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Journal articles on the topic 'Spine - Anatomy'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 18 February 2022

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1

Shanechi, Amirali Modir, Matthew Kiczek, Majid Khan, and Gaurav Jindal. "Spine Anatomy Imaging." Neuroimaging Clinics of North America 29, no. 4 (November 2019): 461–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nic.2019.08.001.

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2

Phillips, S., S. Mercer, and N. Bogduk. "Anatomy and biomechanics of quadratus lumborum." Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part H: Journal of Engineering in Medicine 222, no. 2 (February 1, 2008): 151–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1243/09544119jeim266.

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Various actions on the lumbar spine have been attributed to quadratus lumborum, but they have not been substantiated by quantitative data. The present study was undertaken to determine the magnitude of forces and moments that quadratus lumborum could exert on the lumbar spine. The fascicular anatomy of quadratus lumborum was studied in six embalmed cadavers. For each fascicle, the sites of attachment, orientation, and physiological cross-sectional area were determined. The fascicular anatomy varied considerably, between sides and between specimens, with respect to the number of fascicles, their prevalence, and their sizes. Approximately half of the fascicles act on the twelfth rib, and the rest act on the lumbar spine. The more consistently present fascicles were incorporated, as force-equivalents, into a model of quadratus lumborum in order to determine its possible actions. The magnitudes of the compression forces exerted by quadratus lumborum on the lumbar spine, the extensor moment, and the lateral bending moment, were each no greater than 10 per cent of those exerted by erector spinae and multifidus. These data indicate that quadratus lumborum has no more than a modest action on the lumbar spine, in quantitative terms. Its actual role in spinal biomechanics has still to be determined.

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3

Kumaresan, Srirangam, Narayan Yoganandan, Frank A. Pintar, Dennis J. Maiman, and Shashi Kuppa. "Biomechanical Study of Pediatric Human Cervical Spine: A Finite Element Approach." Journal of Biomechanical Engineering 122, no. 1 (August 22, 1999): 60–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.429628.

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Although considerable effort has been made to understand the biomechanical behavior of the adult cervical spine, relatively little information is available on the response of the pediatric cervical spine to external forces. Since significant anatomical differences exist between the adult and pediatric cervical spines, distinct biomechanical responses are expected. The present study quantified the biomechanical responses of human pediatric spines by incorporating their unique developmental anatomical features. One-, three-, and six-year-old cervical spines were simulated using the finite element modeling technique, and their responses computed and compared with the adult spine response. The effects of pure overall structural scaling of the adult spine, local component developmental anatomy variations that occur to the actual pediatric spines, and structural scaling combined with local component anatomy variations on the responses of the pediatric spines were studied. Age- and component-related developmental anatomical features included variations in the ossification centers, cartilages, growth plates, vertebral centrum, facet joints, and annular fibers and nucleus pulposus of the intervertebral discs. The flexibility responses of the models were determined under pure compression, pure flexion, pure extension, and varying degrees of combined compression–flexion and compression–extension. The pediatric spine responses obtained with the pure overall (only geometric) scaling of the adult spine indicated that the flexibilities consistently increase in a uniform manner from six- to one-year-old spines under all loading cases. In contrast, incorporation of local anatomic changes specific to the pediatric spines of the three age groups (maintaining the same adult size) not only resulted in considerable increases in flexibilities, but the responses also varied as a function of the age of the pediatric spine and type of external loading. When the geometric scaling effects were added to these spines, the increases in flexibilities were slightly higher; however, the pattern of the responses remained the same as found in the previous approach. These results indicate that inclusion of developmental anatomical changes characteristic of the pediatric spines has more of a predominant effect on biomechanical responses than extrapolating responses of the adult spine based on pure overall geometric scaling. [S0148-0731(00)00501-X]

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4

Pait, T. Glenn, Alexandre J. R. Elias, and Ron Tribell. "Thoracic, Lumbar, and Sacral Spine Anatomy for Endoscopic Surgery." Neurosurgery 51, suppl_2 (November 1, 2002): S2–67—S2–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00006123-200211002-00010.

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Abstract WE DISCUSS THE anatomy of the thoracic, lumbar, and sacral levels of the spinal cord. Given the nature of endoscopic surgery, it is recommended that the surgeon have thorough knowledge not only of the bony architecture but also of important visceral and other soft tissue structures. It is essential to understand the normal anatomy to recognize the abnormal and anatomic variations. We present the so-called normal anatomic configurations and illustrate how these structures vary at the different levels of the spinal column.

