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1
Septianingrum, Anisa. "INVASI YUNANI KE PERSIA SEBAGAI BUKTI KEBANGKITAN KEBUDAYAAN HELLENIS." Diakronika 18, no. 1 (2018): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.24036/diakronika/vol18-iss1/58.
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Persia and Greece have engaged in a complicated relationship with war in the expansion of the territory. Persia was superior first because it was able to form strong empires and conquer cities around Asia and several cities in Europe. Greece managed to get rid of Persia, but it did not last long. Greece in ancient times consisted of many policies that competed with each other. The most famous policies of that period were Athens and Sparta. Both have advantages compared to other policies scattered in Greece. However, Athens and Sparta are two policies that compete with their respective strengths, causing disputes. Persia at that time had established good relations with Athens and Sparta. Persia found great opportunities to control Greece in the event of a war between Athens and Sparta. Persian interference in Greece was unavoidable which led to the Peloponnesian War which resulted in the conquest of Persia over Greece. Greece's downfall under the conquest of Persia did not last long. A unifying figure emerged in Greece that was able to embrace all policies and become the greatest king in history who had a vast conquest, both in the West and East. Alexander The Great was a king from the Kingdom of Macedonia in Greece who was able to unite all policies. Alexander invaded Persia to spread Hellenic culture.
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Esu, Alberto. "DIVIDED POWER AND ΕΥΝΟΜΙΑ: DELIBERATIVE PROCEDURES IN ANCIENT SPARTA". Classical Quarterly 67, № 2 (2017): 353–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0009838817000544.
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Spartan institutions were pictured as a model of political stability from the Classical period onwards. The so-called Spartan ‘mirage’ did not involve only its constitutional order but also social and economic institutions. Xenophon begins hisConstitution of the Lacedaemoniansby associating Spartan fame with thepoliteiaset up by Lycurgus, which made the Laconian city the most powerful (δυνατωτάτη) and famous (ὀνομαστοτάτη)polisin Greece (Xen.Lac.1.1). In Aristotle'sPolitics, in which the assessment of Sparta is more complex and nuanced, one finds a critique of contemporary Spartan institutions as well as praise for Lycurgus as a great lawgiver who established the laws of Sparta (Arist.Pol.2.1269a69, 2.1273b20). Most other ancient sources often remark upon the unchangeable features of some Spartan institutions as a key aspect of Spartan εὐνομία. Thucydides maintains that, after a long period of war andstasis, the Dorians established excellent laws and Sparta employed the same constitution for more than four hundred years (Thuc. 1.18.1: τετρακόσια καὶ ὀλίγῳ πλείω ἐς τὴν τελευτὴν τοῦδε τοῦ πολέμου ἀφ᾽ οὗ Λακεδαιμόνιοι τῇ αὐτῇ πολιτείᾳ χρῶνται).
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Kleyhons, Ferdinand. "Agoge und Paideia – Ein Überblick über die Erziehungssysteme Spartas und Athens." historia.scribere, no. 12 (June 15, 2020): 247. http://dx.doi.org/10.15203/historia.scribere.12.635.
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Agoge and Paideia – an overview of the education systems of Sparta and AthensThe following proseminar paper gives an overview of the education systems of Sparta and Athens. Both were amongst the most influential Poleis of ancient Greece, but still had completely different educational systems: the Spartan Agoge and the Athenian Paideia. Based on primary sources and secondary literature, this paper will not just give an overview, but also compare those two systems in various aspects, such as the upbringing of children in the family or the system of public education, and then examine their impact on the respective societies.
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Holladay, A. J. "Sparta and the First Peloponnesian War." Journal of Hellenic Studies 105 (November 1985): 161–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/631531.
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In JHS xcvii (1977) 54–63 I argued against the view that the prevalent Spartan attitude towards Athens throughout the Pentekontaetia was aggressive and that in the First Peloponnesian War Sparta was eager to engage and crush her, being prevented only by the barrier of Mt. Geraneia with its Athenian garrisons. There seemed to me to be four main difficulties in this view:(a) The Corinthians succeeded in crossing Mt. Geraneia with their local allies early in the war, even though the Athenians were already present: so why not Sparta?(b) A full Peloponnesian army was able to reach central Greece by sea after the war had been in progress for some three years, and their reluctance on that occasion to cross the northern frontier of Attica even after they had defeated the Athenians seems inexplicable on this view.
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Lohvynenko, I. A., and Ye S. Lohvynenko. "Social status of women in Ancient Sparta." Law and Safety 91, no. 4 (2023): 106–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.32631/pb.2023.4.09.
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The factors that determined the peculiarities of the social status of women in Ancient Sparta have been identified and analysed. It has been demonstrated that the establishment of community control over private life, namely: strict regulation of marriage and family relations, the compulsory nature of specific general education, which started for girls at the age of eight and lasted until marriage, determined that the national interests of women became a priority and dominated family values. It has been found that in Sparta, as in other polities of ancient Greece, childbearing was considered the most important function of women, as the offspring were to continue family traditions and take care of their elderly parents, conduct religious rites, etc. Only male children were seen as future citizens and defenders of the polis. In Lacedaemon, motherhood acquired a more accentuated meaning and was understood as service to the state. It became the basis of marriage and family relations, where polyandry was perceived as the norm. The Spartan woman was socially active. She was a direct participant in religious festivals and rituals, sports competitions. She publicly ridiculed the bachelors and cowards. If her own son turned out to be a coward, she could kill him herself. A mother did not bear any legal responsibility for the murder of a cowardly son. The economic rights of Spartans, which other women in ancient Greece did not have, have been investigated. Due to her husband’s military service, a Lacedaemonian woman managed not only his oikos, but also his cleris. Polyandry allowed a woman to unite two or more “houses” under her control and thus increase her influence in society. It has been noted that a strong economic foundation allowed wealthy women to have more freedom in society and even influence those in power in making responsible political decisions. With the loss of Messenia, women lose their economic freedom. The social status of women also changes, as they become more subordinate to men. It has been argued that in Sparta, the state minimised the private life of spouses. Under such conditions, a woman was socially active, knew the inner life of the polis well, and understood the foreign policy priorities of the state. She acted as a motivator and guide of Spartan ideology for the men of her family. And in this way, the Lacedaemonian woman was significantly different from other women in ancient Greece.
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Solez, Kevin. "Traveling with Helen: The Itineraries of Paris and Menelaus as Narrative Doublets." Yearbook of Ancient Greek Epic Online 3, no. 1 (2019): 67–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/24688487-00301003.
