Academic literature on the topic 'Sovereign ratings'

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Journal articles on the topic "Sovereign ratings"

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Botha, Ilse, and Marinda Pretorius. "The geographical and income differences in the determinants of African sovereign credit ratings." African Journal of Economic and Management Studies 11, no. 4 (2020): 609–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ajems-08-2018-0228.

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PurposeThe importance of obtaining a sovereign credit rating from an agency is still underrated in Africa. Literature on the determinants of sovereign credit ratings in Africa is scarce. The purpose of this research is to determine what the determinants are for sovereign credit ratings in Africa and whether these determinants differ between regions and income groups.Design/methodology/approachA sample of 19 African countries' determinants of sovereign credit ratings are compared between 2007 and 2014 using a panel-ordered probit approach.FindingsThe findings indicated that the determinants of
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van de Ven, Rick, Shaunak Dabadghao, and Arun Chockalingam. "Assigning Eurozone sovereign credit ratings using CDS spreads." Journal of Risk Finance 19, no. 5 (2018): 478–512. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jrf-06-2017-0096.

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Purpose The credit ratings issued by the Big 3 ratings agencies are inaccurate and slow to respond to market changes. This paper aims to develop a rigorous, transparent and robust credit assessment and rating scheme for sovereigns. Design/methodology/approach This paper develops a regression-based model using credit default swap (CDS) data, and data on financial and macroeconomic variables to estimate sovereign CDS spreads. Using these spreads, the default probabilities of sovereigns can be estimated. The new ratings scheme is then used in conjunction with these default probabilities to assign
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Takawira, Oliver, and John W. Muteba Mwamba. "DETERMINANTS OF SOVEREIGN CREDIT RATINGS: AN APPLICATION OF THE NAÏVE BAYES CLASSIFIER." Eurasian Journal of Economics and Finance 8, no. 4 (2020): 279–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.15604/ejef.2020.08.04.008.

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This is an analysis of South Africa’s (SA) sovereign credit rating (SCR) using Naïve Bayes, a Machine learning (ML) technique. Quarterly data from 1999 to 2018 of macroeconomic variables and categorical SCRs were analyzed and classified to predict and compare variables used in assigning SCRs. A sovereign credit rating (SCR) is a measurement of a sovereign government’s ability to meet its financial debt obligations. The differences by Credit Rating Agencies (CRA) on rating grades on similar firms and sovereigns have raised questions on which elements truly determine credit ratings. Sovereign ra
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Demoussis, Michael, Konstantinos Drakos, and Nicholas Giannakopoulos. "The impact of sovereign ratings on euro zone SMEs’ credit rationing." Journal of Economic Studies 44, no. 5 (2017): 745–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jes-03-2016-0046.

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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to investigate credit rationing across firms in euro zone countries, as it relates to its own sovereign credit ratings. Design/methodology/approach The authors utilize firm-level data from the Survey on Access to Finance of Enterprises for the period 2009-2013 conducted by the European Central Bank. Findings A negative association between the rating of sovereign creditworthiness and credit rationing is identified, while credit rationing varies substantially even among countries with the highest quality of sovereign bonds. Credit rationing is lower in sovere
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Gaillard, Norbert. "What Is the Value of Sovereign Ratings?" German Economic Review 15, no. 1 (2014): 208–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/geer.12018.

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Abstract This article gives a fresh analysis of sovereign ratings, including the recent default of Greece. Section 1 studies the evolution of the sovereign rating business, and Section 2 explains how credit ratings are assigned. Section 3 focuses on sovereign rating methodologies and identifies the key determinants of sovereign ratings. Section 4 measures the accuracy of these ratings between 1 January 2001 and 1 January 2013. Section 5 compares credit ratings to market-based indicators, and Section 6 concludes.
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Ntsalaze, Zuziwe, Gideon Boako, and Paul Alagidede. "The impact of sovereign credit ratings on corporate credit ratings in South Africa." African Journal of Economic and Management Studies 8, no. 2 (2017): 126–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ajems-07-2016-0100.