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5

Crock, Henry V. "Applied anatomy of the spine." Acta Orthopaedica Scandinavica 64, sup251 (January 1993): 56–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/17453679309160118.

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6

Wells-Roth, David, and Martin Zonenshayn. "Vascular anatomy of the spine." Operative Techniques in Neurosurgery 6, no. 3 (September 2003): 116–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/s1092-440x(03)00037-9.

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7

Grieve, Gregory P. "Functional Anatomy of the Spine." Physiotherapy 79, no. 10 (October 1993): 746. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0031-9406(10)60049-1.

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8

Klitsch, Matthew Brady. "Fox Spine, and: Otter Anatomy." Colorado Review 41, no. 3 (2014): 129–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/col.2014.0084.

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9

Shedid, Daniel, and Edward C. Benzel. "CERVICAL SPONDYLOSIS ANATOMY." Neurosurgery 60, suppl_1 (January 1, 2007): S1–7—S1–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1227/01.neu.0000215430.86569.c4.

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Abstract CERVICAL SPONDYLOSIS IS the most common progressive disorder in the aging cervical spine. It results from the process of degeneration of the intervertebral discs and facet joints of the cervical spine. Biomechanically, the disc and the facets are the connecting structures between the vertebrae for the transmission of external forces. They also facilitate cervical spine mobility. Symptoms related to myelopathy and radiculopathy are caused by the formation of osteophytes, which compromise the diameter of the spinal canal. This compromise may also be partially developmental. The developmental process, together with the degenerative process, may cause mechanical pressure on the spinal cord at one or multiple levels. This pressure may produce direct neurological damage or ischemic changes and, thus, lead to spinal cord disturbances. A thorough understanding of the biomechanics, the pathology, the clinical presentation, the radiological evaluation, as well as the surgical indications of cervical spondylosis, is essential for the management of patients with cervical spondylosis.

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10

Hanke, Gavin F. "Paucicanthus vanelsti gen. et sp. nov., an Early Devonian (Lochkovian) acanthodian that lacks paired fin-spines." Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 39, no. 7 (July 1, 2002): 1071–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/e02-023.

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The acanthodian Paucicanthus vanelsti gen. et sp. nov. is described from six body fossils from Lower Devonian (Lochkovian) rocks of the southern Mackenzie Mountains, Northwest Territories, Canada. This new species is unique among acanthodians in that it lacks both pectoral and pelvic fin-spines. In the absence of fin-spines, the leading edges of the pectoral and pelvic fins are reinforced by enlarged scales. The anatomy of the acanthodiform Traquairichthys pygmaeus is similar to P. vanelsti in that both lack pelvic fin-spines, although T. pygmaeus also lacks pelvic fins. Similarly, the acanthodian Yealepis douglasi lacks both paired and median fin-spines, and its anatomy resembles that of P. vanelsti based only on the loss of paired fin-spines. The lack of paired and (or) median fin-spines in these three taxa contrasts with the widely held view that acanthodian fins all were preceded by spines. The anatomy of P. vanelsti also is similar to that of the acanthodian Brochoadmones milesi in that both have a completely unossified endoskeleton, slightly elevated pectoral fins, and deep, compressed bodies. The median fin-spines of P. vanelsti have an anterior leading edge rib followed by a field of fine striations. This striated ornamentation coupled with few leading edge ribs also is seen on fin-spines of Cassidiceps vermiculatus and primitive acanthodiform acanthodians (e.g., Mesacanthus and Lodeacanthus species). I tentatively suggest that this fin-spine ornament indicates relationship between P. vanelsti, acanthodiform acanthodians, and C. vermiculatus. However, a cladistic analysis is required to test whether or not the characteristics such as fin-spine loss, unossified endoskeleton, elevated pectoral fins, deep compressed bodies, and (or) median fin-spine ornamentation are synapomorphies within the Acanthodii or evolved convergently within the class.

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11

Kang, Yong-Ho. "Anatomy and Physiology of Lumbar Spine." Journal of Korean Society of Spine Surgery 8, no. 3 (2001): 264. http://dx.doi.org/10.4184/jkss.2001.8.3.264.

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12

Ebraheim, Nabil A., Ali Hassan, Ming Lee, and Rongming Xu. "Functional anatomy of the lumbar spine." Seminars in Pain Medicine 2, no. 3 (September 2004): 131–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.spmd.2004.08.004.