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Abstract The journey of Paris from Sparta to Troy and the journey of Menelaus from Troy to Sparta are narrative doublets that feature in the Epic Cycle. Both men follow a typical and historical pattern of mobility between Greece and the Levant before reaching their destination. These similarities constitute a proleptic doublet, where Paris’s journey is a less elaborate iteration of a story pattern that appears again in the nostos of Menelaus. In our known epics, the doublets appear near the beginning of the Cypria and at the very end of the Nostoi.
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Villing, Alexandra. "For whom did the bell toll in ancient Greece? Archaic and Classical Greek bells at Sparta and beyond." Annual of the British School at Athens 97 (November 2002): 223–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0068245400017408.
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Bells of fairly small size were known across ancient Greece from the Archaic period onwards, both in bronze and terracotta. They are found in sanctuaries, graves and, more rarely, in houses, and served a variety of purposes, both practical and more abstract, in daily life and ritual, and in both male and female contexts. Archaeological, iconographical and literary sources attest to their use as votive offerings in ritual and funerary contexts, as signalling instruments for town-guards, as amulets for children and women as well as, in South Italy, in a Dionysiac context. A use as animal (notably horse) bells, however, was not widespread before the later Roman period. The bells' origins lie in the ancient Near East and Caucasian area, from where they found their way especially to Archaic Samos and Cyprus and later to mainland Greece. Here, the largest known find complex of bronze and terracotta bells, mostly of Classical date, comes from the old British excavations in the sanctuary of Athena on the Spartan acropolis and is published here for the first time. Spartan bells are distinctive in shape yet related particularly to other Lakonian and Boiotian bells as well as earlier bells from Samos. At Sparta, as elsewhere, the connotation of the bells' bronze sound as magical, protective, purificatory and apotropaic was central to their use, although specific functions varied according to place, time, and occasion.
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Meadows, A. R. "Pausanias and the historiography of Classical Sparta." Classical Quarterly 45, no. 1 (1995): 92–113. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0009838800041720.
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The Periegesis of Pausanias has finally entered the world of serious literature. Long after the way was first shown, the Magnesian has arrived and duly taken his place in the intellectual world of the second century: a pilgrim to the past. Yet he was no bookish, library-bound bore. Recent studies have transformed our opinion of him as a recorder of the sites and treasures of what was, even to him, antiquity, ‘His faithfulness in reporting what he saw has, time and time again, been proven at a large number of sites and could easily be demonstrated at a good many others.’ ‘The very fact that the second-century A.D. traveller Pausanias wrote at such length about the sites and monuments of Greece is itself indicative of his most important attitude towards antiquities. That is, he thought them of sufficient value to be worth recording and thought it worth travelling extensively in mainland Greece over a period of many years to see them for himself.’ And so inevitably, as respect for the author has grown, the desire to lay bare his soul has followed. Critics are unanimous in their view of a man sensitive to the resonance of the ancient and power of the past. On occasion a Herodotean fascination with the mutability of man's lot bubbles to the surface, indeed we may surmise Herodotus to have been an important influence on the Periegesis in several fundamental respects. Above all he was a man of deep learning and keen interest in the past and a faithful recorder of its remains. Archaeologists and art-historians concur.
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Nichols, Kenneth L. "Constitutionally Speaking: A Conversation with Lycurgus of Sparta on the Role of the Lawgiver in a Society." Public Voices 2, no. 1 (2017): 59. http://dx.doi.org/10.22140/pv.425.
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Lycurgus, a legendary figure of Ancient Greece, established an enduring military-based society: the city-state of Sparta. In this hypothetical interview, Lycurgus discusses his role as lawgiver. In so doing, he reflects on laws and the framing of laws as building blocks that help form a society and its government.
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Knechtle, Beat, Margarida Gomes, Volker Scheer, et al. "From Athens to Sparta—37 Years of Spartathlon." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 9 (2021): 4914. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18094914.
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(1) Background: Recent studies analyzed the participation and performance trends of historic races such as the oldest ultra-marathon (Comrades) or the oldest 100-km ultra-marathon (Biel). One of the toughest and historic ultra-marathons in the world is the ‘Spartathlon’ (246-km ultra-marathon from Athens to Sparta). The present study aimed to analyze the trends in participation and performance of this race. (2) Methods: Different general linear models were applied as follows: the first model was a two-way ANOVA (Decade × Sex), with separate models for all participants and for only the top five finishers in each race; the second model was a two-way ANOVA (Age Group × Sex); the third model was a two-way ANOVA (Nationality × Sex). (3) Results: Between 1982 and 2019, 3504 ultra-marathoners (3097 men and 407 women) officially finished the Spartathlon at least once. Athletes from Japan were the majority with 737 participants, followed by far by runners from Germany (n = 393), Greece (n = 326), and France (n = 274). The nations with the highest numbers of athletes amongst the top five performers were Japan (n = 71), followed by Germany (n = 59), and Great Britain (n = 31). Runners from the USA were the fastest in men, and runners from Great Britain were the fastest in women. Female and male runners improved performance across the decades. The annual five fastest women and men improved their performance over time. Runners achieved their best performance earlier in life (20–29 and 30–39 years) than female runners (30–39 and 40–49 years). Runners in age group 30–39 years were the fastest for all nationalities, except for Greece. (4) Conclusions: Successful finishers in the Spartathlon improved performance in the last four decades and male runners achieved their best performance ~10 years earlier in life than female runners.
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Swist, Jeremy. "‘Wolves of the Krypteia’: Lycanthropy and right-wing extremism in metal’s reception of ancient Greece and Rome." Metal Music Studies 8, no. 3 (2022): 309–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1386/mms_00083_1.
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Metal’s pervasive (were)wolf motifs are key hermeneutics for the reception of classical antiquity by right-wing bands. Continuities of lupine themes and romanticization of Sparta and Rome exist between fascist Germany and Italy, contemporary far-right political and pagan organizations, and bands that combine these two subjects in a unique but consistent way. Also inspired by Nietzsche, Evola and social Darwinists, bands such as Der Stürmer, Kataxu and Spearhead trace their biological and spiritual ancestry to Sparta, emulating their lycanthropic militarism and racial terrorism. Bands such as Hesperia, Diocletian and Deströyer 666 utilize Roman wolf iconography to promote the destruction of civilization and return to ‘natural’ hierarchies. Like their fascist predecessors, these artists perpetuate patriarchal and racist distortions of both lupine behaviour and ancient Mediterranean civilizations. Such constructions nevertheless extend from the resonance of both wolves and classical antiquity with metal’s common themes of transgression, hypermasculinity, elitism and nostalgia for premodernity.
