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Books on the topic 'Stimulation. eng'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 4 February 2022

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1

Howells, Pauline. An empirical study of cortical EEG response to olfactory stimulation using a multidimensional approach. typescript, 1992.

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2

Salansky, Norman. Endogenous opioid peptide level changes under electrostimulation and their assessment by the EEG. [s.n.], 1994.

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3

Hotson, Suzanne. A longitudinal study of cortical EEG to olfactory stimulation: Involving inter- and intra- subjective responses. typescript, 1993.

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4

Shafi, Mouhsin M., and M. Brandon Westover. EEG Activation Methods. Edited by Donald L. Schomer and Fernando H. Lopes da Silva. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190228484.003.0010.

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Activation procedures are commonly employed to increase the diagnostic yield of electroencephalography (EEG) in patients with suspected epilepsy. This chapter reviews the effects and utility of hyperventilation, intermittent photic stimulation, and color/pattern stimulation on the EEG in patients with epilepsy and other neurological disorders. In theory, the greater the number of different activation methods used in EEG evaluation of an epilepsy patient, the greater the chance of obtaining abnormal findings. However, the specificity of these findings for epilepsy is uncertain. Furthermore, fro

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5

Shils, Jay L., Sepehr Sani, Ryan Kochanski, Mena Kerolus, and Jeffrey E. Arle. Recording Techniques Related to Deep Brain Stimulation for Movement Disorders and Responsive Stimulation for Epilepsy. Edited by Donald L. Schomer and Fernando H. Lopes da Silva. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190228484.003.0038.

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Neuromodulation therapies are now common treatments for a variety of medically refractory disorders, including movement disorders and epilepsy. While surgical techniques for each disorder vary, electricity is used by both for relieving symptoms. During stereotactic placement of the stimulating electrode, either deep brain stimulation electrodes or cortical strip electrodes, intraoperative neurophysiology is used to localize the target structure. This physiology includes single-unit recordings, neurostimulation evoked response evaluation, and intracranial electroencephalography (EEG) to ensure

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6

Stimulating Low-Carbon Vehicle Technologies. OECD, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789282102978-en.

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7

Hunter, Jennifer M., and Thomas Fuchs-Buder. Neuromuscular blockade and reversal. Edited by Michel M. R. F. Struys. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199642045.003.0016.

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Over the past 70 years since the introduction of d-tubocurarine, the search for an ideal neuromuscular blocking agent has led to the development of the depolarizing drug, succinylcholine (suxamethonium), with its rapid onset of action and plasma metabolism, and a series of non-depolarizing agents of which there are two groups: benzylisoquinoliniums (e.g. atracurium, cisatracurium and mivacurium) and aminosteroidal agents (e.g. pancuronium, vecuronium and rocuronium). The need to monitor neuromuscular block perioperatively to ensure the appropriate dose of any neuromuscular blocking drug is giv

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8

Hari, MD, PhD, Riitta, and Aina Puce, PhD. MEG-EEG Primer. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190497774.001.0001.

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This book provides newcomers and more experienced researchers with the very basics of magnetoencephalography (MEG) and electroencephalography (EEG)—two noninvasive methods that can inform about the neurodynamics of the human brain on a millisecond scale. These two closely related methods are addressed side by side, starting from their physical and physiological bases and then advancing to methods of data acquisition, analysis, visualization, and interpretation. Special attention is paid to careful experimentation, guiding the readers to differentiate brain signals from various biological and n

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9

Mills, Kerry R., ed. Oxford Textbook of Clinical Neurophysiology. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199688395.001.0001.

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The Oxford Textbook of Clinical Neurophysiology provides a comprehensive account from world experts of the modern practice of the specialty. It deals with the full range of techniques giving the underpinning basic science and clinical use. The importance of clinical skills, as well as technical expertise are emphasized. Section I reviews the physiology of nerve, muscle, and cortex, and the digital techniques used to study them. Section II discusses the techniques for nerve conduction, electromyography (EMG), electroencephalography (EEG), magnetoencephalography, evoked potentials, and transcran

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10

Katirji, Bashar. Specialized Electrodiagnostic Studies. Edited by Bashar Katirji. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190603434.003.0003.

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In addition to nerve conduction nerve studies and needle EMG, the clinical EMG study include more specialized examinations Some of the tests, such as the F waves and H reflexes are now often used as part of the routine nerve conduction studies. Others are utilized for specific indications: Repetitive nerve stimulation and single fiber EMG are used predominantly in patients with suspected neuromuscular junction disorders such as myasthenia gravis, Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome or botulism; the blink reflexes are used in patients with disorders of the facial and trigeminal nerves as well as

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11

Katirji, Bashar. The Scope of the EMG Examination. Edited by Bashar Katirji. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190603434.003.0001.

