Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Spelling accuracy; spelling difficulties'

A quasi-experimental study determined the effects on students' spelling accuracy when cross-age tutors focused on fixing spelling in writing with their tutees. Fourth-grade tutors, both trained and untrained, helped second-grade tutees fix spelling mistakes in their writing using two strategies: visual memory and word parts. A control group of second and fourth graders were instructed to independently use these two strategies to fix mistakes in their writing. Second graders overall had significant gain scores on measures of spelling accuracy and writing fluency. Regression analyses showed that these gains were not due to a student's participation in either cross-age tutoring or the control group. No significant gain scores were found for fourth graders. These results seem to indicate that cross-age tutors may not be academically beneficial for either tutors or tutees. However, descriptive statistical analyses and informal observations made during cross-age tutoring sessions imply that cross-age tutors can be a valuable educational tool.

This study links with the White Paper 6 on learners with special educational needs. which requires public schools to accommodate learners with diverse needs, as far as possible in inclusive education. The success of the inclusive education depends on the ability of educators to identify and support barriers to learning, for which they will have to be trained. Such in-service training will be aimed at the identification of barriers to learning or learners with diverse learning needs, specifically in the Foundation Phase. The purpose of this study was to determine what knowledge Foundation Phase educators possess in the identification of spelling difficulties experienced by learners with Tswana as medium of instruction, but for whom Tswana mostly is a first additional language. The literature study was therefore focussed on language learning, spelling difficulties in an additional language, and assessment in the Foundation Phase. The empirical research included a sample of teachers in the Foundation Phase in the North-West Province, regarding their identification of spelling difficulties in a first additional language. The empirical data were accumulated by means of an openended questionnaire, which was qualitatively analysed in terms of the teachers' knowledge of and skill in the identification and support of spelling difficulties in an additional language, in a classroom with Tswana as medium of instruction. The results indicated that the spelling difficulties they experience are the same as other learners who experience spelling difficulties in an additional language. The results also indicate that the educators lack sufficient knowledge and skills with regard to the identification and support of spelling difficulties. In-service training for Foundation Phase educators in the identification of spelling difficulties and the support thereof is a necessity.
Thesis (M.Ed.)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2007

Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Cincinnati, 2009.
Advisor: Renee Hawkins. Title from electronic thesis title page (viewed Jan. 19, 2010). Keywords: spelling intervention;self-managed;class-wide intervention;Cover, Copy, and Compare;Choice. Includes abstract. Includes bibliographical references.

This thesis contributes to reading research in isiXhosa, where the role of various cognitive skills in reading has not yet been examined. One of the current debates in reading research centers on the contribution of cognitive skills, namely phonological awareness and naming speed, to reading. The exact relation between phonological awareness and naming speed, and their relation to literacy in different languages are also disputed. In this study, the contribution of phonological awareness and naming speed to literacy is examined in 52 Grade 3 isiXhosa speaking children. Measures for literacy included oral reading fluency, silent reading, comprehension and spelling. Phonological awareness was the biggest contributor to reading fluency, accuracy, comprehension and spelling, confirming that phonological processing is important for reading in all languages studied to date. The role of naming speed was narrower, contributing to the fluency and accuracy of reading only in the group with poor phonological awareness. The results can inform the teaching of reading isiXhosa where an approach that explicitly emphasises orthography-phonology relations at the phoneme level may be well suited especially since there are many letter groups to learn. This would enable higher accuracy in orthography-phonology correspondences and should also improve automaticity, which was lacking in the group with low levels of phonological awareness. The Psycholinguistic Grain Size Theory of reading can adequately inform the understanding of reading in isiXhosa, and findings from other languages with similar requirements can inform the teaching of reading in isiXhosa.

IsiXhosa language is one of the first languages in sub-Saharan Africa to be reduced into writing. The first written texts in isiXhosa were produced by British missionaries in the Tyhume river valley as early as 1824. In spite of these early developments, there still remain today many inconsistencies and anomalies with regard to the standardization of isiXhosa orthography that require attention. This research focuses on the status quo of the current orthography of isiXhosa which is used in the writing of the selected texts which were published from 2000 to date. The research study investigates how these texts are written, that is, whether they are written according to the principles of the writing of this language as developed by the respective language boards or not. The reason for doing this is that this language has become one of the official languages of the Republic of South Africa. Therefore, in order for it to be read and written without any difficulty by anyone, as it is expected to be used as a medium of instruction even at tertiary level in the future, it should be written accurately and consistently. The study analyses a number of isiXhosa written texts including the following: (1) Selected literary texts which were published from 2000 to date. (2) Selected publications by government departments. (3) Selected translated texts. (4) Some of the newspapers and magazines which are currently in circulation in this language. (5) Some dictionaries of isiXhosa. (6) The updated isiXhosa Orthography as compiled by the PanSALB (2008). The aims of the study are outlined in Chapter 1. This chapter also provides the theoretical framework within which the research is located. Chapter 2 is about the theoretical perspectives on the development of the art of writing and orthography. The historical background, that is, the development of the art of writing and the general as well as the specific requirements of a good orthography are discussed. Chapters 3, 4 and 5 observe and analyse the orthographical features of some written documents of isiXhosa such as writing of capital letters, word division, usage of concords, etc. These three chapters also observe and analyse the various anomalies and inconsistencies in the spelling of isiXhosa words that were identified in the consulted texts. Chapter 6 is devoted to the conclusion and the recommendations.

The aim of this thesis was three-fold: firstly, to examine the development of reading and spelling abilities in the Greek language; secondly, to identify the cognitive predictors of reading and spelling skills; and finally, to establish how developmental dyslexia is manifested in the regular Greek orthography. An extensive battery of cognitive, linguistic, and literacy tasks was administered to 132 children: 66 Grade-2 and 66 Grade-4 Greek-speaking children attending four different schools in Athens, Greece. The battery included: tests of reading, spelling, and mathematical attainment; a nonword reading task, various phonological awareness & other phonological processing tests; a non-verbal intelligence test and various syntactic awareness tasks. Evidence on the manifestation of developmental dyslexia in Greek was based on a chronological-age and a reading-level matched-pairs comparison between poor and average readers. Despite a large number of difficult polysyllabic word stimuli, reading accuracy was at ceiling for most subjects. Reading speed proved a more effective measure of individual differences. A high degree of accuracy was also observed on many phonological awareness tests. Rapid naming, phonological awareness and speech rate proved the most important predictors of reading ability in the regular Greek language. The predictive value of many variables/tests, however, appeared to differ between English and Greek. Phonological awareness - the most powerful and stable predictor in English - appeared to be a reliable predictor of reading ability only at the initial stages of literacy development (Grade-2). The most significant predictor at Grade-4 was rapid naming. Speech rate consistently predicted reading skill in all our analyses. Syntactic awareness proved not a reliable predictor. Its contribution was significant only for spelling ability at Grade-4. The matched-pair comparisons supported the above results. Results are discussed in relation to the existing differences in the orthographic structure of the English and Greek languages. It is suggested that the examination of linguistic differences is important, both, from a theoretical and clinical point of view.