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13

Devereaux, Michael W. "Anatomy and Examination of the Spine." Neurologic Clinics 25, no. 2 (May 2007): 331–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ncl.2007.02.003.

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14

Millner, Peter. "Clinical anatomy of the cervical spine." Current Orthopaedics 10, no. 3 (July 1996): 209. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0268-0890(96)90029-8.

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15

J??nsson, Halld??r, and Wolfgang Rauschning. "Surgical Anatomy of the Cervical Spine." Techniques in Orthopaedics 9, no. 1 (1994): 18–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00013611-199400910-00005.

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16

Woolman, KJ, and CM Marshall. "Clinical Anatomy of the Lumbar Spine." Physiotherapy 78, no. 9 (September 1992): 720. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0031-9406(10)61603-3.

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17

Rauschning, Wolfgang. "Surgical Anatomy of the Spine, Revisited." SPINE 42 (April 2017): S1—S2. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/brs.0000000000002018.

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18

Rossini, Paolo M. "Clinical anatomy of the cervical spine." Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology 91, no. 2 (August 1994): 149. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0013-4694(94)90036-1.

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19

Ilankovan, V. "Clinical anatomy of the cervical spine." British Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery 33, no. 1 (February 1995): 65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0266-4356(95)90097-7.

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20

Vigo, Vera, Félix Pastor-Escartín, Ayoze Doniz-Gonzalez, Vicent Quilis-Quesada, Pau Capilla-Guasch, José Manuel González-Darder, Pasquale De Bonis, and Juan Carlos Fernandez-Miranda. "The Smith-Robinson Approach to the Subaxial Cervical Spine: A Stepwise Microsurgical Technique Using Volumetric Models From Anatomic Dissections." Operative Neurosurgery 20, no. 1 (August 31, 2020): 83–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ons/opaa265.

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Abstract BACKGROUND The Smith-Robinson1 approach (SRA) is the most widely used route to access the anterior cervical spine. Although several authors have described this approach, there is a lack of the stepwise anatomic description of this operative technique. With the advent of new technologies in neuroanatomy education, such as volumetric models (VMs), the understanding of the spatial relation of the different neurovascular structures can be simplified. OBJECTIVE To describe the anatomy of the SRA through the creation of VMs of anatomic dissections. METHODS A total of 4 postmortem heads and a cervical replica were used to perform and record the SRA approach to the C4-C5 level. The most relevant steps and anatomy of the SRA were recorded using photogrammetry to construct VM. RESULTS The SRA was divided into 6 major steps: positioning, incision of the skin, platysma, and muscle dissection with and without submandibular gland eversion and after microdiscectomy with cage positioning. Anatomic model of the cervical spine and anterior neck multilayer dissection was also integrated to improve the spatial relation of the different structures. CONCLUSION In this study, we review the different steps of the classic SRA and its variations to different cervical levels. The VMs presented allow clear visualization of the 360-degree anatomy of this approach. This new way of representing surgical anatomy can be valuable resources for education and surgical planning.

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21

Dowdell, James, Christopher Mikhail, Jonathan Robinson, and Abigail Allen. "Anatomy of the pediatric spine and spine injuries in young athletes." Annals of Joint 3 (April 2018): 28. http://dx.doi.org/10.21037/aoj.2018.03.01.

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22

Kumar, Naresh, Sandeep Kukreti, Mushtaque Ishaque, and Robert Mulholland. "Anatomy of deer spine and its comparison to the human spine." Anatomical Record 260, no. 2 (2000): 189–203. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1097-0185(20001001)260:2<189::aid-ar80>3.0.co;2-n.

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23

Panjabi, Manohar M., Thomas R. Oxland, and Edward H. Parks. "Quantitative Anatomy of Cervical Spine Ligaments. Part I. Upper Cervical Spine." Journal of Spinal Disorders 4, no. 3 (September 1991): 275–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00002517-199109000-00003.

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24

Chan, Jimmy J., Nicholas Shepard, and Woojin Cho. "Biomechanics and Clinical Application of Translaminar Screws Fixation in Spine: A Review of the Literature." Global Spine Journal 9, no. 2 (April 19, 2018): 210–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2192568218765995.

