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Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Steel castings'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 30 July 2024

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1

Whateley, Philip N. "Defects in steel investment castings." Thesis, Aston University, 1991. http://publications.aston.ac.uk/11879/.

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A general investigation was performed, in an industrial environment, of the major types of defect specific to investment castings in steel. As a result of this work three types of metallurgical defect were selected for further study. In the first of these, defects in austenitic stainless steel castings were found to result from deoxidation by-products. As a result of metallographic investigation and the statistical analysis of experimental data, evidence was found to support the hypothesis that the other two classes of defects - in martensite stainless and low alloy steels -both resulted from

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2

Walker, Justin Daniel. "An innovative new pouring design for steel castings." [Ames, Iowa : Iowa State University], 2008.

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3

Gorsky, Daniel A. "Niyama Based Taper Optimizations in Steel Alloy Castings." Wright State University / OhioLINK, 2011. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=wright1316191746.

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4

Galles, Daniel Joseph. "Prediction of distortions and pattern allowances in steel sand castings." Diss., University of Iowa, 2016. https://ir.uiowa.edu/etd/2077.

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Modeling the thermomechanical behavior of the bonded sands used for steel sand casting is of great importance for the prediction of distortions and pattern allowances. In this study, distortions created by mechanical interactions between the casting and sand mold are measured from two experimental setups and then predicted by finite element stress analyses. The casting geometries involve a hollow cylinder for the first experiment and U-shaped bracket for the second. The temporal evolutions of 1) the cylinder’s inner diamet

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5

Sumer, Ali. "Prototype Development and Experimental Verification of a Cast Modular Connector for Seismic-Resistant Steel Frames." Diss., The University of Arizona, 2006. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/194890.

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A cast modular connector (MC) has been developed for use in seismic-resistant steel moment frames. The MC is a field bolted beam flange connection intended to serve as the frame's special energy-dissipating detail. The connector is specifically configured for optimal seismic performance through a casting process. The MC possesses inherent ductility through variable-section arms that minimize plastic strain demand and a reliable yet economical fastening method through a base end-region that virtually eliminates prying forces on bolts.The dissertation presents three journal papers. The first pap

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6

Xie, Kelvin Yu Xuan. "The effect of niobium-rich clusters on the mechanical properties of ultra-thin strip cast steels produced by the CASTRIP® process." Thesis, The University of Sydney, 2012. http://hdl.handle.net/2123/17140.

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7

Federico, Giovanni. "Use of Cast Modular Components for Concentrically Braced Steel Frames." Diss., The University of Arizona, 2012. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/268572.

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Cast modular components have been under development for earthquake resistant steel structures. These concepts take advantage of the versatility in geometry afforded with the casting process to create components specifically configured for ductile behavior. Two systems were developed as part of this dissertation research: (1) the Cast Modular Ductile Bracing system (CMDB); (2) the Floating Brace system (FB).The CMDB system makes use of cast components introduced at the ends and the center of the brace to produce a special bracing detail with reliable strength, stiffness and deformation capacity

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8

Grandillo, Angelo M. "A temperature control strategy for Stelco McMaster Works /." Thesis, McGill University, 1988. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=61258.

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In this study, it was shown that improvements in the quality of continuously cast steel billets, similar to those which can be achieved by electromagnetic stirring (EMS) of the liquid pool during solidification, can be obtained if casting superheats can be consistently controlled at low levels. A lack of casting temperature control is not only detrimental to the quality of the cast product, but also to a shop's overall productivity. The important variables for temperature control in the ladle, tundish and mould were quantified and possible methods of controlling these variables were proposed.<

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9

Klváček, Jan. "Vliv metalurgického zpracování a podmínek odlévání na vnitřní jakost ocelových odlitků." Master's thesis, Vysoké učení technické v Brně. Fakulta strojního inženýrství, 2013. http://www.nusl.cz/ntk/nusl-230533.