The aim of this study is to examine how some teachers in the classes 1, 3 and 6 look on the reasons of difficulties in spelling, how they work with the formal side of writing development with focus on spelling and what they think about information- and communication technology influencing the writing development of pupils. The following questions are answered in the study: How is the teaching in to-day´s school regarding the development of writing and spelling? What can the reasons be why pupils spell badly according to the teachers? How can information- and communication technology influence the writing development of pupils? The study is a qualitative study based on half-structured interviews with six teachers from two schools in the classes 1, 3 and 6. In the survey of literature in my study a summary of earlier research concerning writing development is given. A comparison is made with the produced results in this study. The result shows that the teaching is in keeping with the writing pedagogics which is recommended in literature. The teachers are well aware of the importance of phonology for spelling development but they say nothing about the morphological spelling strategies. The opinions amongst the teachers differ regarding the importance of teaching spelling rules. This study does not verify that the information- and communication technology influences the writing ability of the pupils in a negative way.
Syftet med den här studien är att undersöka hur några lärare i årskurserna 1, 3 och 6 ser på orsaker till stavningssvårigheter, hur de arbetar med skrivutvecklingens formella sida med fokus på stavningen samt hur de anser att informations- och kommunikationstekniken påverkar elevers skrivutveckling.                         Följande frågeställningar besvaras i studien: Hur kan undervisningen se ut i dagens skola beträffande skrivutveckling och stavning? Vilka orsaker kan det finnas till att elever har brister i stavningen enligt lärarna? Hur kan informations- och kommunikationstekniken påverka elevers skrivutveckling? Studien är en kvalitativ studie baserad på halvstrukturerade intervjuer med sex lärare i årskurserna 1, 3 och 6 fördelade på två skolor. I studiens litteraturgenomgång ges en överblick av tidigare forskning inom skrivutvecklingsområdet. En jämförelse görs med de framkomna resultaten i denna studie. Resultatet visar att den undervisning som lärarna bedriver stämmer väl överens med den skrivpedagogik som förespråkas i litteraturen. Lärarna är väl medvetna om fonologins betydelse för stavningsutvecklingen men nämner inget om de morfologiska stavningsstrategierna. Uppfattningen bland lärarna går isär beträffande vikten av att undervisa i stavningsregler. Denna studie ger inga belägg för att informations- och kommunikationstekniken påverkar elevers skrivförmåga på ett negativt sätt.

Dans le contexte scolaire tunisien, par son impact sur la quasi-totalité des disciplines scolaires, surtout au lycée, la maîtrise du langage français écrit se trouve au centre de l'apprentissage des élèves et constitue un élément-clé de la réussite scolaire. L'orthographe, une composante importante de l'écrit, constitue un redoutable obstacle pour celui qui ne la maîtrise pas. Chercher les causes véritables des difficultés orthographiques des élèves tunisiens et proposer des moyens pour venir en aide aux enseignants et aux apprenants, telle est la démarche, à la fois de critique et d'action, que nous avons adoptée. Le présent travail expose le contexte dans lequel se fait l'enseignement /apprentissage du français en général et de l'orthographe en particulier, analyse les données recueillies, productions écrites des élèves et questionnaires, essaie de dégager les causes du dysfonctionnement et investit les apports des recherches en orthographe pour présenter une modeste suggestion en guise d'une contribution à l'amélioration des compétences orthographiques des élèves tunisiens. Cette étude montre en fin de compte l'importance de prendre en compte la spécificité du contexte tunisien dans l'élaboration des curricula
In the Tunisian school context, with its impact on almost all academic disciplines, especially in high school, mastering the written French language is central to students learning and is a key component of academic success. The spelling, as an important component of writing, is a fearsome obstacle for those who do not master it. Looking for the true causes of spelling difficulties of Tunisian students and proposing ways to help teachers and learners, this is the approach that we have adapted both for criticism and action. This paper outlines the context in which teaching and learning of French- in general and spelling in particular- are done, analyzes the data, the students' written works and questionnaires, trying to bring out the causes of dysfunction and invests the researches' contributions in spelling to present a modest suggestion by way of a contribution for the improvement of spelling skills of Tunisian students. This study shows ultimately the importance of taking into account the specificity of the Tunisian context in the development of curricula

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Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)
Este estudo teve por objetivo investigar o perfil de desempenho do processamento fonológico e da escrita ortográfica na Dislexia do Desenvolvimento e nas Dificuldades de Aprendizagem. Método: Participaram deste estudo 75 escolares na faixa etária de 8 a 11 anos e 11 meses do Ensino Fundamental I, de ambos os gêneros, que foram distribuídos em três grupos, sendo GI: composto por 25 escolares com dislexia do desenvolvimento; GII: composto por 25 escolares com dificuldades de aprendizagem e GIII: composto por 25 escolares com bom desempenho acadêmico pareado com a faixa etária e ano escolar com GI e GII. Todos os escolares deste estudo foram submetidos às Provas de Habilidades Metalinguísticas e de Leitura (PROHMELE); às provas do Teste de Nomeação Automática Rápida (RAN); e também às provas do Protocolo de Avaliação da Ortografia (Pró-ortografia). Os resultados foram analisados estatisticamente a fim de comprar os resultados intergrupos e o grau de relação entre as variáveis analisadas em cada grupo deste estudo. Resultados: Os resultados mostraram que na comparação intergrupos o desempenho dos grupos GI e GII assemelham-se entre si e o desempenho dos grupos GI e GIII e dos grupos GII e GIII diferenciam-se. Quando analisada a correlação entre os grupos nas provas avaliadas, foi possível encontrar relações estatisticamente significantes de todos os grupos analisados nos acertos das provas do Pró-Ortografia e nos erros das provas de Repetição de Não-Palavras; relação positiva entre os erros das provas de Ditado de Palavras, Ditado de Figuras, Escrita Temática Induzida por Figuras e Ditado de Frases quando relacionadas às provas de Repetição de Não-Palavras em GI, GII e GIII. Houve também relação positiva entre a prova de Ditado de Pseudopalavras e Repetição de Não-Palavras nos grupos GI e GIII. Conclusão: O desempenho dos escolares do GI é semelhante ao desempenho dos escolares do GII. Também foi possível observar relações entre as habilidades do processamento fonológico com a ortografia por meio das relações positivas existentes entre os tipos de erros ortográficos com os erros apresentados nas provas que avaliaram o processamento fonológico nos três grupos avaliados.
This study has a aimed to investigate the performance profile of phonological processing and spelling writing in Developmental Dyslexia and Learning Difficulties. Method: Participated in this study 75 students with aged 8 to 11 years and 11 months of Elementary School I, of both sexes, were divided into three groups: GI: 25 students with developmental dyslexia; GII: 25 students with learning difficulties and GIII: 25 students with good academic performance paired with GI and GII. All the students in this study were submitted to Metalinguistic Skills and Reading Tests (PROHMELE); Automatic Rapid Namingn Test (RAN) and Spelling Assessment Protocol (Pró-Ortografia). The results and the degree of relationship between the analyzed variables. Results: The results showed that in the intergroup comparison the performance of the GI and GII groups resemble each other, and the performance of the GI and GIII groups and the GII and GIII groups differ. When analyzing the correlation between the groups in the tests evaluated, it was possible to find statistically significant relationships of all the groups analyzed in the correct tests of the Pro-Ortografia and the errors of the Tests of Repetition of Non-Words; positive relation between the errors of the Dictation of Words, Dictation of Figures, Thematic Writing, and Phrase Dictation when related to the Non-Words repetition tests in GI, GII and GIII. There was also a positive relation between the test of Dictation of Pseudowords and Repetition of Non-Words in the GI and GIII groups. Conclusion: The performance of the students of the GI is similar to the performance of the students of the GII. It was also possible to observe relations between the phonological processing abilities with the spelling through the positive relations existing between the types of orthographic errors and the errors presented in the tests that evaluated the phonological processing in the three groups evaluated.
FAPESP: 2016/04831-2