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Study Design: Broad narrative review. Objectives: Translaminar screw (TLS) fixation was first described as a salvage technique for fixation of the axial spine. Better understanding of the spine anatomy allows for advancement in surgical techniques and expansion of TLS indications. The goal of this review is to discuss the anatomic feasibility of the TLS fixation in different region of the spine. Methods: A review of the current literatures on the principles, biomechanics, and clinical application of the translaminar screw technique in the axial, subaxial, and thoracolumbar spine. Results: Anatomic feasibility and biomechanical studies have demonstrated that TLS is a safe and strong fixation methods for fusion beyond just the axial spine. However, not all spine segments have wide enough lamina to accept TLS. Preoperative computed tomography scan can help ensure the feasibility and safety of TLS insertion. Recent clinical reports have validated the application of TLS in subaxial spine, thoracic spine, hangman’s fracture, and pediatric population. Conclusions: TLS can be used beyond axial spine; however, TLS insertion is only warranted when the lamina is thick enough to avoid further complications such as breakage. Preoperative computed tomography scans can be used to determine feasibility of such fixation construct.

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25

Pait, T. Glenn, Phillip V. McAllister, and Howard H. Kaufman. "Quadrant anatomy of the articular pillars (lateral cervical mass) of the cervical spine." Journal of Neurosurgery 82, no. 6 (June 1995): 1011–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.3171/jns.1995.82.6.1011.

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✓ Knowledge of the relevant anatomy is important when developing a strategy for introducing screws into the lateral masses to secure internal fixation devices. This paper defines key bony landmarks and their relationship to critical neurovascular structures and identifies a location for safe placement of cervical articular pillar (lateral mass) screws. Measurements of anatomical landmarks in 10 spines from human cadavers aged 61 to 85 years were made by caliper and a metric ruler. Landmarks were the lateral facet line, rostrocaudal line, medial facet line, intrafacet line, and medial facet line—vertebral artery line. The average distances and ranges were recorded. Such great variance existed in measurements from spine to spine and within the same spine as to render averages clinically unreliable. Dissection revealed that division of the articular pillar into four quadrants leaves one, the superior lateral quadrant, under which there are no neurovascular structures; this may be considered the “safe quadrant” for placement of posterior screws and plates.

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26

Bohlman, Henry H. "Imaging Anatomy of the Head and Spine." Journal of Bone & Joint Surgery 68, no. 1 (January 1986): 157. http://dx.doi.org/10.2106/00004623-198668010-00027.

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27

Prescher, Andreas. "Anatomy and pathology of the aging spine." European Journal of Radiology 27, no. 3 (July 1998): 181–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0720-048x(97)00165-4.

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28

Matsuo, Yohei. "The Anatomy and Kinematics of Lumbar Spine." Japanese Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine 53, no. 10 (2016): 770–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.2490/jjrmc.53.770.

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29

CALHOUN, K. H. "Imaging Anatomy of the Head and Spine,." Archives of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery 112, no. 11 (November 1, 1986): 1217. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archotol.1986.03780110093026.

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30

Gallucci, M., A. Splendiani, and C. Masciocchi. "Spine and Spinal Cord: Neuroradiological Functional Anatomy." Rivista di Neuroradiologia 11, no. 3 (June 1998): 293–304. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/197140099801100308.

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31

Shapiro, Marc. "Imaging Anatomy of the Head and Spine." Investigative Radiology 21, no. 3 (March 1986): 292–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004424-198603000-00020.

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32

Jacob, Patrick R., Ronald G. Quisling, and Albert L. Rhoton. "Imaging anatomy of the head and spine." Surgical Neurology 25, no. 2 (February 1986): 200. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0090-3019(86)90303-4.

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33

Lessell, Simmons. "Imaging Anatomy of the Head and Spine." American Journal of Ophthalmology 100, no. 4 (October 1985): 624. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0002-9394(85)90705-6.

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34

Bland, John H., and Dallas R. Boushey. "Anatomy and physiology of the cervical spine." Seminars in Arthritis and Rheumatism 20, no. 1 (August 1990): 1–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0049-0172(90)90090-3.

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35

Panjabi, M. M., J. D. O'Holleran, J. J. Crisco, and R. Kothe. "Complexity of the thoracic spine pedicle anatomy." European Spine Journal 6, no. 1 (January 1997): 19–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf01676570.

