the Zarma, whose aristocracy descend from the Zā, preserve the tradition of their origin from Mali until the present day.

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32

Zussman, Mira. "Scribe, Griot, and Novelist: Narrative Interpreters of the Songhay Empire, by Thomas A. Hale, followed by The Epic of Askia Mohammed, recounted by Nouhou Malio, transcribed and translated by Thomas A. Hale, xiv + 313 pages, maps, transcription, translation, notes, bibliography, index. University Press of Florida; Center for African Studies, Gainesville1990. $29.95." Middle East Studies Association Bulletin 25, no. 1 (July 1991): 52–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0026318400023749.

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33

Afolayan, Bosede Funke. "The Court Poet/Praise Singer in Wole Soyinka's Death and the King's Horseman and Ola Rotimi's Ovonramwen Nogbaisi: a Critical Appraisal." Afrika Focus 32, no. 1 (September 5, 2019). http://dx.doi.org/10.21825/af.v32i1.11788.

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Oral artists are a common sight in traditional African societies and were most prominent in old empires such as Oyo, Benin, Songhai and Mali. They also existed in the Zulu empire, northern Nigeria and among the Akan in Ghana. Their place is integral to the social and political well-being of these empires. In the Oyo empire, court poets are known as Olohun-Iyo. They are called griots in Senegal and Mali and among the Akan of Ghana, they are called Kwadwumfo. Modern Nigerian dramatists such as Wole Soyinka and Ola Rotimi have appropriated the image and roles of the court poet in Death and The King’s Horseman and Ovonramwen Nogbaisi respectively. This paper defines who a court poet is, his role as a maker and wordsmith, and the nature of his work and patronage. It examines the qualities he must possess and the content of his poetry. In examining the place of memory and remembering in the discharge of the poet ́s duties, the paper investigates the various mnemonic and retrieval systems used by the poet to recall past accounts and great deeds of the kings. The roles of traditional court poets will be compared with the roles played by Olohun-iyo and Uzazakpo in the selected plays. The paper will also discuss what has become of oral artists in modern African societies. How viable is the art-form in the modern world with the advent of technology? Has civilization and modernity eroded their importance in society? While affirming their traditional advisory, prophetic, warning, motivational roles and as repositories of customs and culture, this paper concludes by stating the poet employs linguistic, para- linguistic and “medicinal” strategies to recall events at a given performance. KEYWORDS: COURT-POET, PRAISE SINGER, TRADITIONAL AFRICAN POETRY, WOLE SOYINKA, OLA ROTIMI

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34

"Scribe, griot, and novelist: narrative interpreters of the Songhay Empire." Choice Reviews Online 28, no. 05 (January 1, 1991): 28–2634. http://dx.doi.org/10.5860/choice.28-2634.

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35

Kintiba, George. "The Empire of Songhay, 1375-1591: Memory and Heritage of a Glorious Past [A Historiographical Essay]." International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 8, no. 10 (2018). http://dx.doi.org/10.30845/ijhss.v8n10p4.

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