Stavning är en komplex förmåga och lite undersökt, därför var syftet med föreliggande studie att analysera stavningsförmågan hos elever i årskurs 2. Deltagarna var 86 elever, 63 med läs- och skrivsvårigheter och 23 utan läs- och skrivsvårigheter. Elevernas stavfel av nonord och riktiga ord analyserades utifrån fyra klassificeringssystem med avseende på olika feltyper. Även korrelationsberäkningar mellan stavning och andra kognitiva förmågor utfördes. Resultatet visade att de utan läs- och skrivsvårigheter presterade signifikant bättre än de med läs- och skrivsvårigheter framför allt på testet av nonord. Korrelationsberäkningarna visade att det fanns ett samband mellan stavning och läsning samt stavning och fonologi. Dessa resultat visar att gruppen med läs- och skrivsvårigheter har fonologiska brister som påverkar stavningen. Utifrån analyserna ges förslag på ett nytt felklassificeringssystem på svenska samt hur ett bra stavningstest bör vara uppbyggt för att fånga så många aspekter som möjligt av en elevs stavning. Även hur detta kan vara till nytta i logopeder och lärares verksamheter diskuteras.

Spelling is a complex ability and few studies have been carried out on this topic. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to analyse the spelling ability among children in grade 2. In this study 86 pupils participated, 63 with reading difficulties and 23 with typical reading ability. The children’s misspellings of nonwords and real words were analysed using four different classification systems of misspellings. Correlations between the spelling ability and other cognitive abilities were made. Results showed that the group with typical reading ability performed significantly better than the group with reading difficulties, especially on the test of nonwords. Calculations showed correlations between spelling and reading and also between spelling and phonology. The results of the present study show that the group with reading difficulties has phonological deficits that affect their spelling. The analysis also suggests guiding principles for a new Swedish classification system of misspellings and a Swedish test of spelling ability. It also includes how the classification system and the test can be used in the work of speech therapists and teachers.

Writing is a multifaceted, complex task that involves interaction between physical and cognitive skills. Individuals with physical disabilities vary in terms of both their physical and cognitive abilities. Often they must overcome one or more significant barriers in order to engage in the task of writing. Minimizing or eliminating barriers is important because opportunities are greater for individuals who can effectively communicate their ideas via writing. Assistive technology (AT) is an increasingly effective solution to increase typing fluency. The purpose of this study is to examine if word prediction software, a commonly used software program used with individuals with learning disabilities, will be effective for those with physical impairments to increase typing rate and reduce spelling errors (fluency). Data will be collected for words correct per minute (WCPM) and errors (e.g., spelling). Four middle- or high school-aged participants with diverse physical disabilities will be recruited in this single subject, alternating treatment design. Participants will type for three-minute timed sessions using either a standard word processor or Co:Writer 4000, a word prediction software program. Specific research questions are: (a) to what extent will students with physical and health disabilities produce greater WCPM when writing a draft paper on a common topic using word prediction rather than word processing, (b) to what extent will the use of word prediction software result in the production of different types of errors compared to errors produced using word processing, (c) to what extent will the use of word prediction software increase accuracy by decreasing spelling errors, (d) to what extent will more text be produced using word prediction software than with word processing, and (e) to what extent will word prediction increase motivation or willingness to write? Data will be graphed and analyzed for bifurcation. Bifurcation will be determined by examination of the means, level of performance, and trend. Finally, examination of errors will be used to verify spelling accuracy.

Word prediction has been offered as support for children with spelling difficulties. The literature however has shown wide-ranging results, as the use of word prediction is at the cost of time and fatigue due to increased visual-cognitive demands. Spelling support with word prediction is through word completion, keystroke reduction and the interactive process between spelling and reading. The research project was a cross-over within-subject design using 80 Grade 4 – 6 children with spelling difficulties in a school for special needs. The research task took the form of entering 30 words through an on-screen keyboard, with and without the use of word prediction software. The subjects were divided into four groups, who completed the research task in combinations of one of two equivalent wordlists and the presentation order of the typing method used. The Graded Word Spelling Test, administered before the study began, served to investigate whether there was a relationship between the children’s current spelling knowledge and word prediction efficacy. The results indicated an increase in spelling accuracy with the use of word prediction, but at the cost of time and the tendency to use word approximations, which decreased as grade and age increased. Children’s current spelling knowledge could not serve as an indicator of who would be most likely to benefit from word prediction use. The cross-over design counter-balanced the effects of the inequalities in the two wordlists and the effects of practice and fatigue noted in the presentation order. Further research into the impact that more extensive training and practice would have on word prediction efficacy and the usefulness of word prediction in more functional writing is necessary.
Dissertation (M (Augmentative and Alternative Communication))--University of Pretoria, 2005.
Centre for Augmentative and Alternative Communication (CAAC)
unrestricted