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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine the impact of sovereign credit ratings on corporations in South Africa by assessing whether the sovereign rating assigned to South Africa by credit rating agencies acts as a ceiling/constraint for credit ratings assigned to corporations that operate within the country. The question of whether sovereign ratings are significant in determining corporate ratings was also explored. Design/methodology/approach To test the hypothesis regarding the rating of corporates relative to sovereigns, a longitudinal panel design was followed. The analysis employe
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Afonso, António, and André Albuquerque. "Sovereign Credit Rating Mismatches." Notas Económicas, no. 46 (July 1, 2018): 49–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.14195/2183-203x_46_3.

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We study the factors behind ratings mismatches in sovereign credit ratings from different agencies, for the period 1980‑‑2015. Using random effects ordered and simple probit approaches, we find that structural balances and the existence of a default in the last ten years were the least significant variables. In addition, the level of net debt, budget balances, GDP per capita and the existence of a default in the last five years were found to be the most relevant variables for rating mismatches across agencies. For speculative‑‑grade ratings, a default in the last two or five years decreases th
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Mutize, Misheck, and Virimai V. Mugobo. "An analysis of Granger causality between sovereign credit rating and economic growth in Sub-Saharan Africa." Investment Management and Financial Innovations 17, no. 4 (2020): 85–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.21511/imfi.17(4).2020.08.

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Interest in the relationship between credit rating and economic growth is growing as emerging economies increasingly integrate into international financial markets. Without credit ratings, developing economies would not have been able to successfully issue their sovereign bonds to support economic growth. Therefore, this paper examines a causality relationship between Standard & Poor’s long-term foreign currency sovereign credit ratings and economic growth in 19 Sub-Saharan countries over the period from 2003 to 2018. The results of the Granger causality tests show a unidirectional
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Niedziółka, Paweł. "The Country Ceiling and Sovereign Rating Relationship Exemplified by the Case of Poland." Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Oeconomica 3, no. 354 (2021): 4–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.18778/0208-6018.354.01.

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The aim of the article is to answer the question whether the ratings of entities registered in Poland are limited by the sovereign rating of the country. The author theorises that the sovereign rating of Poland does not constitute the upper limit for ratings granted by the Big Three (Fitch Ratings, Moody’s and Standard & Poor’s) to Polish financial and non‑financial entities. The databases of three leading rating agencies were queried, selecting all (52) long‑term foreign ratings assigned to entities registered in Poland. The analysis indicates that currently no confirmation can be found o
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Oskonbaeva, Zamira. "Determinants of credit ratings: evidence from panel discrete model." Economics and Business Letters 9, no. 3 (2020): 240–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.17811/ebl.9.3.2020.240-247.

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This study aims to explore how changes in explanatory variables may affect the probability of sovereign credit ratings assigned by Fitch, which is assumed to be a binary choice variable. For this purpose annual data of selected developed and developing countries for the period 2000-2016 have been used. All the data have been collected from World Bank database and Fitch website. In the empirical analysis the binary logit model has been applied. It can be concluded that the determinants of sovereign credit ratings can help sovereigns to better understand the drivers of their credit rating.
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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Sovereign ratings"

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Albuquerque, André Massena de. "Sovereign credit rating mismatches." Master's thesis, Instituto Superior de Economia e Gestão, 2016. http://hdl.handle.net/10400.5/12629.

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Mestrado em Economia Monetária e Financeira<br>Este trabalho analisa que fatores, entre os determinantes de ratings soberanos encontrados na literatura, são responsáveis pelas diferenças entre os ratings de crédito soberanos de diferentes agências de rating, no período 1980-2015. Para tal, utilizaram-se modelos probit ordenados e simples de efeitos aleatórios com o objetivo de avaliar o poder explicativo de um conjunto de variáveis macroeconómicas e governamentais. Os resultados obtidos com os modelos estimados indicam que o saldo estrutural e a existência de um default nos últimos dez anos sã
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Paineli, Grazielli Angelucci. "EU sovereign ratings lags prior and after the great recession." Master's thesis, Instituto Superior de Economia e Gestão, 2019. http://hdl.handle.net/10400.5/18858.