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36

Martin, Michael D., Harlan J. Bruner, and Dennis J. Maiman. "Anatomic and Biomechanical Considerations of the Craniovertebral Junction." Neurosurgery 66, suppl_3 (March 1, 2010): A2—A6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1227/01.neu.0000365830.10052.87.

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Abstract AN UNDERSTANDING OF the regional anatomy and specific biomechanics of the craniovertebral junction is relevant to the specific diseases that affect the region as well as instrumentation of the occiput, atlas, and axis. This article reviews the bony, ligamentous, and vascular anatomy of the region, in relation to the posterior surgical approach to this anatomically unique segment of the cervical spine. Anatomic variations of the area are also discussed. Basic principles of instrumentation of the region are also reviewed. The kinematics of the region as they pertain to the anatomic discussion are reviewed and discussed.

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37

Zheng, Jiajia, Liang Tang, and Jingwen Hu. "A Numerical Investigation of Risk Factors Affecting Lumbar Spine Injuries Using a Detailed Lumbar Model." Applied Bionics and Biomechanics 2018 (2018): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2018/8626102.

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Recent field data showed that lumbar spine fractures occurred more frequently in late model vehicles than early ones in frontal crashes. However, the lumbar spine designs of the current crash test dummies are not accurate in human anatomy and have not been validated against any human/cadaver impact responses. In addition, the lumbar spines of finite element (FE) human models, including GHBMC and THUMS, have never been validated previously against cadaver tests. Therefore, this study developed a detailed FE lumbar spine model and validated it against cadaveric tests. To investigate the mechanism of lumbar spine injury in frontal crashes, effects of changing the coefficient of friction (COF), impact velocity, cushion thickness and stiffness, and cushion angle on the risk of lumbar spine injuries were analyzed based on a Taguchi array of design of experiments. The results showed that impact velocity is the most important factor in determining the risk of lumbar spine fracture (P=0.009). After controlling the impact velocity, increases in the cushion thickness can effectively reduce the risk of lumbar spine fracture (P=0.039).

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38

Wilke, Hans-Joachim, Annette Kettler, Karl Howard Wenger, and Lutz Eberhardt Claes. "Anatomy of the sheep spine and its comparison to the human spine." Anatomical Record 247, no. 4 (April 1997): 542–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1097-0185(199704)247:4<542::aid-ar13>3.0.co;2-p.

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39

Silva Gomes, Francisco, Cristina Alves, Pedro Sa Cardoso, and Tah Pu Ling. "A Rare Case of an Osteoid Osteoma of the Cervical Spine." Case Reports in Orthopedic Research 3, no. 2 (June 22, 2020): 79–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000508371.

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Osteoid osteoma (OO) is a benign bone tumor rarely affecting the cervical spine. OO, currently diagnosed by X-ray, computed tomography (CT), bone scan, and magnetic resonance imaging, is difficult to identify when located in the cervical spine based on spine radiographs due to their usually small size and the complex anatomy of the cervical spine. CT scans successfully diagnose 20–30% of the small osteolytic lesions with dense sclerotic rings and central calcifications and the anatomic location of the nidus. CT-guided radiofrequency ablation is a noninvasive treatment option widely used. However, in specific cases, surgical resection of the nidus is recommended. We present a rare clinical case of cervical spine OO of a 16-year-old female patient. The lesion was located on the left lamina of C7, and once the diagnosis was established by physical examination and imaging, laminectomy and cervical arthrodesis (C6-T1) were performed. Twelve months after the surgical intervention, the patient showed complete remission of the symptoms and no disabilities.

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40

O’Brien, William T., Peter Shen, and Paul Lee. "The Dens: Normal Development, Developmental Variants and Anomalies, and Traumatic Injuries." Journal of Clinical Imaging Science 5 (June 30, 2015): 38. http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/2156-7514.159565.

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Accurate interpretation of cervical spine imagining can be challenging, especially in children and the elderly. The biomechanics of the developing pediatric spine and age-related degenerative changes predispose these patient populations to injuries centered at the craniocervical junction. In addition, congenital anomalies are common in this region, especially those associated with the axis/dens, due to its complexity in terms of development compared to other vertebral levels. The most common congenital variations of the dens include the os odontoideum and a persistent ossiculum terminale. At times, it is necessary to distinguish normal development, developmental variants, and developmental anomalies from traumatic injuries in the setting of acute traumatic injury. Key imaging features are useful to differentiate between traumatic fractures and normal or variant anatomy acutely; however, the radiologist must first have a basic understanding of the spectrum of normal developmental anatomy and its anatomic variations in order to make an accurate assessment. This review article attempts to provide the basic framework required for accurate interpretation of cervical spine imaging with a focus on the dens, specifically covering the normal development and ossification of the dens, common congenital variants and their various imaging appearances, fracture classifications, imaging appearances, and treatment options.