Σκοπός της παρούσας εργασίας ήταν να μελετήσει την ορθογραφική απόδοση κλιτικών μορφημάτων ουσιαστικών, ρημάτων και επιθέτων της ελληνικής γλώσσας από μαθητές ηλικίας 9 έως 11 ετών. Στη μελέτη συμμετείχαν τρεις ομάδες μαθητών: 21 μαθητές Στ΄ δημοτικού με αναγνωστικές και ορθογραφικές δυσκολίες, 21 μαθητές ίδιας χρονολογικής ηλικίας και 24 μαθητές παρόμοιου αναγνωστικού και ορθογραφικού επιπέδου νεότερης ηλικίας. Αρχικά, χορηγήθηκε στους μαθητές όλων των ομάδων ένα σύνολο δοκιμασιών, οι οποίες αξιολογούσαν τη μη λεκτική τους νοημοσύνη, τη βραχύχρονη μνήμη τους, τις αναγνωστικές και ορθογραφικές τους δεξιότητες. Η πειραματική ορθογραφική δοκιμασία συνίστατο στην ορθογραφική απόδοση ουσιαστικών, επιθέτων και ρημάτων ενσωματωμένων σε κατάλληλα προτασιακά πλαίσια. Σύμφωνα με τα αποτελέσματα, οι μαθητές με αναγνωστικές και ορθογραφικές δυσκολίες ήταν λιγότερο ακριβείς και συνεπείς στην ορθογραφική απόδοση των κλιτικών μορφημάτων των λέξεων συγκριτικά με τους μαθητές τυπικής ανάπτυξης της Στ΄ τάξης δημοτικού. Οι μαθητές με αναγνωστικές και ορθογραφικές δυσκολίες είχαν παρόμοια επίδοση με αυτή των νεαρότερων μαθητών παρόμοιου αναγνωστικού και ορθογραφικού επιπέδου ως προς την ορθογραφική ακρίβεια και την ορθογραφική συνέπεια στην απόδοση των κλιτικών μορφημάτων. Υπήρξαν βέβαια και κάποιες περιπτώσεις, όπου δεν υπήρξαν διαφοροποιήσεις μεταξύ των ομάδων. Επιπλέον, oι μαθητές και των τριών ομάδων είχαν καλύτερη επίδοση στην ορθογραφική απόδοση των κλιτικών μορφημάτων των ουσιαστικών και των ρημάτων σε σχέση με αυτήν στα κλιτικά μορφήματα των επιθέτων.
The purpose of this study was to examine the spelling of noun's, verb's and adjectives' inflectional morphemes in the Greek language by 9–11-year old children. Three groups participated in this study. Particularly, 21 sixth graders with reading and spelling difficulties, 21 chronological age-matched children and 24 younger reading and spelling-level-matched children. At first, students were assessed on a range of tests of non verbal ability, short-memory abilities, as well as reading and spelling abilities. In the experimental spelling task they were asked to spell nouns, verbs and adjectives in dictated sentences. Children with reading and spelling difficulties were less accurate and less consistent than chronological age-matched children in spelling inflectional morphemes. Moreover, children with reading and spelling difficulties performed similarly to younger reading and spelling-level-matched children as far as spelling accuracy and spelling consistency of inflections are concerned. In some cases of inflectional morphemes the three groups did not differ. Finally, children spelled noun and verb inflections more accurately than adjective inflections.

In 2 experiments, I tested the effects of a behavioral momentum blending procedure on the accuracy of component and composite textual and spelling responses emitted by 11 preschool students with disabilities, including autism and speech and language delays, using multiple probe designs across participants. The participants were between 3 and 4 years old and were selected to participate because they were receiving reading instruction, but they emitted low numbers of correct textual responses to words comprised of previously mastered phoneme-grapheme correspondences. Dependent measures in the experiment included blending responses to novel text stimuli, composite vocal blending responses in which no textual stimuli were used, and spelling responses. In addition, in Experiment 2, I tested the effects of the procedure on the reinforcing properties of textual stimuli. Prior to the intervention, the participants were taught to textually respond to a set of known, regular words comprised of up to five phonemic sounds represented by corresponding graphemes at a target rate (number per min). During the behavioral momentum blending intervention, participants responded to these words that were presented in rapid succession by the experimenter, followed by the immediate presentation of novel words. The experimenter provided a vocal model of the component phonemes which was systematically faded during each phase of the intervention. Results for Experiment 1 showed increases in textual, spelling, and vocal blending responses for five participants. In addition, results indicated that the participants textually responded to novel words and emitted more composite textual responses, or responses without emitting the component sounds prior to textually responding, when composite blending was modeled at the beginning of the probe session. In Experiment 2, I altered the intervention procedure to require composite only responding as a final step in the instructional sequence. Six new preschool students were selected to participate, and the dependent measures were the same as Experiment 1; however, I also tested for the presence of conditioned reinforcement for observing print prior to and following BMBI. Results showed significant effects for four of the participants following up to two phases of intervention but were less significant for two of the participants. Additionally, results indicated the establishment of conditioned reinforcement for observing print for the participants who textually responded at criterion level. These findings are discussed with regard to the educational significance of blending as a prerequisite for textual responding and the importance of the speaker-as-own-listener verbal repertoire in learning to read phonetically.