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Mestrado em Economia Monetária e Financeira<br>Estudamos as variáveis que mais afetam a alteração dos ratings soberanos na UE para as agências de classificação de crédito Fitch e S&P. Utilizando um modelo de painel probit, avaliamos o impacto de diferentes variáveis econômicas e políticas nas mudanças gerais dos ratings soberanos, aumentamos e diminuímos antes e depois da Grande Recessão. Mais importante, também analisamos o tempo de espera para cada agência de classificação nesses dois períodos, cobrindo especificamente 1997: 12-2018: 12. Nossos resultados mostram que as variáveis econômicas
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Lubig, Beena. "Bedeutung von sovereign credit ratings für die internationalen Finanzmärkte eine ökonometrische Bewertung des Informationsgehaltes von sovereign credit ratings." Frankfurt, M. Berlin Bern Bruxelles New York, NY Oxford Wien Lang, 2008. http://d-nb.info/994166907/04.

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Ioannou, Stefanos. "The political economy of credit rating agencies : the case of sovereign ratings." Thesis, University of Leeds, 2016. http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/12327/.

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This thesis investigates the social and economic importance of Credit Rating Agencies (CRAs), concentrating on the case of sovereign ratings. By viewing CRAs as an influential institution within the context of neoliberalism and financialization, the thesis offers some new insights regarding the way sovereign ratings are formed and the way they come to affect macroeconomic processes and outcomes. The experience of the European Monetary Union (Eurozone) serves as the case study. The recent and still ongoing European crisis and the flawed institutional structure of the Eurozone make this case stu
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Trevino, Villarreal Maria de Lourdes. "Modelling the information content of sovereign credit ratings." Thesis, University of Southampton, 1999. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.299284.

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Pimentel, Diogo Januário. "Determinants of sovereign debt ratings in the OECD." Master's thesis, Instituto Superior de Economia e Gestão, 2021. http://hdl.handle.net/10400.5/22797.

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Mestrado Bolonha em Economia Monetária e Financeira<br>This dissertation studies the determinants of sovereign debt rating in the OECD from the two main rating agencies, Moody’s and S&P, between 1995-2019. The econometric model applied was the linear and ordered models to explain the explanatory variables. The results show that GDP per capita, Investment, General Public Debt, Unemployment, Government Revenue, and Governance may have a steady impact on sovereign ratings.<br>info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion
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BOZIC, VANJA. "Sovereign ratings: fundamentals, macroeconomic: issues and territorial heterogeneity." Doctoral thesis, Università degli Studi di Roma "Tor Vergata", 2012. http://hdl.handle.net/2108/202677.

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BITTENCOURT, ANA CAROLINA MINSKY. "EFFECTS OF LATIN AMERICA SOVEREIGN RATINGS CHANGES OVER THE BRAZILIAN STOCK MARKET." PONTIFÍCIA UNIVERSIDADE CATÓLICA DO RIO DE JANEIRO, 2008. http://www.maxwell.vrac.puc-rio.br/Busca_etds.php?strSecao=resultado&nrSeq=12441@1.

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PONTIFÍCIA UNIVERSIDADE CATÓLICA DO RIO DE JANEIRO<br>O papel deste estudo foi investigar se as alterações de ratings de países da América Latina produzem impactos significativos no mercado acionário brasileiro. Por ser tratar de teste de hipótese semiforte de eficiência de mercado, o estudo foi conduzido através de teste estatístico paramétrico. Os resultados encontrados corroboram com hipótese de efeito contágio no mercado acionário brasileiro, através do índice IBX. O estudo também conclui que a intensidade do impacto também depende do tipo de informação incorporada nos anúncios de
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Vu, Huong Thi. "Split sovereign credit ratings : the causes and implications for the financial markets." Thesis, Bangor University, 2014. https://research.bangor.ac.uk/portal/en/theses/split-sovereign-credit-ratings--the-causes-and-implications-for-the-financial-markets(45ced77d-5ed4-4869-aa97-65329fc7400e).html.