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The aim of this thesis was to perform the classification of defects of emerging in a specific type of steel castings made by company UNEX Foundry, Ltd. and then determine the conditions of their origin. This is mainly discontinuity of casting material. The next step was to propose the corrective measures eliminating creation of these defects.

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10

Pernica, Vítězslav. "Optimalizace výroby těžkých ocelových odlitků." Master's thesis, Vysoké učení technické v Brně. Fakulta strojního inženýrství, 2009. http://www.nusl.cz/ntk/nusl-228645.

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Diploma thesis deal with definnig the casuses of stell castings defects in the DSB EURO s.r.o Foundry. The main target is to optimise technological parameters for avoiding the surface casting defects. The first stage is the identification of the defects, describing of the main reasons and mechanic. Defect quantification is make from measuring of area and volume of the mended defects. In association with surface defects, the number of the crackings was observed. Finally there are suggested correction actions based on the previous investigation.

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11

Čech, Jan. "Studium slévárenských vad v masivních odlitcích." Doctoral thesis, Vysoké učení technické v Brně. Fakulta strojního inženýrství, 2013. http://www.nusl.cz/ntk/nusl-234184.

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A massive castings defects are examined in this doctoral thesis, specialise in steels passing through peritectic transformation. There are typical types of defects at massive steel castings, as contrasted to „ordinary“ internal and surface ones. For massive steel castings are typical defects under feeders like conchoidal fractures, segregations, microporesities, reoxidation products. Combination of Al and Zr is an ordinary final deoxidation of EOP and LF steel for castings in ŽĎAS a.s. foundry. The aim of Al + Zr combination was to both deep deoxidation by Al (decrease of bubbles risk) and den

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12

Malý, Václav. "Optimalizace výroby těžkých ocelových odlitků." Master's thesis, Vysoké učení technické v Brně. Fakulta strojního inženýrství, 2011. http://www.nusl.cz/ntk/nusl-229770.

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In its first part the work deals with the frequent defects of heavy steel castings. Experiments were carried out in very heavy bearing rings casting of cement kilns in order to reduce consumption of liquid metal and to increase the internal quality of castings. The progress was achieved by introducing new technologies; this thesis describes the technologies used and subsequently performs their comparison.

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13

Návrat, Radim. "Vliv metalurgického zpracování a slévárenské technologie na jakost ocelových odlitků." Master's thesis, Vysoké učení technické v Brně. Fakulta strojního inženýrství, 2013. http://www.nusl.cz/ntk/nusl-230530.

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The aim of this thesis was to determine the impact of the used chemical composure during metallurgical treatment and foundry technology on the inner and surface quality of experimental casting under operational conditions at Třinec foundry. A minor part of this thesis is focused on the determination of the effect of filtration on mechanical properties of steel.

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14

Kaněra, Miloš. "Výroba odlitků z austeniticko-feritických hyperduplexních korozivzdorných ocelích." Master's thesis, Vysoké učení technické v Brně. Fakulta strojního inženýrství, 2021. http://www.nusl.cz/ntk/nusl-445174.

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The thesis deals with hyper duplex stainless austenitic-ferritic steels and their mechanical and castability properties. The evaluation of resistance to pitting corrosion is divided by PRE values. Steels with a PRE value higher than 48 belong to the group of hyper duplex steels. The theoretical part contains an introduction to the chemical composition, structure and properties of these steels. The practical part is focused on the conditions of tendency to crack castings during solidification and cooling. Furthermore, there is evaluated influence of intermetallic phases on mechanical properties

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15

Krejčí, Martin. "Nedestruktivní zkoušení odlitků ozubených kol." Master's thesis, Vysoké učení technické v Brně. Fakulta strojního inženýrství, 2009. http://www.nusl.cz/ntk/nusl-228720.

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This diploma thesis resolves aplication of particular non-destructive testing methods while producing castings of steel wheels and quality control of this process. There are described fundamentals of flaw detection, determination of flaw-generation cause and suggestions for optimalization of casting process and increasing of its quality.