Η παρούσα έρευνα επικεντρώθηκε στη μελέτη ζητημάτων που αφορούν στη μορφολογική πλευρά της ορθογραφίας, γιατί σε αυτήν φαίνεται να είναι μεγαλύτερες οι δυσκολίες που συναντούν οι μαθητές με και χωρίς δυσκολίες στο γραπτό λόγο. Ειδικότερα, η έρευνα αυτή επιχείρησε να εξετάσει την ορθογραφική απόδοση των βασικών λέξεων και των μορφολογικά πολύπλοκων παράγωγών τους, από ελληνόφωνους μαθητές τυπικής ανάπτυξης και μαθητές με αναγνωστικές και ορθογραφικές δυσκολίες, που φοιτούν στο δημοτικό σχολείο. Πιο συγκεκριμένα, δείγμα της έρευνας αποτέλεσαν 66 μαθητές που φοιτούσαν στις Δ΄ και Στ΄ τάξεις του δημοτικού σχολείου. Αρχικά, οι μαθητές εξετάστηκαν σε ορισμένες προδοκιμασίες, οι οποίες αξιολογούσαν τη μη λεκτική νοημοσύνη, τη βραχύχρονη μνήμη και τις αναγνωστικές και ορθογραφικές δεξιότητές τους. Τα αποτελέσματα από τις δοκιμασίες αυτές, οδήγησαν στην επιλογή των μαθητών που θα συγκροτούσαν την κάθε ομάδα αλλά και στις εξισώσεις των ομάδων μεταξύ τους. Οι ερευνητικές ομάδες ήταν τρεις: η πειραματική ομάδα και οι δύο ομάδες ελέγχου. Η πειραματική ομάδα περιείχε 21 μαθητές της Στ΄ τάξης με αναγνωστικές και ορθογραφικές δυσκολίες, η ομάδα ελέγχου Ι περιείχε 21 μαθητές τυπικής ανάπτυξης της Στ΄ τάξης και η ομάδα ελέγχου ΙΙ απαρτιζόταν από 24 μαθητές τυπικής ανάπτυξης της Δ΄ τάξης. Η πειραματική ομάδα εξισώθηκε ως προς τη χρονολογική ηλικία και το νοητικό επίπεδο με την ομάδα ελέγχου Ι και με την ομάδα ελέγχου ΙΙ ως προς το αναγνωστικό, ορθογραφικό και νοητικό επίπεδο. Έπειτα, οι μαθητές εξετάστηκαν στην πειραματική ορθογραφική δοκιμασία με στόχο την εξέταση της ορθογραφικής ακρίβειας, της ορθογραφικής συνέπειας και του συνυπολογισμού της ορθογραφικής ακρίβειας και συνέπειάς τους, σε σχέση με την απόδοση λεξικών μορφημάτων και παραγωγικών επιθημάτων λέξεων της ελληνικής γλώσσας. Οι λέξεις που συμπεριλήφθηκαν στη δοκιμασία αυτή έλαβαν τη μορφή ‘Βάση – Παράγωγη’ λ.χ. διαφημίζω-διαφημίσεις. Για τον υπολογισμό της ορθογραφικής ακρίβειας, τα λεξικά μορφήματα και τα παραγωγικά επιθήματα των λέξεων χωρίστηκαν σε 140 λεξικά τμήματα-στόχοι. Για τον υπολογισμό της ορθογραφικής συνέπειας, ομαδοποιήθηκαν τα λεξικά τμήματα που θα συγκρίνονταν μεταξύ τους σε 52 ομάδες λεξικών τμημάτων. Τα κυριότερα αποτελέσματα ήταν τα εξής: όσον αφορά στις συσχετίσεις, προέκυψαν στατιστικώς σημαντικοί δείκτες μεταξύ όλων των τιμών των ανεξάρτητων μεταβλητών μεταξύ τους, καθώς και μεταξύ των τελευταίων και των εξαρτημένων μεταβλητών «ποσοστό ορθογραφικής ακρίβειας», «ποσοστό ορθογραφικής συνέπειας» και «ποσοστό ορθογραφικής ακρίβειας και συνέπειας» της πειραματικής ορθογραφικής δοκιμασίας, με εξαίρεση τη μη λεκτική νοημοσύνη, η οποία φάνηκε να συσχετίζεται σημαντικά μόνο με τις δύο τελευταίες. Επιπλέον, σε όλες τις μετρήσεις της πειραματικής ορθογραφικής δοκιμασίας, οι μαθητές της Στ΄ τάξης με αναγνωστικές και ορθογραφικές δυσκολίες σημείωσαν χαμηλότερη επίδοση στην ορθογραφική απόδοση των λεξικών μορφημάτων και παραγωγικών επιθημάτων των λέξεων-στόχων συγκριτικά με τους τυπικούς συνομηλίκους τους. Παράλληλα, είχαν παρόμοια επίδοση σε σχέση με τους νεαρότερους τυπικούς μαθητές της Δ΄ τάξης. Ακόμα, οι τρεις ομάδες είχαν καλύτερη επίδοση στην ορθογραφική απόδοση των λεξικών μορφημάτων και παραγωγικών επιθημάτων των ουσιαστικών και των επιθέτων συγκριτικά με αυτήν των ρημάτων. Τα ευρήματα αυτά, επιβεβαιώνουν το προφίλ των μαθητών με δυσκολίες στο γραπτό λόγο που έχει φανεί σε προγενέστερες έρευνες, δηλαδή ότι υπάρχει μία καθυστέρηση στις ορθογραφικές δεξιότητες των μαθητών με αναγνωστικές και ορθογραφικές δυσκολίες σε σχέση με την ηλικία που διανύουν. Επιπρόσθετα, τα υψηλά ποσοστά των τριών ομάδων στην ορθογραφική συνέπεια μάς επιτρέπουν τον ισχυρισμό πως οι μαθητές χρησιμοποιούν μορφολογικές στρατηγικές κατά την παραγωγή ορθογραφημένης γραφής. Ωστόσο, οι τυπικοί μαθητές της Στ΄ φαίνεται να χρησιμοποιούν πιο εκτεταμένα τις μορφολογικές στρατηγικές, αφού παρήγαγαν περισσότερες συνεπείς και σωστές ορθογραφικές αποδόσεις των κοινών λεξικών τμημάτων σε σύγκριση με τους συνομήλικους μαθητές με αναγνωστικές και ορθογραφικές δυσκολίες και τους τυπικούς μαθητές της Δ΄ τάξης. Αν και τα αποτελέσματα της ορθογραφικής συνέπειας ενισχύουν τη χρήση μορφολογικών στρατηγικών, δεν αποκλείουν τη χρήση άλλων στρατηγικών στις οποίες εμπλέκεται ο παράγοντας της μνήμης (λ.χ. απομνημονευτικές στρατηγικές. Τέλος, αν και οι τυπικοί μαθητές της Στ΄ τάξης είχαν σημείωσαν υψηλότερο συνολικό ποσοστό ορθογραφικής ακρίβειας σε σύγκριση με τις άλλες δύο ομάδες, υπήρξαν περιπτώσεις λεξικών τμημάτων, κατά την ορθογραφική απόδοση των οποίων, οι μαθητές και των τριών ερευνητικών ομάδων σημείωσαν είτε υψηλό είτε χαμηλό ποσοστό ορθογραφικής ακρίβειας. Η απουσία στατιστικώς σημαντικής διαφοράς στις περιπτώσεις αυτές, αποτελεί πηγή προβληματισμού και αναδεικνύει το ζήτημα του ρόλου της ορθογραφικής επεξεργασίας εκάστης λέξης.
The present study focused on the examination of matters related to the morphological aspect of spelling. This seems to pose great difficulties to students with or without reading and spelling difficulties. Particularly, this study attempts to examine the spelling of the base and the derived words by Greek-speaking typical achievement students and students with reading and spelling difficulties, all which attended primary school. The participants of this study were 66 fourth and sixth graders. Initially, as part of the testing, students completed a battery of pretests which evaluated their nonverbal intelligence, short-term memory and reading and spelling skills. The results of these tests led to the selection of the students that would form each group and the matching of the groups. Three research groups of participants took part in this study: an experimental group and two control groups. The experimental group consisted of 21 typical achievement sixth graders, control group I consisted of 21 sixth graders with reading and spelling difficulties and control group II comprised 24 typical achievement sixth graders. A reading/spelling level match design was employed. The experimental group was matched in terms of chronological age and intellectual level (chronological age-matched group) with control group I whereas with control group II in terms of reading, spelling and intellectual level (reading/spelling level-matched group). In addition, students were assessed on a spelling task that was designed to examine their spelling accuracy, their spelling consistency and their spelling accuracy-consistency in spelling lexical morphemes and derivational suffixes of Greek words. The experimental items in the spelling task were morphologically related word-pairs (base and derivation). To test the spelling accuracy, lexical morphemes and derivational suffixes of words were divided into 140 lexical parts. To test the spelling consistency, these lexical parts were grouped in 52 groups. The main results are as follows: as far as the correlations are concerned, apart from non-verbal intelligence, there is statistically significant indicators among all independent variables and between the independent and the dependent variables “percentage of spelling accuracy”, “percentage of spelling consistency” and “percentage of spelling accuracy and consistency” of the spelling task. Moreover, in the measurements of the spelling task, students with reading and spelling difficulties performed poorly in spelling lexical morphemes and derivational suffixes compared to their typical achievement peers. At the same time, their performance was similar to the performance of typical achievement fourth graders. In addition, the three groups had a better performance in spelling the lexical morphemes and derivational suffixes of nouns and of adjectives than of verbs. These findings confirm the profile of students with reading and spelling difficulties that has been shown in previous studies. In particular, it seems that there is a delay in the spelling skills of students with reading and spelling difficulties. This is consistent with a spelling delay hypothesis, rather than a spelling deviance hypothesis. Furthermore, the groups’ high percentages in spelling consistency allow us to claim that students use morphological strategies when they spell morphologically related words. However, typical achievement sixth graders seem to make greater use of morphological strategies, since they produce more consistent and correct spellings of the lexical morphemes and derivational suffixes compared to their peers with reading and spelling difficulties and typical achievement fourth graders. Our results suggest the use of morphological strategies, yet they do not exclude the use of other strategies which rely on memory such us memory strategies. Finally, typical achievement sixth graders scored a higher percentage in spelling accuracy compared to the other two groups. However, there were certain parts in which the students’ spellings didn’t differ. Our data show that in these parts students of the three groups scored high or low percentages of spelling accuracy. The absence of statistically significant differences between the three groups in these cases is an area of concern and highlights the role of the orthographic processing of each word.