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Lee, Eog-Weon. "Sovereign rating changes and financial markets during the Asian crisis /." free to MU campus, to others for purchase, 2003. http://wwwlib.umi.com/cr/mo/fullcit?p3091943.

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Books on the topic "Sovereign ratings"

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Paudyn, Bartholomew. Credit Ratings and Sovereign Debt. Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9781137302779.

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Gaillard, Norbert. A Century of Sovereign Ratings. Springer New York, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-0523-8.

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Reisen, Helmut. Boom and bust and sovereign ratings. OECD Development Centre, 1999.

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Bhatia, Ashok Vir. Sovereign credit ratings methodology: An evaluation. International Monetary Fund, Treasurer's Department, 2002.

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Reinhart, Carmen M. Default, currency crises and sovereign credit ratings. National Bureau of Economic Research, 2002.

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Larraín, Guillermo, and Guillermo Larraín. Emerging market risk and sovereign credit ratings. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 1997.

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Cantor, Richard. Determinants and impacts of sovereign credit ratings. Public Information Dept., Federal Researve Bank of New York, 1996.

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Kaminsky, Graciela Laura. Emerging markets instability: Do sovereign ratings affect country risk and stock returns? World Bank, Development Research Group, Macroeconomics and Growth, 2001.

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Sy, Amadou N. R. Emerging market bond spreads and sovereign credit ratings: Reconciling market views with economic fundamentals. International Monetary Fund, International Capital Markets Department, 2001.

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Altay, Osman. Sovereign credit rating system and determinants of short term soverign risk: Evidence from Turkey. Nobel Bilimsel Eserler, 2020.

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Book chapters on the topic "Sovereign ratings"

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Di Gioia, Anna Michelina, and Roberto Imperato. "Sovereign Ratings." In Financial Risk Management and Climate Change Risk. Springer Nature Switzerland, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-33882-3_4.

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Depken, Craig A., Courtney L. Lafountain, and Roger B. Butters. "Corruption and Creditworthiness: Evidence from Sovereign Credit Ratings." In Sovereign Debt. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118267073.ch9.

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Gaillard, Norbert. "How Are Sovereign Ratings Assigned?" In A Century of Sovereign Ratings. Springer New York, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-0523-8_4.

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Sy, Amadou N. R. "Sovereign Ratings and Financial Crises." In Sovereign Risk and Financial Crises. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2004. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-09950-6_4.

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de Souza, Lúcio Vinhas. "Travels in the Ratings Space: Developed and Developing Countries’ Sovereign Ratings." In Emerging Markets and Sovereign Risk. Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9781137450661_6.

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Paudyn, Bartholomew. "Conclusion: Problematizing the Ratings Space." In Credit Ratings and Sovereign Debt. Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9781137302779_6.

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Ferreira, Miguel A., and Paulo M. Gama. "The International Stock Market Impact of Sovereign Debt Ratings News." In Sovereign Debt. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118267073.ch40.

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Paudyn, Bartholomew. "Rating Performativity." In Credit Ratings and Sovereign Debt. Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9781137302779_4.

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Gaillard, Norbert. "Introduction." In A Century of Sovereign Ratings. Springer New York, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-0523-8_1.

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Gaillard, Norbert. "The Limits of Sovereign Ratings in Light of the Greek Debt Crisis of 2009–2010." In A Century of Sovereign Ratings. Springer New York, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-0523-8_10.

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Conference papers on the topic "Sovereign ratings"

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Tufaner, Mustafa Batuhan, Sıtkı Sönmezer, and Ahmet Alkan Çelik. "Impact of Sovereign Credit Ratings on Capital Markets." In International Conference on Eurasian Economies. Eurasian Economists Association, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.36880/c08.01914.