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James, Peter. "Soil Variability in the Area of an Archaeological Site near Sparta, Greece." Journal of Archaeological Science 26, no. 10 (1999): 1273–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/jasc.1998.0365.
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Shengli, Ling, and Lv Huiyi. "Why Are China and the U.S. Not Destined to Fall into the “Thucydides’ Trap”?" China Quarterly of International Strategic Studies 04, no. 04 (2018): 495–514. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s2377740018500288.
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With the rise of China and relative decline of the United States, the question of whether both countries will fall into the so-called “Thucydides’ Trap” — an analogy to the Peloponnesian War in ancient Greece — has triggered heated debate within international academia. By discussing the misunderstanding about the concept and conducting a three-level analysis of modern Sino-U.S. relations, this article identifies a few major flaws in making a simple analogy between the Athens-Sparta confrontation in ancient Greece and the Sino-U.S. relationship today. It concludes that a war between China and the United States is unlikely to take place thanks to the confines of the international system, the different nature of alliance networks from the ancient Greek period, the economic interdependence among countries, and the changing public attitude toward war. It also suggests both countries expand their economic, political, security and cultural cooperation, so as to ultimately overcome the “Thucydides’ Trap.”
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Paepe, R., I. Mariolakos, E. Van Overloop, et al. "QUATERNARY SOIL-GEOLOGICAL STRATIGRAPHY IN GREECE." Bulletin of the Geological Society of Greece 36, no. 2 (2018): 856. http://dx.doi.org/10.12681/bgsg.16833.
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Peloponnesus and Crete are probably offering the best possible standard sections for Eastern Mediterranean Pleistocene Series. Complete Pleistocene Standard Lithostratigraphic Sections from Sparta (Peloponnesus) and Kandanos (Crete) reveal continuous Pleistocene Land Sequences composed of cyclic palaeosol levels interfering with clastic fluvial, eolian (loess) and gravel deposits comparable with analogues found elswhere over the earth. Most suitable for correlation are: a) the standard Idfess area of Northern Europe, Russia and China, and b) the subtropical and tropical regions of Africa and Asia. The standard Greek Pleistocene Lithostratigraphic Sequence independently recorded at both sites (and partially from sites in other regions of Greece) reveal a number of 103 palaeosols of both interglacial and interstadial stages, indicating the extreme warm to relative warm phases of the Pleistocene ice age. This number suits surprisingly well to the 103 levels of the equally warm odd numbered oxygen isotopie stages (OIS) of the Pleistocene deep sea record which equally encompass the warm phases of the Pleistocene. Special attention is given to the Upper Pleistocene of Koroni (Southern Peloponnesus) as a case study for the Last Interglacial - Last Glacial Cycle, i.e. the middle term cycle extending in time from 127 Ka (thousand years) till 10 Ka or beginning of the Holocene. It stands as a model for the recurrent 100 Ka cycles of the long term overall Pleistocene record. Finally, in addition to the Pleistocene, the twenty wet - dry cycles of the Holocene are reviewed.
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Papanikos, Gregory T. "The National Identity of Ancient and Modern Greeks." Athens Journal of Mediterranean Studies 10, no. 1 (2024): 63–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.30958/ajms.10-1-4.
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The issue of national identity in ancient Greece played an important role during periods of war due to the absence of a unifying political authority. Ancient Greece was organized along the lines of independent city-states with different political systems. However, in two wars, they were able to unite to combat a common enemy of Greece. In the Greek-Trojan War, the Greeks were the aggressors, and many Greek city-states responded to the call for joint action. In the Greek-Persian War, the Greeks defended their homeland. Once again, the Greek city-states, primarily Athens and Sparta, joined forces to repel the Persian invasion of mainland Greece. Homer, in his Iliad, and Herodotus, in his Histories, provide definitions of what Greek national identity was all about. By the time of the civil war, i.e., the Peloponnesian War, there appears to be a paradigm shift in what constitutes Greek national identity. The best definition within the context of this paradigm is given by Isocrates. This paper examines the national identity of Greeks as proposed mainly in the works of Homer, Herodotus, and Isocrates. It also explores the 19th-century controversy regarding whether modern Greeks have the same national identity as their ancient counterparts. Keywords: national identity, education, Homer, Hesiod, Herodotus, Isocrates, virtue, ancient Greeks, modern Greeks.
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Харланов, А. С. "Military doctrines of the states of the Ancient World. Economic aspects." Экономика и предпринимательство, no. 6(119) (June 23, 2020): 807–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.34925/eip.2020.119.6.169.
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Данная статья освещает проблемы военной безопасности государств Древнего мира. Рассматриваются доктрины и концепции государств Урарту, Вавилон, Египет, Греция, Спарта. Рассматриваются концептуальные системы военных доктрин с точки зрения военной безопасности государства и их влияния на их экономику и последующий генезис. Проблемы военной безопасности в мировой истории, в целом, актуализируются тем, что в настоящее время активно стимулируется практическое применение теоретических исследований в сфере разработки вопросов военной безопасности государства, оцениваются экономические риски, находятся аналогии развития национальных рынков и ведения натурального хозяйства. В данной статье освещены сущность и основные составляющие военных доктрин и концепций государств - Урарту, Вавилона, Египта, Греции и Спарты. Согласно выделенным компонентам, были описаны модели военных доктрин древних государств. Значимость данной статьи заключается в том, что был раскрыт характер и сущность военных доктрин и концепций эволюции государств и экономического уклада Древнего мира. This article covers the problems of military security of the States of the Ancient World. The doctrines and concepts of the states of Urartu, Babylon, Egypt, Greece, Sparta are considered. Conceptual systems of military doctrines are considered in terms of the military security of the state and their impact on their economy and subsequent genesis. Problems of military security in world history, in general, are updated by the fact that at present the practical application of theoretical research in the field of development of military security issues of the state is actively stimulated, economic risks are assessed, analogy of development of national markets and subsistence economy are found. This article highlights the essence and main components of the military doctrines and concepts of the States of Urartu, Babylon, Egypt, Greece and Sparta. According to the highlighted components, model doctrines of ancient states were described. The significance of this article is that the nature and essence of military doctrines and concepts of the evolution of States and the economic order of the Ancient World have been revealed.
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Taylor, Martha C. "The Plague of War: Athens, Sparta, and the Struggle for Ancient Greece by Jennifer T. Roberts." American Journal of Philology 139, no. 1 (2018): 158–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/ajp.2018.0006.