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Clinical electromyography (EMG) refers to the diagnostic tool in the electrophysiological evaluation of disorders of peripheral nerve and muscle. This introductory chapter defines the terms of the discipline and its scope. Clinical EMG used in the evaluation of Clinical EMG is utilized by a variety of physicians, including specialists in the field of neurology, physical medicine and rehabilitation, orthopedics, hand surgery, neurosurgery, spine, rheumatology and pain management. The scope of the EMG Examination includes nerve conduction studies and needle EMG. It also includes other specialize

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12

Luginbühl, Martin, and Arvi Yli-Hankala. Assessment of the components of anaesthesia. Edited by Antony R. Wilkes and Jonathan G. Hardman. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199642045.003.0026.

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In modern anaesthesia practice, hypnotic drugs, opioids, and neuromuscular blocking agents (NMBAs) are combined. The introduction of NMBAs in particular substantially increased the risk of awareness and recall during general anaesthesia. Hypnotic drugs such as propofol and volatile anaesthetics act through GABAA receptors and have typical effects on the electroencephalogram (EEG). During increasing concentrations of these pharmaceuticals, the EEG desynchronization is followed by gradual synchronization, slowing frequency, and increasing amplitude of EEG, thereafter EEG suppressions (burst supp

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13

Herring, Christina. Neuromodulation in Psychiatric Disorders. Edited by Anthony J. Bazzan and Daniel A. Monti. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190690557.003.0013.

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Quantitative electroencephalogram (qEEG) is the transformation of the EEG by spectral analysis in which the amount of electrical activity at a particular frequency is determined and compared against a normative data base. EEG findings are specific for different psychiatric problems and help reveal brain abnormalities associated with psychological symptoms. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is a system of delivering multiple pulses within a short time period that induce changes that outlast the stimulation period. Operant conditioning involves providing a reward to increase th

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14

Pitt, Matthew. Paediatric conditions. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199688395.003.0025.

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This chapter dedicated to the practice of paediatric electromyography starts with a consideration of some of the misconceptions under which this particular investigation labours. The relevant technical aspects and normative data are discussed along with the personal characteristics needed. Sections cover the investigative strategies that need to be employed, the hereditary and acquired conditions that are common reasons for referral for electromyography (EMG), following an anatomical template, and conditions in which EMG has a particular role. The use of stimulation single fibre EMG in the dia

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15

Mills, Kerry R. The clinical approach to neurophysiology. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199688395.003.0018.

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The clinical approach to neurophysiology provides a scheme for the conduct of a neurophysiological examination from the initial contact with the patient to the provision of a final report. The importance of focused history-taking and physical examination in tailoring the test plan is stressed as is the necessity of maintaining rapport with the patient. The difficult issues of consent and what to tell the patient at the end of the examination are discussed. The importance of honest communication with the patient is highlighted. Test results are judged against a framework of normal values. The s

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Koutroumanidis, Michalis, and Robin Howard. Encephalopathy, central nervous system infections, and coma. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199688395.003.0032.

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This chapter provides an overview of the indications for and the diagnostic and prognostic value of acute video-electroencephalogram (EEG) and continuous video-EEG monitoring in patients with encephalopathies, encephalitides, and coma. Particular emphasis is placed on the detection of non-convulsive seizures and non-convulsive status epilepticus secondary to acute and sub-acute cerebral insults, including post-cardiac arrest hypoxic-ischaemic brain injury, and on the related pitfalls and uncertainties. It also discusses key technical aspects of the EEG recording, including artefact identificat

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17

Ilmoniemi, Risto J., and Jari Karhu. TMS and electroencephalography: methods and current advances. Edited by Charles M. Epstein, Eric M. Wassermann, and Ulf Ziemann. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198568926.013.0037.

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Electroencephalography (EEG) combined with transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) provides detailed real-time information about the state of the cortex. EEG requires only two to four electrodes and can be a part of most TMS studies. When used with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) based targeting and conductor modelling, the TMS-EEG combination is a sophisticated brain-mapping tool. This article explains the mechanisms of TMS-evoked EEG. It describes the technique of recording TMS evoked EEG and the possible challenges for the same. Furthermore, it describes possible solutions to these challen

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18

Katirji, Bashar. Routine Clinical Electromyography. Edited by Bashar Katirji. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190603434.003.0002.