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16

Carpenter, Kristin. "The influence of microalloying elements on the hot ductility of thin slab cast steel." Department of Materials Engineering - Faculty of Engineering, 2004. http://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/161.

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Experiments were preformed on a Gleeble 3500 Thermomechanical Simulator to study the hot ductility behaviour of C-Mn-A1 steel and the influence of Nb, Ti and Nb-Ti additions. The simple hot tensile test has been shown to correlate well to the problem of transverse cracking. Therefore, the principle aim of this research is to gain a greater understanding of transverse cracking during the straightening of continuously cast slabs. In particular, attention was paid to thin slab casting conditions. Hot tensile test specimens were either solution treated in melted in-situ (direct cast) and cooled to

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17

Abu, Shousha R. I. "Hot ductility of steels." Thesis, City University London, 1991. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.305120.

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18

Starkie, Bernard. "Finite element analysis of some aspects of steel casting." Thesis, University of Sunderland, 1989. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.329143.

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19

Purkar, Pranit Pramod. "Design optimization for obtaining zero defects in steel casting." Thesis, Tekniska Högskolan, Högskolan i Jönköping, JTH, Material och tillverkning, 2019. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:hj:diva-45663.

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This thesis is about the design of the gating system and selection of proper alloy for defects free (grate bar) casting. The gating system plays an important role in casting manufacturing process. The gating system has different elements like pouring cup, sprue, well, runner, riser, and ingates. The function of the gating system is to provide molten metal to the mould cavity through different gating system elements. Casting is a metal shaping process which is used to produce a cast component. The casting process depends upon the material, type of pattern, mould and various techniques like san

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20

Elfsberg, Jessica. "Oscillation Mark Formation in Continuous Casting Processes." Licentiate thesis, KTH, Casting of Metals, 2003. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-1653.

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21

Leckenby, B. M. "Finite element analysis of bulging during the continuous casting of steel slabs and blooms." Thesis, University of Sunderland, 1986. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.382766.

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22

Tuncer, Munir Cihangir. "Precision forging hollow parts." Thesis, University of Birmingham, 1985. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.558075.

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23

Lebeau, Timothy Charles. "Brake drum production by centrifugal casting." Birmingham, Ala. : University of Alabama at Birmingham, 2008. https://www.mhsl.uab.edu/dt/2009r/lebeau.pdf.

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24

Mimura, Yoshihito. "Sticking-type breakouts during the continuous casting of steel slabs." Thesis, University of British Columbia, 1989. http://hdl.handle.net/2429/27941.

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Sticking of the shell in the mold, which often occurs in a high-speed continuous slab casting machine, can be detected with thermocouples in the mold copper plates and prevented from developing into a breakout by reduction of the casting speed. However, a rapid reduction of the casting speed causes some quality problems and a low slab temperature. Thus, sticking-type breakouts remain a concern to the steel industry, and it is still not clear how and why the sticking initiates at the meniscus. The objectives of this study were to identify the causes of sticking at the meniscus, to elucidate the

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25

Khurana, Shuchi P. "Improvement of Mold Conditions for Thin Slab Casting of Steel." The Ohio State University, 2000. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1392800635.

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26

Ávila, Braz Thaís. "Shrinkage Calculation in the Continuous Casting of Duplex Stainless Steel." Thesis, Luleå tekniska universitet, Institutionen för teknikvetenskap och matematik, 2019. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:ltu:diva-76516.

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27

Archer, Lucas Andrew. "Development of high-performance cast steel crankshafts." Thesis, University of Iowa, 2016. https://ir.uiowa.edu/etd/2179.

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To produce cast steel crankshafts, risering and gating systems are developed. Filling and solidification simulations of the steel crankshaft rigging are carried out to confirm that the rigging developed will produce a low porosity casting. A sand mold is created with Computer-aided design software, based on the developed crankshaft and rigging. Two prototype crankshafts are cast from the sand molds, and analyzed for porosity. The porosity analysis results are compared directly to the simulated porosity, and found to be in good agreement. From the analysis of the prototype crankshaft, rigging s

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28

Hedman, Daniel. "Casting and Characterization of Advanced High Strength Steels." Thesis, Luleå tekniska universitet, Institutionen för samhällsbyggnad och naturresurser, 2020. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:ltu:diva-81098.