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Yerxa, Donald A. "Athens and Sparta and the War of Rank in Ancient Greece: An Interview with J.E. Lendon." Historically Speaking 12, no. 5 (2011): 17–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/hsp.2011.0068.
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Kendall, Seth. "The Plague of War: Athens, Sparta, and the Struggle for Ancient Greece by Jennifer T. Roberts." Classical World 114, no. 1 (2020): 99–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/clw.2020.0059.
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Surikov, I. E. "HERODOTUS’ PAST – THUCYDIDES’ PRESENT – XENOPHON’S FUTURE (ΑΡΧΗ, ΗΓΕΜΟΝΙΑ AND IMPERIALIST TENDENCIES IN CLASSICAL GREECE THROUGH THE EYES OF THREE GREAT HISTORIANS)". Ancient World and Archaeology 21, № 21 (2023): 31–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.18500/0320-961x-2023-21-31-51.
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the article deals with some topics connected with imperialist tendencies in Greece of the last half of the 5th and the first half of the 4th century BC and with treatment of these developments in the work of the authors mentioned in the title. The author argues against a recent hypothesis, according to which Herodotus was still alive and writing in the period when the Peloponnesian War came to its end. Observations are made concerning foreign-policy sympathies of Herodotus, Thucydides and Xenophon. A point is made that, if in the last half of the 5th century BC Athens sought to add the ἡγεμονία to its ἀρχή, later in the first half of the 4th century BC Sparta started transforming its ἡγεμονία to ἀρχή.
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Barboș, Ion Petre, and Alpár Nagy. "Religion, Politics and Mysticism in Ancient Sport." Studia Universitatis Babeş-Bolyai Educatio Artis Gymnasticae 69, no. 1 (2024): 97–104. http://dx.doi.org/10.24193/subbeag.69(1).07.
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The history of ancient sports shows us that sports practice was not a secular one but was closely linked to religious faith. Whether we are talking about ancient Greece (Athens, Sparta, etc.), whether we are talking about Latin America or the Far East, the presence of homage and respect towards the gods is seen as something sacred and no one could dispute it. We have researched the religious phenomenon in sports for more than 30 years, and the result is like religion. politics and the arts of war decided the history of the world and civilization. (Barbos, 2015). It is proven by ancient writings, but also by archaeological traces, from ancient temples and stadiums dedicated to gods and legendary heroes, such as Hercules, the most famous demigod of the ancient world, who remained in legends as one of those who achieved the most successful sports. This article summarizes some ancient sports competitions, which were strictly related to the respect for the gods, which was rewarded with sports games, such as the Olympic Games of Greece. Keywords: Hylozoism, anthropological, animism, secular ritual, sacred ritual, oracle, Delphi, ecotheology, sumo, kyudo.
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Sears, Matthew. "The Plague of War: Athens, Sparta, and the Struggle for Ancient Greece, written by Jennifer T. Roberts." Polis: The Journal for Ancient Greek and Roman Political Thought 36, no. 1 (2019): 177–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/20512996-12340203.
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O'Neil, James L. "Royal authority and city law under Alexander and his Hellenistic successors." Classical Quarterly 50, no. 2 (2000): 424–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cq/50.2.424.
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When the Macedonians had conquered Greece, city-states continued to exist along-side the more powerful kingdoms, and were often forced to accommodate their policies to the wishes of the powerful kings who were, in theory, their allies. If kings and cities were to co-operate effectively, there would need to be some way of adapting the authority of royal wishes to the theoretical rights of the cities to self-determination.The contrast between the powers of a king, theoretically all-powerful within his kingdom, and the autonomy of a city did not need to be total. Aristotle, who was acquainted with the Macedonian kingdom, made a clear distinction between kingship and tyranny, between rule by the law and autocracy. He listed Macedonia alongside Sparta and Epirus as kingdoms which were ruled in the interests of all.
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Collins, Susan D. "On the Use of Greek History for Life: Josiah Ober's Athens and Paul Rahe's Sparta." Review of Politics 81, no. 2 (2019): 305–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0034670519000019.
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Among contemporary scholars who write about classical Greece, Josiah Ober and Paul Rahe are especially adept at navigating the territory shared by history and political theory and illuminating the relevance of Greek history for our time. The historical approach each takes in the works under review does not easily fall into the categories—monumental, antiquarian, and critical history— delineated by Nietzsche in the essay to which my subtitle alludes. Yet, in treating these works together, I am guided by a question that Nietzsche raises at the conclusion of his “untimely meditation” in recalling the Delphic injunction Gnōthi seauton, “Know thyself.” The Greeks’ cultural inheritance, he argues, was a chaos of foreign ideas—Semitic, Babylonian, Lydian, and Egyptian—and gods, and it was only when the Greeks began to organize this chaos in accordance with the Delphic injunction that they were prevented from being swamped by their own history and became the model for all civilized peoples. The works under review are extraordinarily rich, and I will not do justice to their many arguments. Rather, I organize my consideration of them by focusing on this question: What is the relation between the study of Greek history and the search for self-knowledge at the core of Greek political philosophy?
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Panafidin, I. O. "ARCHAIC SPARTA AS ONE OF THE CULTURAL CENTERS OF ANCIENT GREECE: A NEW PERSPECTIVE OF WELL-ESTABLISHED TRADITION." Scientific notes of Taurida National V.I. Vernadsky University, series Historical Sciences, no. 4 (2020): 205–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.32838/2663-5984/2020/4.30.
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Benedetti, Lucilla, Robert Finkel, Dimitris Papanastassiou, et al. "Post-glacial slip history of the Sparta fault (Greece) determined by36Cl cosmogenic dating: Evidence for non-periodic earthquakes." Geophysical Research Letters 29, no. 8 (2002): 87–1. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2001gl014510.
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Papanikolaοu, Ioannis D., Gerald P. Roberts, Georgios Deligiannakis, Athina Sakellariou, and Emmanuel Vassilakis. "The Sparta Fault, Southern Greece: From segmentation and tectonic geomorphology to seismic hazard mapping and time dependent probabilities." Tectonophysics 597-598 (June 2013): 85–105. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2012.08.031.
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Gabarashvili, Georgiy D. "Panhellenic Program of Hadrian." IZVESTIYA VUZOV SEVERO-KAVKAZSKII REGION SOCIAL SCIENCE, no. 4 (208) (December 23, 2020): 59–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.18522/2687-0770-2020-4-59-63.