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Sovereign credit ratings are of great importance in terms of country's economy in recent years. Sovereign credit ratings can greatly affect both financial markets and macroeconomic balances. On the other hand, these credit ratings are closely related to the political situation of the countries. Therefore, all factors behind the credit rating announcements operating in global markets needs to be put forward. The content of this paper is to identify policy interest reaction towards sovereign credit ratings and examine of countries that experienced severe rating changes. In this bulletin, big thr
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Gibson, Heather D., Stephen G. Hall, and George S. Tavlas. "Spreads and bank ratings in the Euro area sovereign debt crises." In Conference on Global Economic Modeling. WORLD SCIENTIFIC, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/9789813220447_0006.

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LEÓN, RAÚL, and MARÍA JESÚS MUÑOZ. "USING NEURAL NETWORKS TO MODEL SOVEREIGN CREDIT RATINGS: APPLICATION TO THE EUROPEAN UNION." In Proceedings of the XVII SIGEF Congress. WORLD SCIENTIFIC, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/9789814415774_0024.

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Çağlayan Akay, Ebru, and Zamira Oskonbaeva. "An Application of Panel Ordered Probit Model to Credit Scoring." In International Conference on Eurasian Economies. Eurasian Economists Association, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.36880/c10.02052.

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Ratings are important in attracting foreign capital so they play a great role in the financial system of a country. The aim of the study is to investigate the impact of macroeconomic indicators on sovereign credit ratings assigned by Fitch. For this aim Panel ordered probit model was applied to the annual data from 2000 to 2011. The analysis rests on panel of 44 countries. According to the results obtained it can be concluded that gross domestic product growth rate , per capita gross domestic product, unemployment, export, default history and the level of economic development significantly aff
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Griffith, Kevin, Hayden Fears, Danielle Jacobs, Joshua Dise, Megan Nyre-Yu, and Asmeret Naugle. "Sovereign Credit Rating Processes Applied to Infrastructure Cyber Risk Assessment." In Society for Risk Analysis Europe - Lund, , Sweden - June - 2023. US DOE, 2023. https://doi.org/10.2172/2512459.

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Vidovics-Dancs, Agnes, Peter Juhasz, Nora Szucs, and Gabor Hajnal. "How To Improve Your Sovereign Rating? – A Case Study On Hungary." In 33rd International ECMS Conference on Modelling and Simulation. ECMS, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.7148/2019-0109.

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Topçu, Güneş. "SOVEREIGN CREDIT RATING CHANGES AND STOCK MARKET PERFORMANCES: EVIDENCE FROM THE BALKANS." In 33rd International Academic Conference, Vienna. International Institute of Social and Economic Sciences, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.20472/iac.2017.33.069.

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Tsintsadze, Asie, Irina Vashakmadze, Irina Tavadze, and Lilit Meloyan-Phutkaradze. "Analysis of the Financial Market as a Driving Force of the Regional Economy in the Conditions of pre- and post – Pandemic." In 22nd International Scientific Conference. “Economic Science for Rural Development 2021”. Latvia University of Life Sciences and Technologies. Faculty of Economics and Social Development, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.22616/esrd.2021.55.025.

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The pandemic has negatively affected the financial sector, as well as the real sector of the economy, both losses and credit risks in the financial market have increased on the background of the economic activity slowed-down. In 2019, the credit activity was high, however after the spread of the virus the activity slowed down significantly. This is natural, as due to the suspension of production –organizing, the unemployment has increased. Volume of the direct foreign investments has decreased by 42 %. Government of Georgia has developed an anti-crisis plan, important part of which is about th
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Reports on the topic "Sovereign ratings"

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Powell, Andrew, and Juan Francisco Martínez. On Emerging Economy Sovereign Spreads and Ratings. Inter-American Development Bank, 2008. http://dx.doi.org/10.18235/0010884.