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Nerve conduction studies and needle EMG represent the two essential parts of the clinical EMG study. In almost all patients, both studies need to be completed before a final conclusion is made. This chapter outlines the basic concepts of nerve conduction studies including stimulations, recordings, variables and sources of errors. This is followed by detailed discussions of basic pathophysiological changes that accompany peripheral nerve disorders. The chapter then covers the normal needle EMG findings including normal insertional activity, motor unit action potential morphology and recruitment

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19

Koutroumanidis, Michalis, Dimitrios Sakellariou, and Vasiliki Tsirka. Electroencephalography. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199688395.003.0011.

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This chapter concentrates on essential technical aspects of the electroencephalogram (EEG) and its role in the clinical and aetiological diagnosis of people with epilepsy. The technical subsection explores important stages of the largely ‘mystifying’ process from the generation of the abnormal signals in the brain to their final visualization on the screen, including digitalization of the signal and sampling rate, montages, and derivations, focusing on their clinical relevance. The second part reviews the behavioural attributes of the interictal and ictal discharges in the different epilepsy t

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Mills, Kerry R. Disorders of single nerves, roots, and plexuses. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199688395.003.0021.

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The role of electromyography (EMG) and nerve conduction studies in disorders of single nerve, root, and plexus lesions are discussed. The motor and sensory anatomy underpinning diagnosis is described and a scheme presented showing the key muscles to be examined using EMG to differentiate nerve, plexus, and root lesions. The main causes of mononeuritis multiplex, of either axonal degeneration or demyelinative pathology, are covered, including diabetic neuropathy, vasculitic neuropathy, multifocal motor neuropathy with block, and the Lewis–Sumner syndrome. The confirmatory role of EMG and nerve

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21

Ramdass, Ranjit. Neurophysiology in the assessment of inflammatory myopathies. Edited by Hector Chinoy and Robert Cooper. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198754121.003.0015.

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Clinical neurophysiology (electrodiagnosis) includes the assessment of peripheral nerves by electrical stimulation (nerve conduction studies, NCS) and needle examination of muscles (electromyography, EMG). Electrodiagnostic assessment is a functional extension of clinical examination into the laboratory. It plays an important role in the investigation of a patient suspected of having myositis, providing valuable information regarding peripheral nerve, neuromuscular junction and muscle functions, to better characterize clinical syndromes. NCS can establish the presence and quantify the severity

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22

Elwes, Robert. Presurgical evaluation for epilepsy surgery. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199688395.003.0031.

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This chapter describes the preoperative electroclinical assessment of the various epilepsy syndromes and pathologies that are open to surgical treatment. Particular emphasis is placed on medial temporal epilepsy and frontal epilepsy. The assessment of cases considered for hemispherotomy, multiple subpial transection for Landau–Kleffner syndrome, anterior two-thirds callosotomy in symptomatic generalized epilepsy, neural stimulation, and cases with nodular hetertopia are summarized. Throughout the chapter, particular emphasis is placed on the need for multidisciplinary assessment, and the inter

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23

Rubin, Devon I., and Jasper R. Daube. Clinical Neurophysiology. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190259631.001.0001.

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Clinical neurophysiologic testing is an important component of evaluating patients with complaints that may be attributed to diseases of the central or peripheral nervous system. This classic volume in the Contemporary Neurology Series covers the basic concepts underlying each of the testing techniques and provides comprehensive descriptions of the methods and wide range of electrophysiologic testing available for patients with epilepsy, neuromuscular diseases, movement disorders, demyelinating diseases, sleep disorders, autonomic disorders and those undergoing orthopedic and neurosurgical pro

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24

Cook, Merrill Susan, and SISIS Standing Committee., eds. Environment: Implications for occupational therapy practice : a sensory integrative perspective : a project of the Sensory Integration Special Interest Section Standing Committee of the American Occupational Therapy Association. American Occupational Therapy Association, 1990.

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25

Vallar, Giuseppe, and Nadia Bolognini. Unilateral Spatial Neglect. Edited by Anna C. (Kia) Nobre and Sabine Kastner. Oxford University Press, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199675111.013.012.

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Left unilateral spatial neglect is the most frequent and disabling neuropsychological syndrome caused by lesions to the right hemisphere. Over 50% of right-brain-damaged patients show neglect, while right neglect after left-hemispheric damage is less frequent. Neglect patients are unable to orient towards the side contralateral to the lesion, to detect and report sensory events in that portion of space, as well as to explore it by motor action. Neglect is a multicomponent disorder, which may involve the contralesional side of the body or of extra-personal physical or imagined space, different

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26

Massimini, Marcello, and Giulio Tononi. Assessing Consciousness in Other Humans: From Theory to Practice. Translated by Frances Anderson. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198728443.003.0007.