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The Panhellenic project of the Roman Emperor Hadrian (117-138 AD) to unite the Greek Polis into a single organization is considered. It is noted that Hadrian's policy was based on the romanticized idea of reviving the classical Greek tradition. In particular, the ideal of the new Union was Athens, Sparta, Corinth, and other cities of mainland Greece, which preserved the foundations of their Polis organization and self-government until the second century. It is assumed that the Union was not all-Greek, since it did not affect the Hellenistic cities founded after the campaigns of Alexander the Great. In addition, the article examines the negative manifestations of Hadrian's Philhellenic policy, which are observed in a major Jewish revolt caused by the forced Hellenization of the Eastern provinces of the Empire. The works of foreign researchers are involved for the full analysis of the issue.
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Bintliff, John. "Journal of Greek Archaeology Volume 4: Editorial." Journal of Greek Archaeology 4 (January 1, 2019): v. http://dx.doi.org/10.32028/jga.v4i.472.
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This our fourth volume is unusually rich and varied in content. Geographically the articles range from Sicily via Greece to Anatolia and the Near East, while chronologically they extend from the Bronze Age to the Ottoman era. Thematically we have a set of papers in landscape studies which include agricultural history, settlement geography, regional comparisons; articles on material culture which encompass metallurgy, ceramics, the links between language and artefacts, and production and trade; papers on aspects of human social science such as palaeopathology and deformity, gender studies and the representation of the supernatural; historical perspectives are finally represented by articles on fortifications and Islamisation. A special treat is a lengthy presentation of the survey and excavation at the recently-discovered Mycenaean palace in the Sparta Valley. Our review section is even broader, running from the Palaeolithic through to aspects of presentday heritage studies, and covering an equally wide field of topics.
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Muratov, Abdykerim. "ANALYSIS OF THE PROBLEM OF RAISING A CHILD IN ACCORDANCE WITH AGE CHARACTERISTICS IN THE FAMILY IN GLOBAL AND RUSSIAN PEDAGOGY." Alatoo Academic Studies 2021, no. 2 (2021): 115–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.17015/aas.2021.212.12.
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In the history of pedagogy and education, there are many opinions about the upbringing of children in accordance with their age characteristics. In this article, we compared the opinions expressed by the classics of the history of pedagogy with the traditions of raising children in the Kyrgyz ethnopedagogy in accordance with their age characteristics. From the pedagogy of Ancient Greece, Athens, Sparta to Aristotle, Plato, Socrates, and others.B. Analyzing the work of scientists, K. D., We have dwelt in more detail on the research of Ushinsky. The study has an ethnopedagogical orientation and is dedicated to modern teachers, teachers of schools, educational institutions, and everyone who is related to educational work. The conclusion from our article is that the education of children in accordance with the age characteristics of traditional education was carried out in accordance with the teachings of the global classical pedagogy.
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Gibbons, William. "Helen and Paris: Classicism and Frenchness in Saint-Saëns’s Hélène." Nineteenth Century Studies 35 (November 2023): 112–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.5325/ninecentstud.35.0112.
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Abstract Camille Saint-Saëns’s one-act opera Hélène (1904), one of several works he composed on ancient Greek topics, depicts the night Helen of Troy departs Sparta with the Trojan prince Paris, igniting a war in the process. Hélène had been a long-gestating project, spurred by a simmering disdain for Jacques Offenbach’s enduringly popular satirical operetta La Belle Hélène (1864), which Saint-Saëns’s believed triggered no less than the collapse of French musical taste. Indeed, the opera was widely perceived in the Parisian press as a reclamation of the cultural legacy of ancient Greece—a treatment that rescued Hellenic absolute beauty from the German clutches of first Offenbach and then Wagner. Drawing extensively on reception studies, cultural history, and hermeneutical analysis, this article situates Hélène in complex, interweaving fin de siècle French musical debates over cultural heritage, nationalism, Wagnerism, and the aesthetics of absolute beauty.
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Pope, Richard J. J., and Andrew C. Millington. "The role of alluvial fans in mountainous and lowland draillage systems: Examples from the Sparta Basin, Lakonia, southern Greece." Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie 46, no. 1 (2002): 109–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1127/zfg/46/2002/109.
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Akamatis, Nikos. "DISCOVERING MACEDONIAN RED-FIGURE POTTERY: A NEW PELIKE ATTRIBUTED TO THE PELLA WORKSHOP." Annual of the British School at Athens 109 (November 2014): 223–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0068245414000161.
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The question of the appearance, operating conditions and diffusion of the products of local red-figure pottery workshops in the fourth centurybc, in conjunction with the spread of Attic red-figure ware and its influence on local potteries, has been a focus of research in recent years. The result has been the recognition of a number of local workshops all across Greece, including those of Chalcidice, Boeotia, Euboea, Corinth, Elis, Sparta, Crete and the Agrinion Group. This article examines a red-figure pelike made by a previously unknown local workshop that was very likely located in Pella, the capital of the Kingdom of Macedonia. This vessel was in storage in the Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki and is one of the best-preserved examples from that Macedonian workshop. In shape and decoration it recalls Attic vases of the second half of the fourth centurybc, and particularly the work of Group G and the Amazon Painter. The pelike dates fromc.320bcand is attributed to the Pella B Painter.
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Rivals, Florent, Armelle Gardeisen, and Jean Cantuel. "Domestic and wild ungulate dietary traits at Kouphovouno (Sparta, Greece): implications for livestock management and paleoenvironment in the Neolithic." Journal of Archaeological Science 38, no. 3 (2011): 528–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2010.10.007.
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Pope, Richard J. J., and Andrew C. Millington. "Unravelling the patterns of alluvial fan development using mineral magnetic analysis: examples from the Sparta Basin, Lakonia, southern Greece." Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 25, no. 6 (2000): 601–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1096-9837(200006)25:6<601::aid-esp94>3.0.co;2-m.
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BRUIT ZAIDMAN, Louise. "Vêtir les dieux : des offrandes d’étoffe aux péplophories en Grèce antique." Archimède. Archéologie et histoire ancienne Archimède n° 9 (December 2022): 8–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.47245/archimede.0009.ds1.02.