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The Latin American steel making company Ternium S.A. aims to develop and produce a new type of advanced high strength steel (AHSS) in which the main alloying elements are carbon, aluminium, manganese, and silicon. The present work is the first phase of the development project and it involves casting and characterization of four steel compositions with varying amounts of the aforementioned elements. The results revealed that the Mn-content had a large impact on the development of hard phases during solidification. A steel with a Mn-content of 2 %wt. had almost completely transformed to pearlite

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29

Miklin, Anton. "Entwicklung einer Fertigungstechnologie für dünnwandigen Stahlguss." Doctoral thesis, Technische Universitaet Bergakademie Freiberg Universitaetsbibliothek "Georgius Agricola", 2010. http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bsz:105-qucosa-38945.

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Im Rahmen der Dissertation wurde eine Fertigungstechnologie entwickelt, die die Überleitung des Stahlniederdruckgießverfahrens (3CAST) in die Produktion und somit die Erzeugung des dünnwandigen Stahlgusses ermöglicht. Die konventionellen Stahlgusswerkstoffe sowie ihre Gießbarkeit und Wärmebehandlung wurden untersucht und an die Besonderheiten des neuen Verfahrens und dünnwandigen Stahlgusses angepasst. Auf der Basis von schon existierenden Gießtechnologien wurde eine Formträgertechnologie (FTTech) entwickelt, die unter Berücksichtigung ökologischer Aspekte eine hohe Gussteilqualität und Wirtsc

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30

Galles, Daniel Joseph. "Measurement and prediction of distortions during casting of a steel bar." Thesis, University of Iowa, 2013. https://ir.uiowa.edu/etd/4986.

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An elasto-visco-plastic deformation model predicts stresses and distortions in a low-carbon steel casting. Features of the model include rate and hardening effects, temperature-dependent properties, and pressure-dependent deformation in the mushy zone. A volume-averaging technique considers the multiple phases during solidification and is used to formulate the conservation equations, which (due to a weak link between temperatures and deformations) are decoupled and solved sequentially using commercial software. Temperature fields are calculated first using MAGMAsoft (MAGMAsoft, MAGMA GmbH, Kac

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31

Du, Pengfei. "Numerical modeling of porosity and macrosegregation in continuous casting of steel." Diss., University of Iowa, 2013. https://ir.uiowa.edu/etd/2482.

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The continuous casting process is a widely used technique in modern steel plants. However, it is a complicated process that is not well understood. The objective of this research is to model the porosity and macrosegregation due to shrinkage related effects and solid deformation in the continuous casting of steel. Solid phase movements due to bulging and variable roll gap are modeled with a simple algebraic equation based on assumed slab surface deflection. A simplified single domain fluid flow model is derived to predict the pressure

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32

Venus, Anthony Derek. "The application of computer based modelling to steel foundry design for manufacture." Thesis, University of Sunderland, 1996. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.319769.

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33

De, Wet Gideon Jacobus. "CFD modelling and mathematical optimisation of a continuous caster submerge entry nozzle." Pretoria : [s.n.], 2005. http://upetd.up.ac.za/thesis/available/etd-01312006-141026.

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34

Elahipanah, Zhaleh. "Thermo-Physical Properties of Mould Flux Slags for Continuous Casting of Steel." Thesis, KTH, Materialvetenskap, 2012. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-101270.

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Due to the high efficiency and productivity of continuous casting process, this method has been the most employed process to produce steel in past decades. The need to improve and optimize the finished product made it essential to gain more knowledge about the process, types of defects that may occur and the reasons for them. Moreover, the solutions for reducing the shortcomings in continuous casting process have been an intriguing subject to study. Many attempts have been done in order to reach this goal. Understanding, determining and optimizing the mould flux slag properties is especially i

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35

Yu, Peter Tong-Kan. "Simulation of transport phenomena during phase change in continuous casting of steel." Thesis, University of Ottawa (Canada), 1985. http://hdl.handle.net/10393/4675.