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This paper analyzes alternative models for emerging sovereign ratings. Although a small number of economic fundamentals explain ratings reasonably well, variations in those economic fundamentals are themselves explained by a small number of world factors. On the other hand, global financial variables associated with risk aversion are additionally required in order to explain the significant spread compression at the end of 2006. To determine whether ratings matter for spreads, the paper compares results across different methodologies, in particular exploiting differences in opinion between rat
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Cavallo, Eduardo A., Andrew Powell, and Roberto Rigobón. Do Credit Rating Agencies Add Value?: Evidence from the Sovereign Rating Business Institutions. Inter-American Development Bank, 2008. http://dx.doi.org/10.18235/0010900.

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If rating agencies add no new information to markets, their actions are not a public policy concern. But as rating changes may be anticipated, testing whether ratings add value is not straightforward. This paper argues that ratings and spreads are both noisy signals of fundamentals and suggest ratings add value if, controlling for spreads, they help explain other variables. The paper additionally analyzes the different actions (ratings and outlooks) of the three leading agencies for sovereign debt, considering the differing effects of more or less anticipated events. The results are consistent
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Reinhart, Carmen. Default, Currency Crises and Sovereign Credit Ratings. National Bureau of Economic Research, 2002. http://dx.doi.org/10.3386/w8738.

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Panizza, Ugo. The Use of Corruption Indicators in Sovereign Ratings. Inter-American Development Bank, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.18235/0000849.

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Andrade-Pardo, Laura, Oscar Mauricio Valencia-Arana, Diego Mauricio Vásquez, and Mauricio Villamizar-Villegas. Uncovering the portfolio balance channel with the use of sovereign credit ratings. Banco de la República, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.32468/be.941.

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Aizenman, Joshua, Mahir Binici, and Michael Hutchison. Credit Ratings and the Pricing of Sovereign Debt during the Euro Crisis. National Bureau of Economic Research, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.3386/w19125.

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Agarwala, Matthew, Matt Burke, Jennifer Doherty-Bigara, Patrycja Klusak, and Kamiar Mohaddes. Climate Change and Sovereign Risk: A Regional Analysis for the Caribbean. Inter-American Development Bank, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.18235/0012885.

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Climate change is an existential threat to the world economy, with complex, evolving and nonlinear dynamics that remain a source of great uncertainty. There is a bourgeoning literature on the economic impact of climate change, but research on how climate change affects sovereign risks is limited. This paper provides forward-looking regional analysis of the effects of climate change on sovereign creditworthiness, probability of default and the cost of borrowing for the Caribbean economies. Our results indicate that there is substantial variation in the sensitivity of ratings to climate change a
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Rowland, Peter. Determinants of spread, credit ratings and creditworthiness for emerging market sovereign debt: a follow-up study using pooled data analysis. Banco de la República, 2004. http://dx.doi.org/10.32468/be.296.

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Méndez-Vizcaíno, Juan C., and Nicolás Moreno-Arias. A Global Shock with Idiosyncratic Pains: State-Dependent Debt Limits for LATAM during the COVID-19 pandemic. Banco de la República, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.32468/be.1175.

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Fiscal sustainability in five of the largest Latin American economies is examined before and after the COVID-19 pandemic. For this purpose, the DSGE model in Bi(2012) and Hürtgen (2020) is used to estimate the Fiscal Limits and Fiscal Spaces for Peru, Chile, Mexico, Colombia, and Brazil. These estimates advance the empirical literature for Latin America on fiscal sustainability by offering new calculations stemming from a structural framework with alluring novel features: government default on the intensive margin; dynamic Laffer curves; utility-based stochastic discount factor; and a Markov-S
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Perraudin, William, Andrew Powell, and Peng Yang. Multilateral Development Bank Ratings and Preferred Creditor Status. Inter-American Development Bank, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.18235/0011741.

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This paper analyzes influences on the credit standing of Multilateral Development Banks (MDBs), specifically the quality, diversification and single name concentration of their portfolios, and on the market practice known as Preferred Creditor Status (PCS), whereby sovereigns that default on other debt rarely fail to meet their obligations to MDBs. The paper examines how rating agencies assess MDB ratings, focusing in particular on how Standard &amp; Poor's assesses capital as part of its MDB rating process. The results are compared with those implied by an industry-standard, ratings-based Cre
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