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Résumé Cet article propose une mise au point sur les différentes offrandes d’étoffes faites aux dieux dans un cadre rituel. Celles-ci font partie des rituels de soins prodigués aux statues des dieux. Parmi les offrandes officielles et publiques, les rites en l’honneur d’Athéna Polias à Athènes, consistent dans le lavage de la statue, ensuite revêtue et parée de nouveau. Une attention particulière est donnée à la remise solennelle d’un peplos à l’occasion d’une cérémonie et d’une procession, attestée à Sparte, à Athènes et à Olympie. Les tisseuses sont des femmes de la cité que l’on retrouve dans la procession qui conduit l’offrande. Parmi ces péplophories, celle des Panathénées à Athènes, la mieux documentée, soulève de nombreuses questions. Toute la cité y est représentée à travers une mise en scène idéale de ses différentes composantes. Title: Dressing the gods: from fabric offerings to peplophoria in ancient Greece This paper focuses on the different offerings of fabrics made to the gods in a ritual setting. These are part of the care rituals given to the statues of the gods. Among the official and public offerings, the rites in honor of Athena Polias in Athens consist in washing the statue before dressing and adorning it again. Particular attention is given to the solemn handing over of a peplos on the occasion of a ceremony and a procession, attested in Sparta, Athens and Olympia. The weavers are women from the city who take part in the procession that brings the offering. Among these peplophories, that of the Panathenaic in Athens, the best documented, raises many questions. The whole city is represented there through an ideal staging of its various components.
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Vujčić, Nemanja. "Large Scale Slave Revolts in Ancient Greece: An Issue of Absence or an Absence of Issue." Athens Journal of History 9, no. 3 (2023): 225–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.30958/ajhis.9-3-1.
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In the modern perception of the Ancient World the massive slave revolts loom largely. To the modern mind, infused, through education and mass media, with notions of sanctity of personal freedom and shamefulness of servitude, there is natural and immediate connection between the institution of slavery and armed, violent resistance to it. Ancient slaves were kept in obviously shameful and degrading state of bondage, therefore they revolted – they must have. In fact, however, large scale slave revolts are actually quite rare in world history and, in the case of Ancient Greece, all examples that one could point to are late and (at least superficially) marginal. If we limit our scope to Classical Greece (5th and 4th centuries BC), the slave revolt is virtually non-existent, unless we choose to widen the definition of slaves to include the helots of Sparta and the penests of Thessaly. This paper assumes that Messenian (helot) revolts are a separate (though perhaps related) phenomenon to slave revolts, and focus only on the latter. There are only three known cases of anything resembling a slave revolt (four, if we add the problematic case of the slave uprising of Drimacus, in the 3nd century BC Chios), and they seem rather minute in their scope and achievement, especially when compared to the contemporary massive slave wars of Roman Sicily and Italy. The paper argues that this absence is not an illusion, created, as one might argue, through a lack of interest or organized silence on the part of ancient authors, but the actual reflection of historical reality. Prospects of success for such endeavor were minimal, while the dangers involved were overwhelming. Specific conditions required for large scale slave uprisings were rarely met in Ancient Greece and consequently the phenomenon itself was rare.
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Tufano, Salvatore. "Removing the Nationality Paradigm from Herodotus’ Histories." Trends in Classics 10, no. 2 (2018): 306–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/tc-2018-0023.
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Abstract The present paper suggests that the recurring appeal to kinship diplomacy undermines a fixed idea of ‘nation’ in Archaic Greece, especially in the first two decades of the fifth century BC. It aims to present a series of test cases in Herodotus that explain why contemporary patterns and theories on ancient ethnicity can hardly explain the totality of the historical spectrum. Blood ties could sometimes fortify ethnic relationships, as in the case of Aristagoras’ mission to Sparta (Hdt. 5.49.3), since the common Greekness could elicit the Spartan to help to the Ionians. In other times, the same blood ties were applied to divine genealogies, and they could also be used to show the feeble devotion of cities like Argos to the Greek cause (7.150.2: Xerxes expects the Argives to join the Persian cause, since they descend from Perses). Habits and traditions, often taken as indicia of national feeling, could be thought of as clues of ancient migrations (so the Trojans became Maxyes in Lybia: 4.191). Even language might not help in justifying ethnic relationships: for instance, the Greeks living in the Scythian Gelonus spoke a mixed language (4.108). These few case studies may shed a different light on the classical definition of Greekness (to hellenikon) in terms of blood, language, cults, and habits, all given by Herodotus (8.144). Far from being a valid label for all the Greeks of the fifth century, this statement owes much to a specific variety of the language of kinship diplomacy. The final section argues for the opportunity to avoid the later and misleading idea of nation when studying Herodotus and the age of the Persian Wars, which are instead characterized by various and contrasting strategies. Greek groups and ethne can be better described as networks of lightly defined communities.
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Papanastassiou, D., K. Gaki-Papanastassiou, and H. Maroukian. "Recognition of past earthquakes along the Sparta fault (Peloponnesus, southern Greece) during the Holocene, by combining results of different dating techniques." Journal of Geodynamics 40, no. 2-3 (2005): 189–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jog.2005.07.015.
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Shipley, Graham. "Hellenistic and Roman Sparta - Paul Cartledge, Antony Spawforth: Hellenistic and Roman Sparta: a Tale of Two Cities. (States and Cities of Ancient Greece.) Pp. xiii + 304; 2 maps. London and New York: Routledge, 1989. £35." Classical Review 41, no. 2 (1991): 398–401. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0009840x00280669.
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DE ANGELIS, FRANCO. "GOING AGAINST THE GRAIN IN SICILIAN GREEK ECONOMICS." Greece and Rome 53, no. 1 (2006): 29–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0017383506000027.
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On his recent retirement from the chair of classical archaeology in Cambridge University, Anthony Snodgrass reflected on the state of the subject, wondering whether a paradigm shift has occurred. Snodgrass assesses various matters, including, for our purposes, how archaeological approaches to ancient literary sources have changed. His comments deserve quotation in full:…Classical archaeology is often stigmatized, by its many critics, as being ‘text-driven’ … [in] that the subject takes its orientation from, and adapts its whole narrative to, the lead given by the literary sources. Thus the archaeology of Roman Britain has been built around Tacitus' narrative of conquest; the study of Greek art around the text of the Elder Pliny; the archaeology of fifth-century Athens around the narratives supplied by Herodotus, Thucydides and Xenophon; that of Republican Rome similarly around those of Livy and Diodorus; that of Sicily again around Thucydides; and most notoriously, that of Aegean prehistory and protohistory around Homer…. But there is a deeper level still. Traditional Classical archaeology is stated…to have directed its energies at those aspects of the ancient world on which the written sources, taken as a whole, throw light. Thus, on urban but not on rural life; on public and civic, but not on domestic activity; on periods seen as historically important, but not on the obscurer ones; on the permanent physical manifestations of religion, but not on the temporary ones – sacrifice, patterns of dedication, ritual meals, pilgrimage; on the artefacts interred in burials, but not on burial itself; on the historically prominent states – in Greece, Athens and Sparta – but not on what has recently been called ‘the Third Greece’…
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Mee, Chris, Bill Cavanagh, and Josette Renard. "THE MIDDLE–LATE NEOLITHIC TRANSITION AT KOUPHOVOUNO." Annual of the British School at Athens 109 (October 30, 2014): 65–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0068245414000112.