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41

Panjabi, Manohar M., Thomas R. Oxland, and Edward H. Parks. "Quantitative Anatomy of Cervical Spine Ligaments. Part II. Middle and Lower Cervical Spine." Journal of Spinal Disorders 4, no. 3 (September 1991): 277–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00002517-199109000-00004.

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42

Weaver, Edgar Newman. "Lateral intramuscular planar approach to the lumbar spine and sacrum." Journal of Neurosurgery: Spine 7, no. 2 (August 2007): 270–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.3171/spi-07/08/270.

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✓The goal of this study was to establish a much less invasive method for access to the lateral lumbar spine for posterolateral fusion and pedicle screw (PS) placement. The technique was developed through knowledge of the anatomy literature and the author's clinical experience in more than 90 completed cases. The lateral intramuscular planar approach provides a much less invasive access to the lateral aspect of the lumbar spine and sacrum. An invariant intramuscular plane, poorly described in the anatomical literature, is ideal for postero-lateral fusion and/or PS placement from L-3 caudally. The approach requires essentially no resection of the multifidus muscle, or of the pars thoracis of the erector spinae.

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43

Flannigan, BD, RB Lufkin, C. McGlade, J. Winter, U. Batzdorf, G. Wilson, W. Rauschning, and WG Bradley. "MR imaging of the cervical spine: neurovascular anatomy." American Journal of Roentgenology 148, no. 4 (April 1987): 785–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.2214/ajr.148.4.785.

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44

Kanemura, Tokumi, Kotaro Satake, Hiroaki Nakashima, Naoki Segi, Jun Ouchida, Hidetoshi Yamaguchi, and Shiro Imagama. "Understanding Retroperitoneal Anatomy for Lateral Approach Spine Surgery." Spine Surgery and Related Research 1, no. 3 (2017): 107–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.22603/ssrr.1.2017-0008.

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45

Wallner-Schlotfeldt, Trish. "Clinical anatomy of the lumbar spine and sacrum." South African Journal of Physiotherapy 56, no. 3 (August 31, 2000): 38. http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/sajp.v56i3.542.

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46

Frost, Brody, Sandra Camarero-Espinosa, and E. Foster. "Materials for the Spine: Anatomy, Problems, and Solutions." Materials 12, no. 2 (January 14, 2019): 253. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma12020253.

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Disc degeneration affects 12% to 35% of a given population, based on genetics, age, gender, and other environmental factors, and usually occurs in the lumbar spine due to heavier loads and more strenuous motions. Degeneration of the extracellular matrix (ECM) within reduces mechanical integrity, shock absorption, and swelling capabilities of the intervertebral disc. When severe enough, the disc can bulge and eventually herniate, leading to pressure build up on the spinal cord. This can cause immense lower back pain in individuals, leading to total medical costs exceeding $100 billion. Current treatment options include both invasive and noninvasive methods, with spinal fusion surgery and total disc replacement (TDR) being the most common invasive procedures. Although these treatments cause pain relief for the majority of patients, multiple challenges arise for each. Therefore, newer tissue engineering methods are being researched to solve the ever-growing problem. This review spans the anatomy of the spine, with an emphasis on the functions and biological aspects of the intervertebral discs, as well as the problems, associated solutions, and future research in the field.

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Ernst, E. "Clinical anatomy and management of cervical spine pain." Focus on Alternative and Complementary Therapies 3, no. 2 (June 14, 2010): 81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.2042-7166.1998.tb00837.x.

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McMillen, Diane. "Clinical Anatomy and Management of Thoracic Spine Pain." Physiotherapy 87, no. 9 (September 2001): 499–500. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0031-9406(05)60700-6.

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Grieve, Gregory P. "Clinical Anatomy of the Lumbar Spine and Sacrum." Physiotherapy 83, no. 9 (September 1997): 495. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0031-9406(05)65639-8.

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Sentance, Alison. "Clinical Anatomy and Management of Cervical Spine Pain." Physiotherapy 85, no. 1 (January 1999): 53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0031-9406(05)66068-3.

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