The Phonic Inventories are an instrument consisting of three spelling tests. This study explored the potential of this instrument to be used in group administration to identify children with potential learning difficulties. This was done with a sample of full-time mainstream and full-time remedial learners. A repeated measures ANOVA was used to establish if the Phonic Inventories could distinguish the spelling error patterns of learners in different grades for mainstream and remedial. A distinct pattern of key errors was found, which was similar for mainstream and remedial learners. There were performance changes over grade for mainstream learners but not for remedial learners. This suggests the Phonic Inventories may be measuring an underlying spelling ability which progresses in normal learners and not remedial learners. A stepwise regression analysis was used to establish whether the Phonic Inventories predict performance on contrast spelling tests. A good degree of fit was found between the tests, suggesting the Phonic Inventories are measuring the same abilities as other spelling tests, with the advantage of providing additional information. Finally, a discriminant analysis found errors made on the Phonic Inventories to predict group affiliation between the mainstream and remedial group to a good degree. It was concluded that the Phonic Inventories have strong potential as a group administered screening instrument for identifying children with potential learning difficulties.

The purpose of the study was to investigate the influence of THRASS (Teaching Handwriting, Reading and Spelling Skills) on the word level accuracy skills of a group of grade 2 learners. Word level accuracy is one sub skill in learning to read and is an indicator of the word recognition abilities of the child. THRASS is a program that has been designed to systematically teach phonics and, thus, teaches the basic building blocks of word sounds and structure so as to improve the child’s decoding ability and word recognition ability. The research took place within the positivist paradigm and the methodology is quantitative in nature. The data collection method took the form of a one group pretest-posttest design, where a standardised reading test was administered prior to exposing the participants to the THRASS Program and then readministered one year later on the same group of learners. Data analysis took the form of statistical analysis to investigate any statistical significant difference in the word level accuracy skills of those Grade 2 learners. The result showed that over the period of a year the average reading accuracy age for the target population increased by four months. However, after statistical analysis the difference was not statistically significant. The Null Hypothesis that; exposing a group of Grade 2 learners to the THRASS Program for a period of one year will have no statistically significant influence on their word level accuracy skills cannot be rejected . However, the changes both in average reading accuracy as well as error patterns have inspired recommendations for further research. Copyright
Dissertation (MEd)--University of Pretoria, 2010.
Educational Psychology
unrestricted

Thesis (M.S.)--Central Connecticut State University, 2003.
Thesis advisor: Patti Lynn O'Brien. " ... in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Reading." Includes bibliographical references (leaves 34-70). Also available via the World Wide Web.

M.Tech. Applied Languages
The aim of this study is to compare the standard of spelling among Grade 3 English First Additional Language learners who speak isiZulu as theirhome language to the requirements of the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (DBE, 2011). The study draws on literature for contextualisation and to determine the CAPS requirements, and uses error analysis of continuous writing samples from learners to determine the variety and frequency of errors made. The list of errors is then studied for evidence of interference from the first language. In the final instance, the study presents the results of semi-structured interviews with Grade 3 EFAL- teachers on what they perceive as their role in spelling instruction, the challenges they encounter and strategies they use for overcoming these challenges

Textual responding or a see print and say sound response, often called "decoding," is a key component of reading. Teaching letter sounds and how to say these sounds together as words is a repertoire that allows students to become independent readers (McGuiness, 2004). However, some students have difficulty with blending letter sounds to read words (Carnine, 1997). Spelling is the reciprocal process to textual responding (McGuiness, 2004). To spell, an individual must segment component sounds in a word to write the correct graphemes. In two experiments, the experimenter tested the effects of the acquisition of matching component phoneme sounds to the words they comprise and vise-versa using an experimenter designed computer-based auditory match to sample (MTS) instructional program on textual responding and spelling of words with taught phonemes, and the rate of acquisition of new textual responses. Participants in Experiment I included 6 kindergarten students and 3 preschool students who required many instructional trials to meet textual responding objectives. Participants in Experiment II were 2 students (one kindergartener and one second grader) diagnosed with autism and 3 kindergarten students. Participants did not read words composed of letter sounds they had mastered. Results of Experiments I and II demonstrated a functional relation between the auditory matching program and textual responding and rates of learning for all participants. Results are discussed from the perspective of the Verbal Behavior Developmental Theory (VBDT), in terms of the importance of verbal developmental cusps and the joining of listener and speaker repertoires in textual responding and spelling.

M.A., Faculty of Humanities, University of the University, 2011
With the increasing prevalence of autism on a worldwide scale, new teaching methodologies need to be explored in order to educate children with autism helping them to achieve their maximum potential. It has previously been established that many individuals with autism use visual opposed to verbal modes of thinking and learning. In this study action research was used to examine if high imagery instructional methods of teaching could be used as a teaching tool for autistic children attending a special needs school. This study examined whether there was a change in the classroom performance of three autistic children after a 5 month period of high imagery instruction, as compared against a baseline of response to previous instruction, as well as the pattern of verbal and non verbal abilities manifested at time of intake into the programme. Analysis of the results of initial cognitive, language and perceptual tests was thus undertaken for diagnostic purposes, combined with analysis of initial response to teaching prior to high imagery intervention. Once this base-line had been established, analysis of school readiness and scholastic tests was then undertaken pre and post intervention, combined with in-depth interviews with the children’s teacher, analysis of developmental diaries and analysis of work done as part of the school programme followed by each child over a five month period of intervention. At baseline all three children were found to have phonological weaknesses, as evidenced by difficulties isolating onset sounds in words, difficulties with rhyming and difficulties in skills such as blending sounds into words. Two of the children in the sample showed little to no response to the high imagery instruction, and continued to have difficulties with reading and pre-reading tasks involving working with the sound structure of the English language. The third child in the sample showed an increase in phonological skills and in reading, writing and spelling abilities in response to high imagery instruction, as well as an increase in both vocabulary and the non-verbal abilities involved in drawing . It was noted at base-line as well as throughout the study that visual memory was an area of strength for this child, but not for the other two children in the sample. The child who made progress was also able to use his visual strengths to develop associations between sounds and letters. The conclusions from this exploratory study are that not all children with autism learn through use of visual strategies in teaching. The success of high imagery teaching strategies when used with a child with well developed visual memory abilities would suggest that high imagery instruction could be a useful and successful teaching strategy where children with autism exhibit well developed visual modes of thought. Strengths in visual memory and in visual association may be indicators of the likelihood that a child with autism will respond positively to high imagery instruction.