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The site of Kouphovouno, just south of Sparta, is one of the main Neolithic sites in Laconia. It was first settled in the Middle Neolithic period and developed into a large village with remains occupying some 4–5 hectares. A joint team from the British School at Athens and the Ecole française d'Athènes carried out excavations at the site in 2001–6. There is evidence for occupation during the Bronze Age, and for an extensive Late Roman villa, but this article concentrates on the chronology of the site during the Middle and Late Neolithic phases. The evidence from stratigraphic sequences, pottery typology, seriation and Bayesian analysis of the radiocarbon dates is brought together to present a detailed chronological sequence covering the periodc.5800–5000bc. In particular the analysis relies on the results from two deep soundings, one excavated in Area C carried down to the natural sediments underlying the site and exposing the earliest period of occupation, and the second in Area G covering the later Middle Neolithic and much of the Late Neolithic phase. The findings from Kouphovouno are placed more generally in the context of finds from other sites in the Peloponnese and in particular in relation to the important sequence from Franchthi Cave. On the basis of the evidence it is argued that the transition from Middle Neolithic to Late Neolithic in southern Greece was not abrupt, as had previously been thought, but showed a gradual evolution. This finding has implications for our understanding of the process of transformation that southern Greece underwent in the course of the later sixth millenniumbc.
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Halkos, George E., Emmanouil M. L. Economou, and Nicholas C. Kyriazis. "Tracing the Optimal Level of Political and Social Change under Risks and Uncertainties: Some Lessons from Ancient Sparta and Athens." Journal of Risk and Financial Management 15, no. 9 (2022): 416. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jrfm15090416.
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The present paper is inspired by the notions of “financial risk” and “financial uncertainties” and transfers their basic reasoning to social science analysis; that is, it develops a theoretical analysis in order to explain social and political change. We know that the degree of social and political change depends on the set of established institutions in a society. Societies can face two extremes: volatility, e.g., rapid changes that lead to instability, which increases the risk of a system or regime collapsing, or rigidity, which does not permit necessary adaptation and change and thus may again increase the risk of the regime collapsing. Thus, an optimal (or ideal) point of change is between the two extremes, permitting change that is neither too sudden and fast nor too slow and inflexible. To illustrate this, we analyze two cases from ancient Greece: Sparta, as a society and state with too many institutional checks and balances that led to rigidity and collapse, and Athens, which in the 5th century BCE had an institutional setting with very limited checks and balances, which again led to near collapse until the late 5th century BCE, when new institutions that were related to some efficient checks and balances were introduced that enabled the state to survive in a world of changing circumstances and balances of power.
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Sribniak, M. "THE US CONSTITUTION: RECEPTION OF ANTIQUITY." Bulletin of Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv. History, no. 139 (2018): 69–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.17721/1728-2640.2018.139.14.
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The article indicates that ancient examples played the essential role during early US history. It was a vital aspect which had a significant impact on the essence of the American Constitution. Delegates of the Philadelphian Convention appealed to the ideas of ancient philosophers as well as historical background of ancient Greece and Rome. It was common for the speeches at the convention to point out various events, connected with the history of Athens, Sparta and Carthage, albeit Roman Republic was the main source for resemblance. The heritage of such ancient philosophers, as Plato, Aristotle, Polybius, Cicero and partly Tacitus and Livy influenced the vision of American political elite of that period, which was particularly represented by Tomas Jefferson, James Wilson, John Adams and George Washington. The article demonstrates that the astonishing number of highly intelligent people with university education participated in the discussions at Philadelphian Convention. Such individuals easily read original Greek and Roman works. The US Founding Fathers widely cited positive examples of federalism and republic, although they made an accent on the negative ancient experience of tyranny in order to justify their views on the Constitution. Therefore, the US Constitution shows in accordance with the text the remarkable influence of ancient thinkers and their ideas concerning this document.
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McKenzie, Nicholas J., та Patricia A. Hannah. "Thucydides’ Take on the Corinthian Navy. οἵ τε γὰρ Κορίνθιοι ἡγήσαντο κρατεῖν εἰ µὴ καὶ πολὺ ἐκρατοῦντο, ‘The Corinthians believed they were victors if they were only just defeated’". Mnemosyne 66, № 2 (2013): 206–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156852511x584955.
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Abstract This paper closely examines Thucydides’ presentation of three naval battles fought in the Corinthian Gulf and the battle of Sybota off north-west Greece, in order to show how his version of the action does not just stress the pervasive impression of Athenian dominance and downplay the Peloponnesian performance, but extends to characterising the Corinthian fleet in a surprisingly negative way. In the first battle he claims that they were ignorant of the local weather patterns, in the second of the underwater hazards, and after the third that ‘The Corinthians believed they were victors if they were only just defeated’. His account of the earlier battle off Corcyra is similarly flawed, since by focussing on the participants’ treaty obligations he fails to bring out the significance of the Corinthian naval victory for the history of Greek warfare. The reader of The Peloponnesian War is encouraged not to question Thucydides’ disparaging record of the Corinthian navy, as it reinforces his focus on a bipartite contest between Athens and Sparta. However, a case is made here for a more positive assessment of Corinthian involvement in the modified design of the trireme and the revision of naval tactics in the late fifth century BC.
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Rominkiewicz, Jarosław. "Θεομισῆ δὲ καὶ αἰσχρῶν αἴσχιστα. Kazirodztwo w starożytnej Grecji". Prawo 325 (31 грудня 2018): 11–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.19195/0524-4544.325.1.