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This chapter translates the theoretical principles illustrated in Chapter 5 into an empirical measure that can be applied to real human brains. It explains how transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and simultaneous electroencephalography (EEG) can be employed to derive a surrogate measure of information integration, the perturbational complexity index (PCI). By describing the results of a series of experiments, it demonstrates that PCI can discriminate with very high accuracy between consciousness and unconsciousness, across many different conditions, ranging from wakefulness to sleep, dream

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27

Todder, Doron, Keren Avirame, and Hagit Cohen. Neuromodulation Methods in PTSD. Edited by Charles B. Nemeroff and Charles R. Marmar. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190259440.003.0039.

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This chapter discusses the rationale and methodology for applying techniques of active and passive neuromodulation for treatment-refractory post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Neuromodulation derives from the concept of neuroplasticity, which signifies long-term changes in the effectiveness of connections between distinct parts of the central nervous system. These changes are reflected across multiple levels of the nervous system, going from the cellular level to circuits and large-scale brain networks. It has been long suggested that altered neuroplasticity is a biomarker of neuropsychiatr

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Katirji, Bashar. Electromyography in Clinical Practice. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190603434.001.0001.

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Clinical Electromyography in Clinical Practice provides case-based learning of clinical Electromyography (EMG) with a main mission of reducing the gap between theory and practice in the field of electrodiagnostic medicine. The book format includes four introductory chapters that acquaint the discipline and scope of the EMG Examination to the beginners. This include chapters on nerve conduction studies, needle EMG, and specialized testing including late responses, repetitive nerve stimulation and single fiber EMG. Discussion on the electrodiagnostic and clinical EMG findings in the numerous neu

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Phillips, Alistair, and Harry Akerman. Anaesthesia. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198757689.003.0003.

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Pain-free surgery can be imposed on the hand and wrist without resort to general anaesthetic. Options include local anaesthetic infiltration which can, in higher volumes mixed with adrenaline, allow surgery without a tourniquet. This technique (wide awake local anaesthetic without tourniquet or WALANT) permits the patient to move the fingers without the muscle paralysis induced by the regional anaesthetic and tourniquet, adding invaluable information, e.g. in tendon transfers. The efficacy of specific peripheral nerve blockade and brachial plexus block can be enhanced by ultrasound or nerve st

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Keshav, Satish, and Alexandra Kent. Chronic abdominal pain. Edited by Patrick Davey and David Sprigings. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199568741.003.0024.

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Separating chronic and acute abdominal pain is often difficult, and an arbitrary time limit of 4 weeks is often used. However, many chronic conditions (e.g. chronic pancreatitis) can cause relapsing symptoms, which may be acute during each episode. Pain receptors in the abdomen respond to chemical and mechanical stimuli. Stretch is the commonest mechanical stimulus to the viscera, although distension, torsion, and contraction are also sensed. Chemical receptors are stimulated by inflammation and infection, and this stimulation leads to the production of various substances, including serotonin,

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31

Gorenek, Bulent. Temporary pacing. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199687039.003.0026.

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Temporary cardiac pacing by electrical stimulation of the heart is indicated as a short-term treatment of life-threatening bradyarrhythmias or tachyarrhythmias. It can be used temporarily until the arrhythmias resolve or as a bridge to permanent pacing. Symptomatic bradycardias needing temporary pacing may occur in acute myocardial infarction, during percutaneous coronary intervention, and in patients with sinus node dysfunction. Temporary pacing can also be useful for terminating or suppressing some types of supraventricular and ventricular arrhythmias. Single-chamber, dual-chamber, or bivent

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Gorenek, Bulent. Temporary pacing. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199687039.003.0026_update_001.

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Temporary cardiac pacing by electrical stimulation of the heart is indicated as a short-term treatment of life-threatening bradyarrhythmias or tachyarrhythmias. It can be used temporarily until the arrhythmias resolve or as a bridge to permanent pacing. Symptomatic bradycardias needing temporary pacing may occur in acute myocardial infarction, during percutaneous coronary intervention, and in patients with sinus node dysfunction. Temporary pacing can also be useful for terminating or suppressing some types of supraventricular and ventricular arrhythmias. Single-chamber, dual-chamber, or bivent

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33

Chudacoff, Howard P. What’s to Become of College Sports? University of Illinois Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.5406/illinois/9780252039782.003.0009.