TITLE: Teaching English to Pupils With Dysorthography AUTHOR: Bc. Monika Reslerová DEPARTMENT: Department of English Language and Literature SUPERVISOR: Mgr. Klára Uličná, Ph.D. ABSTRACT: The thesis relates the issue of dysorthography in connection to EFL instruction with a special attention paid to lower secondary schools. The theoretical part of the text contains basic information on special educational needs, followed by a chapter on Specific Learning Difficulties, their causes and symptoms. The concept of dysorthography is explained and its possible consequences on acquisition of English spelling and grammar described, followed by a list of recommended approaches, methods, techniques and aids which can be useful for teaching English to dysorthographic pupils. The practical part of the text gives an account of a multiple-case study which was carried out among experienced English teachers at schools that pay special attention to children with SEN. The research is focused on the teachers' experience and know-how and compares the obtained data to the recommendations given in the theoretical part. KEYWORDS Specific Learning Difficulties, Dyslexia, Dysorthography, Teaching English as a Foreign Language, grammar, spelling

Dissertação de Mestrado apresentada no ISPA – Instituto Universitário para obtenção de grau de Mestre na especialidade de Psicologia Educacional
O presente estudo tem como objetivo avaliar o impacto de um programa de escrita inventada desenvolvido em pequeno grupo, no conhecimento das letras do alfabeto, consciência fonémica, nível de escrita e leitura, com crianças de 5/6 anos de idade. Participaram neste estudo 32 crianças do ensino pré-escolar com baixas competências em literacia emergente, divididas em grupo experimental e grupo de comparação, equivalentes entre si nas variáveis: idade, vocabulário, conhecimento das letras e consciência fonémica. O estudo decorreu em 3 fases: pré-testes; programa de intervenção de escrita inventada; pós-teste. O grupo experimental participou em 10 sessões bissemanais de escrita inventada, em grupos de 4 crianças, cujos materiais e palavras utilizadas pertenciam ao contexto de sala de aula. O grupo de comparação foi sujeito aos mesmos materiais, participando apenas em atividades de desenho. Os resultados evidenciaram diferenças estatisticamente significativas ao nível do conhecimento das letras, consciência fonémica, nível de escrita e leitura, entre o grupo experimental e o grupo de comparação, sendo o grupo experimental aquele que apresenta melhores resultados. Este estudo contribui para a compreensão de que, mesmo com crianças com baixas competências em literacia emergente, é possível desenvolver um programa de escrita inventada que parta dos conhecimentos prévios das crianças, com impacto no delineamento de estratégias pedagógicas futuras.
The purpose of this study is to assess the impact of an invented spelling programme developed in small groups, with children aged 5/6 years, in terms of letters knowledge, phonemic consciousness and level of writing and reading skills. The participants were 36 pre-school children, with low emergent literacy skills, divided into two groups: experimental group and comparison group. Both groups were equivalent in age, vocabulary, letters knowledge and phonemic consciousness. There was a pre-test, followed by the development of an invented spelling programme and, finally, a post-test. Children in the experimental group underwent an invented spelling intervention that consisted of 10 sessions, twice a week, in groups of 4 children. The materials and words used in the intervention belonged to the classroom context. The same initial activities were developed with the comparison group, but instead of writing the words, children were asked to draw. In terms of letters knowledge, phonemic consciousness and level of writing and reading skills, the results showed statistically significant differences between the experimental group and the comparison group, with the experimental group presenting better results in all variables. This study contributes to the understanding that children with low emergent literacy skills greatly benefit from invented spelling activities.

Tese de Doutoramento em Psicologia na àrea de especialidade Psicologia Educacional apresentada ao ISPA - Instituto Universitário
O objetivo deste trabalho consistiu em desenvolver um programa de escrita em interação com crianças em risco de dificuldades na aquisição da leitura, numa fase inicial em que ainda é possível atuar ao nível da prevenção. Foram realizados dois estudos, sendo que no primeiro se pretendeu avaliar o impacto desse programa na leitura, escrita, consciência fonémica e motivação de crianças do 1º ano de escolaridade que manifestavam já dificuldades. Adicionalmente, quisemos apurar se as crianças que beneficiaram do programa de escrita em interação tiveram desempenhos semelhantes ao das restantes crianças da turma na leitura no final do ano. Foram selecionadas 53 crianças com baixo desempenho em consciência fonológica, conhecimento do alfabeto e leitura de palavras, e que foram informalmente referenciadas pelos professores como estando em risco. Foram então constituídos três grupos estatisticamente equivalentes: grupo experimental, que desenvolveu atividades de escrita em interação; grupo de comparação, que realizou atividades de consciência fonológica; grupo de controlo, que realizou atividades de cópia. As crianças foram aleatoriamente distribuídas pelos três grupos e, posteriormente, constituídos grupos de duas crianças que trabalharam em conjunto até ao final das sessões. Foram realizados pré-testes de leitura, escrita, consciência fonémica e motivação, aos quais se seguiu o desenvolvimento dos programas ao longo de 12 sessões, com duração de 20 a 30 minutos cada e frequência bissemanal. Uma semana após o final das intervenções foram realizados os pós-testes. Recorreu-se a diversas ANCOVAs para analisar os dados recolhidos que mostraram que o grupo de escrita em interação obteve resultados superiores e com diferenças estatisticamente significativas em relação aos restantes grupos, em todas as variáveis medidas no pós-teste, à exceção da consciência fonémica, em que o grupo de escrita e o de consciência fonológica obtiveram resultados semelhantes, sem diferenças entre ambos. O grupo de cópia de palavras foi o que obteve, consistentemente, resultados mais baixos. No final, as crianças do grupo de escrita obtiveram resultados idênticos em leitura às restantes crianças da turma não se tendo verificado diferenças entre eles. O segundo estudo tem como objetivo explicitar, descrever e analisar as estratégias de ajudas (scaffolding) que o adulto providencia às crianças no decorrer das sessões do programa de escrita, isolando, se possível, uma sequência típica de ajudas. Procurámos ainda apurar se as crianças manifestam integrar os procedimentos e estratégias de análise constantes nas ajudas do adulto. Para tal, foram analisadas oito sessões (3ª, 6ª, 9ª e 12ª sessões) de dois grupos de crianças que beneficiaram do programa de escrita, escolhidas aleatoriamente. Foram encontradas 14 categorias de ajuda sendo que as mais frequentes para ambos os grupos, consistiam, por ordem de ocorrência, no questionamento, questionamento inferencial, feedback positivo, tarefa/ação e pistas. As díades diferiam, porém, em relação ao nível de suporte necessário. Foi isolada uma sequência típica e as crianças evidenciaram competências de autorregulação, autonomia e controlo em relação à tarefa, assim como mostraram apropriar-se dos conhecimentos e procedimentos mobilizados ao longo das sessões. O programa de escrita constitui-se, pois, como uma alternativa pedagógica eficaz para prevenir dificuldades de leitura.
ABSTRACT : The aim of the present investigation was to develop an interactive spelling program with children at risk of reading failure, in order to prevent future reading difficulties. We conducted two studies, a quasi-experimental study and a qualitative study. In the first study, our aim was to assess the impact of an interactive spelling programme on reading acquisition of first graders at risk as well as to assess its effect on spelling, phonemic awareness and children’s motivation towards reading. Additionally, we wanted to know if children in the interactive spelling group had similar results in reading as the other children in class at the end of the school year. We selected 53 children, who had low scores in phonological awareness tasks, letter knowledge and reading and that were informally referenced by their teachers as being at risk. Cognitive ability and vocabulary were also assessed. Children were randomly assigned into three statistically equivalent groups - an interactive spelling group (experimental group), a phonological awareness group (comparison group) and a word copy group (control group). The pre-test consisted in a word reading, word spelling and phonemic awareness tests, and also a motivational scale was used. The programmes were carried out in pairs, during 12 sessions, that lasted for 20 to 30 minutes, twice a week. One week after the end of the programmes we carried out the post-tests. To analyze the data, we performed several ANCOVAs. The results showed that the interactive spelling programme had better outcomes in all the measures that were used and statistically significant differences were found regarding the two other programmes. The only exception was the phonemic awareness task, where the phonological training group and the spelling group had similar results. The word copy programme had, consistently, the lowest results. At the end of the school year, children in the experimental group reached the class group in terms of correct word reading. In the second study, our aim was to describe, analyze and isolate a typical sequence of scaffolding strategies that were used by the adult during the interactive spelling programme. We also wanted to know if children showed any integration of the procedures and support given by the adult. We analyzed eight sessions (sessions 3, 6, 9 and 12) of two groups of children that underwent the interactive spelling programme. We found that in this programme the adult used 14 scaffolding strategies and the five most frequent, for both groups, consisted of questioning, inferential questioning, positive feedback, task description and cues. Nevertheless, the groups differed in terms of the level of support each one of them needed. A pattern of scaffolding strategies was found and children showed increasingly more self regulation, autonomy and control regarding the tasks, and also showed internalization of the procedures needed to complete them. In this sense, we may conclude that the interactive spelling programme is an effective pedagogical tool to actually prevent reading difficulties.