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Incest in ancient GreeceThe article is devoted to incest in ancient Greece. In the introduction the author deals with terminological questions, explaining the reasons behind a lack of a general term for incest in the Greek language and how this phenomenon was reflected in Greek literature. Next, he analyses the sources testifying to the existence of a legal ban on incest between direct relatives. He stresses that in Athens it derived from unwritten common law ágraphos nómos and was probably never raised to the status of statutory law. In addition, the author analyses sources concerning the legal restrictions placed on sexual intercourse between collateral relatives. The ban on incest applied to siblings, also stepbrothers and stepsisters, who had, depending on the model adopted in a given polis, the same mother Athens or the same father Sparta. The author also examines the question of sexual relations between relatives by affinity, concluding that the Greeks regarded them as adultery. In the last part of his study he explores the sanctions associated with the violation of the incest ban.Blutschande im alten GriechenlandDer Aufsatz ist der Blutschande im alten Griechenland gewidmet. Am Anfang beschäftigt sich der Verfasser mit terminologischen Fragen, er erklärt, warum es in der griechischen Sprache keinen allgemeinen Terminus für die Bezeichnung der Blutschande gibt, sowie mit der Widerspiegelung dieser Erscheinung in der griechischen Literatur. Im weiteren Teil des Textes analysiert er die Quellen, die das rechtliche Verbot der Blutschande zwischen Verwandten in gerader Linie bezeugen. Er betont, das es in Athen dem Gewohnheitsrecht entstammte ágraphos nómos und wahrscheinlich nie in den Rang eines angewandten Rechtes erhoben wurde. Analysiert werden auch Quellen betreffend die Einschränkungen des Geschlechtsverkehrs zwischen Verwandten in seitlicher Linie. Das Verbot der Blutschande betraf die leiblichen als auch die angeborenen Geschwister, die, nach dem in der gegebenen polis geltenden Modell, eine gemeinsame Mutter Athen bzw. einen gemeinsamen Vater Sparta hatten. Der Verfasser bezieht sich auch auf die Qualifikation der sexuellen Beziehungen zwischen Verschwägerten und stellt fest, dass die Griechen diese wie Ehebruch behandelten. Im letzten Teil seines Studiums zeigt der Verfasser die möglichen Sanktionen wegen der Verletzung des Verbotes der Blutschande.
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Madigan, Patrick. "The Plague of War: Athens, Sparta, and the Struggle for Ancient Greece. By Jennifer T.Roberts. Pp. xxviii, 416, Oxford University Press, 2017, $19.95." Heythrop Journal 62, no. 2 (2021): 337–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/heyj.13817.
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Villafane, Carlos. "(J.T.) Roberts The Plague of War: Athens, Sparta, and the Struggle for Ancient Greece. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017. Pp. 448. £20. 9780199996643." Journal of Hellenic Studies 138 (2018): 272–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0075426918000253.
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Matveyeva, T. "Formation of the continental system of European law by the example of the Old Athens and the Sparta." Analytical and Comparative Jurisprudence, no. 2 (July 24, 2022): 20–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.24144/2788-6018.2022.02.3.
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The creation and development of modern law is a long historical process spanning several centuries and began with the writing of barbaric Truths (Salichna Pravda, Ripuarska Pravda, Primorsky Salic Franks, etc.). This process was more smooth and evolutionary than the corresponding processes in the field of state formation, where they were often established in a revolutionary way.
 The origin of modern law begins with the reception of Roman law and the law of ancient Greece .. Thus was born city law, international trade law, whose roots are quite deep and strong. But at the same time the legal systems of the Middle Ages were very imperfect, and many of their provisions hampered the development of political democracy and capitalist entrepreneurship in the era of feudalism. These features of medieval legal systems, characterized by the lack of internal unity, prevented progressive changes, both in the state and in law.
 The reform of the old feudal law on a new bourgeois basis was carried out by revolutionary coups - the English Revolution of the 17th century and the French Revolution of the 18th century. These revolutions have largely led to the unjustified destruction of the legal structure created over the centuries, to the breakdown of traditional legal culture, to legal nihilism and voluntarism. Ultimately, they led to significant changes in the field of law, to the formation of a new legal order, which led to the formation and rapid development of capitalism.
 Modern law in the West (primarily Anglo-Saxon and European continental law of France) was formed and developed as a logical continuation of the previously formed systems of medieval (eg, "common law") and even ancient Roman law. The new law could not be something significantly different from the previous law, because in its self-development it absorbed, preserved and used many of its constructive, socially useful elements.
 Modern law of the 20th and 21st centuries is largely based on previous law, the same laws of France (customary law), Roman law; moreover, the pre-revolutionary systems of England and France and Germany did not disappear without a trace. Much of it has been updated in modern law, as medieval law functioned in a society that already knew both private property and market relations and a fairly high level of legal technique.
 The formation of new law meant the formation of bourgeois capitalist law, broke guild corporations and feudal monopolies, creating the necessary space for the growth of production and trade, for personal initiative, for the full use of needs is developing rapidly. (1, 48-51)
 Modern law, in contrast to pre-revolutionary law, which was characterized by disunity and particularism, was born everywhere in the form of integrated national legal systems. It was capitalism, breaking all kinds of castes, regional, customs and other barriers, led to the emergence of not only nation-states but also national legal systems. The legal system acquires a new way of its existence - the system of legislation and the system of law, which was practically present only in its infancy in ancient and medieval societies. The dominant principle in the legal systems of modern times is constitutional (state, public) law, on the basis of which the legal structure of any society was built.
 Legislation had a special system-forming significance in the formation of the new law.
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Barmpagianni, Effrosyni, Antonios Travlos, Athina Kalokairinou, Athanasios Sachlas, and Sofia Zyga. "Investigation of aggravating psychosocial factors on health and predictability of smoking and alcohol use in post adolescent students." Health Psychology Research 1, no. 2 (2013): 15. http://dx.doi.org/10.4081/hpr.2013.937.
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Purpose of this study is to explore those factors which affect the health of students in postadolescent age, focusing on smoking and alcohol use, especially in regard to ways of predicting adoption of this behavior and its frequency to detect future users of tobacco and alcohol use but also high-risk groups, <em>i.e</em>. those people who are led to abuses. On the basis of the research part is the Theory of Planned Behaviour, the axes of which are to be investigated. Specifically, the factors evaluated, except for population parameters, behavioral attitudes, <em>i.e.</em> attitudes towards the behavior of tobacco use and alcohol regulations subjective perceptions and perceptions of control, perceived behavioral control and self-efficacy. Intention is explored to continue or start using tobacco and alcohol in the future and evaluate the behavior. The sample consisted of 138 students of postadolescent age, 18-25 years of both sexes, all of the University of Peloponnese and the Technological Educational Institute of Kalamata, Department of Sparta, Greece. The results of a series of statistical analysis, via SPSS 21.0 statistical program revealed the predictive power of perceived behavioral control and subjective norms to the intention of interpreting 64% of the variance of the latter, of the attitudes toward alcohol in relation to intention that interpret 69% of the variance, of the normative beliefs toward smoking with 69% range of interpretation to the dependent variable, of the perceived behavioral control of smoking with 72% and of the attitudes toward smoking with 77% of interpretation. The results demonstrate the significance and application in universities and technological educational institutes appropriate primary preventive interventions for students nonusers of tobacco and alcohol and appropriate programs of secondary and tertiary prevention in heavy users of tobacco and alcohol use and high-risk individual.