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36

Yamauchi, Akira. "Heat transfer phenomena and mold flux lubrication in continuous casting of steel /." Stockholm : Tekniska högsk, 2001. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-3121.

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37

Hill, N. J. "Visco-plastic and thermal stress analysis in the continuous casting of steel." Thesis, Teesside University, 1986. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.376088.

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38

Kundu, Amrita. "Grain structure development during casting, reheating and deformation of Nb-microalloyed steel." Thesis, University of Birmingham, 2011. http://etheses.bham.ac.uk//id/eprint/2917/.

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This thesis looks at the effect of micro segregation of Nb, generated from the continuous casting on grain structure development during reheating and deformation. The amount of segregated material present in the microstructure has been quantified in the as-cast condition and that has been used to model grain size distribution after reheating and deformation which is required for subsequent toughness prediction in 0.045 wt % Nb steel. The limits of validity of the original Dutta-Sellars model for predicting the amount of recrystallisation; investigating the influence of the variables such as st

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39

Fager, Fredrick, and Serg Chanouian. "Nuclear Waste Canister : Evaluating the mechanical properties of cassette steel after casting." Thesis, KTH, Materialvetenskap, 2017. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-209803.

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Företaget Svensk Kärnbränslehantering AB (SKB) håller på att utveckla en slutförvaringskapsel som kommer innehålla avfall från den svenska kärnkraften. Det är dock fortfarande en process under utveckling och därför undersöks olika typer av metoder och kapselmaterial för att kunna tillverka en hållbar och säker kapsel. Kapseln består av ett hölje av kopparrör med svetsad botten och lock och en insats med stållock. Insatsen är en cylindrisk konstruktion av segjärn och innehåller en svetsad stålkassett för att skapa utrymmen till det använda kärnbränslet. Insatsen innehåller bland annat stålrör

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40

Sung, Pil Kyung 1961. "Segregation and structure in continuously cast high carbon steel." Thesis, The University of Arizona, 1989. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/277066.

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After hot rolling, the presense of segregation in the center of wire-rod can lead to a nonuniform transformation, resulting in bands of martensite in the microstructure. This is considered to be a defect, called center-martensite, because it can cause cracks and breaks during wire drawing. To identify the mechanism for the formation of center-martensite in wire-rod, the structure, macrosegregation and microsegregation in unworked billets were characterized. Based on measurements of secondary dendrite arm spacings, cooling rates during solidification were estimated. It appears that the macroseg

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41

Saraswat, Rajil. "Modelling the influence of mould flux on steel shell formation during continuous casting." Thesis, Imperial College London, 2006. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.434907.

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42

Fernandez, Marcos Zambrano. "Mathematical modeling of ripple- and oscillation-mark formation in the casting of steel." Universidade de São Paulo, 2018. http://www.teses.usp.br/teses/disponiveis/55/55134/tde-12112018-162119/.

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Ripple marks and oscillation marks are undesirable defects which occur on the surface of solidified steel produced industrially in the ingot and the continuous casting processes, respectively; these defects are characterized by more or less evenly spaced indentations on the metal surface. Although the mechanisms for their formation are thought to be qualitatively understood, there is still considerable scope for improvement as regards quantitative mathematical modeling. In this thesis, models for the two processes are developed. For the case of ripple marks, transient twodimensional (2D) momen

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43

Damle, Chandrashekharr. "Melt flow, mixing and grade change studies in the continuous casting of steel /." The Ohio State University, 1994. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1487859313344697.

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44

Sakalli, Erhan. "Nozzle Blockage In Continuous Casting Of Al-killed Sae 1006 And Sae 1008 Steel Grades In Iskenderun Iron And Steel Works." Master's thesis, METU, 2004. http://etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/upload/12604856/index.pdf.