Text in Afrikaans
Die doel van hierdie studie was om te bepaal tot watter mate ’n suiwer patroongebaseerde benadering tot woordafbreking bevredigende resultate lewer. Die masjienleertegnieke kunsmatige neurale netwerke, beslissingsbome en die TEX-algoritme is ondersoek aangesien dit met letterpatrone uit woordelyste afgerig kan word om lettergreep- en saamgesteldewoordverdeling te doen. ’n Leksikon van Afrikaanse woorde is uit ’n korpus van elektroniese teks genereer. Om lyste vir lettergreep- en saamgesteldewoordverdeling te kry, is woorde in die leksikon in lettergrepe verdeel en saamgestelde woorde is in hul samestellende dele verdeel. Uit elkeen van hierdie lyste van ±183 000 woorde is ±10 000 woorde as toetsdata gereserveer terwyl die res as afrigtingsdata gebruik is. ’n Rekursiewe algoritme is vir saamgesteldewoordverdeling ontwikkel. In hierdie algoritme word alle ooreenstemmende woorde uit ’n verwysingslys (die leksikon) onttrek deur stringpassing van die begin en einde van woorde af. Verdelingspunte word dan op grond van woordlengte uit die samestelling van begin- en eindwoorde bepaal. Die algoritme is uitgebrei deur die tekortkominge van hierdie basiese prosedure aan te spreek. Neurale netwerke en beslissingsbome is afgerig en variasies van beide tegnieke is ondersoek om die optimale modelle te kry. Patrone vir die TEX-algoritme is met die OPatGen-program gegenereer. Tydens toetsing het die TEX-algoritme die beste op beide lettergreep- en saamgesteldewoordverdeling presteer met 99,56% en 99,12% akkuraatheid, respektiewelik. Dit kan dus vir woordafbreking gebruik word met min risiko vir afbrekingsfoute in gedrukte teks. Die neurale netwerk met 98,82% en 98,42% akkuraatheid op lettergreep- en saamgesteldewoordverdeling, respektiewelik, is ook bruikbaar vir lettergreepverdeling, maar dis meer riskant. Ons het bevind dat beslissingsbome te riskant is om vir lettergreepverdeling en veral vir woordverdeling te gebruik, met 97,91% en 90,71% akkuraatheid, respektiewelik. ’n Gekombineerde algoritme is ontwerp waarin saamgesteldewoordverdeling eers met die TEXalgoritme gedoen word, waarna die resultate van lettergreepverdeling deur beide die TEXalgoritme en die neurale netwerk gekombineer word. Die algoritme het 1,3% minder foute as die TEX-algoritme gemaak. ’n Toets op gepubliseerde Afrikaanse teks het getoon dat die risiko vir woordafbrekingsfoute in teks met gemiddeld tien woorde per re¨el ±0,02% is.
The aim of this study was to determine the level of success achievable with a purely pattern based approach to hyphenation in Afrikaans. The machine learning techniques artificial neural networks, decision trees and the TEX algorithm were investigated since they can be trained with patterns of letters from word lists for syllabification and decompounding. A lexicon of Afrikaans words was extracted from a corpus of electronic text. To obtain lists for syllabification and decompounding, words in the lexicon were respectively syllabified and compound words were decomposed. From each list of ±183 000 words, ±10 000 words were reserved as testing data and the rest was used as training data. A recursive algorithm for decompounding was developed. In this algorithm all words corresponding with a reference list (the lexicon) are extracted by string fitting from beginning and end of words. Splitting points are then determined based on the length of reassembled words. The algorithm was expanded by addressing shortcomings of this basic procedure. Artificial neural networks and decision trees were trained and variations of both were examined to find optimal syllabification and decompounding models. Patterns for the TEX algorithm were generated by using the program OPatGen. Testing showed that the TEX algorithm performed best on both syllabification and decompounding tasks with 99,56% and 99,12% accuracy, respectively. It can therefore be used for hyphenation in Afrikaans with little risk of hyphenation errors in printed text. The performance of the artificial neural network was lower, but still acceptable, with 98,82% and 98,42% accuracy for syllabification and decompounding, respectively. The decision tree with accuracy of 97,91% on syllabification and 90,71% on decompounding was found to be too risky to use for either of the tasks A combined algorithm was developed where words are first decompounded by using the TEX algorithm before syllabifying them with both the TEX algoritm and the neural network and combining the results. This algoritm reduced the number of errors made by the TEX algorithm by 1,3% but missed more hyphens. Testing the algorithm on Afrikaans publications showed the risk for hyphenation errors to be ±0,02% for text assumed to have an average of ten words per line.
Decision Sciences
D. Phil. (Operational Research)