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In this work, nozzle clogging in the submerged entry nozzle in continuous casting of Al killed steels has been studied. The study has been based on low silicon Al killed SAE 1006 (1.2006) and SAE 1008 (1.2008) grades. In this study, castabilities of 75 heats for 1.2006 steel grades and 75 heats for 1.2008 steel grades have been investigated. Castabilities of the experimental heats have been found to be affected by Al content in oxide form (Aloxy) and Ca content of the liquid steel. Castabilities have been found to decrease with increase in Aloxy and to increase with increase in Ca content and

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45

Svensson, Jennie. "An Experimental Study to Improve the Casting Performance of Steel Grades Sensitive for Clogging." Doctoral thesis, KTH, Tillämpad processmetallurgi, 2017. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-202539.

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In this study, the goal is to optimize the process and to reduce the clogging tendency during the continuous casting process. The focus is on clogging when the refractory base material (RBM) in the SEN is in contact with the liquid steel. It is difficult or impossible to avoid non-metallic inclusions in the liquid steel, but by a selection of a good RBM in the SEN clogging can be reduced. Different process steps were evaluated during the casting process in order to reduce the clogging tendency. First, the preheating of the SEN was studied. The results showed that the SEN can be decarburized

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46

Morata, Royes Joan. "Wear resistance of heat-treated Advanced High Strength Steels and casting." Thesis, Luleå tekniska universitet, Institutionen för teknikvetenskap och matematik, 2020. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:ltu:diva-80526.

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The necessity to improve the durability of the machinery used in the milling industry has lead to several types of research. One study is focused on the plates that are located in the stationary and moving jaws of crushers to diminish particles sizes of Gneiss and Diabase rocks. Thus, one type of approach to increase its durability is by reducing the material loss of the plates. Amongst all the parameters to reduce the wear ratio that includes inputs from geometry to load, just the hardness input of the material can be in constant development. Consequently, there are two well-known types of he

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47

Siyasiya, Charles Witness. "The transformation behaviour and hot strength of 3CR12 during the continuous casting process." Diss., Pretoria : [s.n.], 2004. http://upetd.up.ac.za/thesis/available/etd-06202005-134528.

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48

Martins, Marcelo Sampaio [UNESP]. "Fadiga do aço para molas de válvulas SAE 9258 produzido industrialmente por lingotamento convencional e contínuo." Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/11449/94447.

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Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:27:12Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2010-02-05Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T20:16:12Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 martins_ms_me_guara.pdf: 4378638 bytes, checksum: 5ab218d0c5345113e4a7e43df186b4af (MD5)<br>Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)<br>O presente trabalho tem por objetivo apresentar uma nova proposta de produção do aço para molas de válvulas para motores de combustão interna SAE 9258. Atualmente, este aço é produzido pela rota de lingotamento convencional, e pretende-se adotar o processo de ling

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Doostmohammadi, Hamid. "A Study of Slag/Metal Equilibrium and Inclusion Characteristics during Ladle Treatment and after Ingot Casting." Doctoral thesis, KTH, Materialvetenskap, 2009. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-11596.

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Abstract:

Today, there is a high demand on clean steel for high performance materialproperties. Thus, steel producers try to deliver a steel product with the highestquality and cleanliness to the market. The number of parameters that affect thesteel cleanliness may vary depending on the required material properties of thefinal product. However, the non-metallic inclusion characteristics represent one ofthe most important parameters. More specifically, the composition, size, numberand morphology affect steel cleanliness. In this work, selected parameters affectingthe inclusion characteristics were studie

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ASUMADU, TABIRI KWAYIE. "MACRO INCLUSION RESEARCH : DETECTION AND EVALUATION OF MACRO INCLUSIONS IN SPECIAL STEELS." Thesis, KTH, Materialvetenskap, 2012. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-101452.

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Abstract:

If these macro inclusions are not detected before the material is put in used, its mechanical properties are greatly affected and this can lead to outrageous consequences in the engineering application.

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