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This chapter reflects on the future of college sports. It discusses the controversial issues swirling around college sports and the role of NCAA. It argues that despite the persistence of scandal or antitrust litigation, sports has remained the activity most identified with college student life and the strongest link between an institution and the public. In the end, the great majority of college athletes are genuine college students and should be treated as such. Rather than simply paying them for what they do on the field of play, the school that admits them—not the NCAA, not the government,

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34

Shields, Anna. Classicisms in Chinese Literary Culture. Edited by Wiebke Denecke, Wai-Yee Li, and Xiaofei Tian. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199356591.013.26.

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The tradition of classical studies in China after the fall of the Han continued to flourish, though in changing forms from the period of division through the end of the Tang dynasty. The ongoing relevance of the Classics and the Masters Texts to both the educational and institutional systems of successive dynasties guaranteed that elites would sustain a heritage of scholarship and transmit commentaries over generations. And yet the classicist tradition was not merely a static corpus of commentary on “dead” texts but rather a dynamic and stimulating body of knowledge that inspired new literary

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35

Clarke, Michael, ed. Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism in China. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190922610.001.0001.

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China's problem with terrorism has historically been considered an outgrowth of Beijing's efforts to integrate the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region into the People's Republic of China. Since the end of the Cold War, however, this internal dynamic has converged with an evolving external environment, stimulating the development of linkages between Uyghur separatism and terrorism and broader terrorist movements in Central Asia, South Asia and the Middle East. This book brings together some of the leading experts on Chinese terrorism, offering the first systematic, scholarly assessment of the cou

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36

Houssiau, Frédéric A. The patient with systemic lupus erythematosus. Edited by Giuseppe Remuzzi. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199592548.003.0163_update_001.

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Major progress has been achieved in the field of lupus nephritis (LN) treatment over the last decade. Glucocorticoids and other immunosuppressants (including cyclophosphamide) are now used in a more patient-friendly way, minimizing their untoward effects. Mycophenolate mofetil is now an option, both for induction and maintenance immunosuppression. Ever increased standards for optimal global care have further contributed to lower end-stage renal disease rates.Better understanding of the mechanisms underlying lupus raises hopes for more targeted therapies with biologics. Thus, the anti-B-lymphoc

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37

Jex, Aaron R., Rachel M. Chalmers, Huw V. Smith, Giovanni Widmer, Vincent McDonald, and Robin B. Gasser. Cryptosporidiosis. Oxford University Press, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198570028.003.0053.

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Cryptosporidium species represent a genus of parasitic protozoa (Apicomplexa) that are transmitted via the faecal-oral route and commonly infect the epithelial tissues of the gastric or intestinal (or sometimes the respiratory) tract of many vertebrates, including humans. Infection occurs following the ingestion of viable and resistant oocysts, through direct host-to-host contact or in contaminated food, drinking or recreational water. Infection can be transmitted via anthroponotic (human-to-human, human-to-animal) or zoonotic (animal-to-human or animal-to-animal) pathways, depending upon the

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Waldron, Peter. The Russian Economy, 1861–1932. Edited by Simon Dixon. Oxford University Press, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199236701.013.015.

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The Russian economy has been faced with significant environmental challenges, and agriculture—the mainstay of the economy during this period—suffered from consistently low yields. Neither the emancipation of the serfs in 1861, nor Stolypin’s agricultural reform of 1906 succeeded in bringing about fundamental change in Russian farming. Russia also had substantial difficulty in stimulating industrial growth. Before 1917, it had to rely on foreign investment to develop its industrial sector. The pressures of the First World War exposed Russian economic weakness. After 1917, the Bolshevik regime’s

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39

Wacks, Raymond. Understanding Jurisprudence. 6th ed. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/he/9780198864677.001.0001.

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With a clear, engaging, and informal style, Understanding Jurisprudence is the perfect guide for students new to legal theory looking for a handy and stimulating starting point to this sometimes daunting subject. Key theories and theorists are introduced in a compact and practicable format, offering an accessible account of the central ideas without oversimplification. Further reading suggestions are included throughout, helping students to structure their research and navigate the jurisprudence’s extensive literature. Critical questions are also included in each chapter, to encourage students

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Wacks, Raymond. Understanding Jurisprudence. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/he/9780198806011.001.0001.

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With a clear, engaging, and informal style, Understanding Jurisprudence is the perfect guide for students new to legal theory looking for a handy and stimulating starting point to this sometimes daunting subject. Key theories and theorists are introduced in a compact and practicable format, offering an accessible account of the central ideas without oversimplification. Further reading suggestions are included throughout, helping students to structure their research and navigate the jurisprudence’s extensive literature. Critical questions are also included in each chapter, to encourage students

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Schaible, Hans-Georg, and Rainer H. Straub. Pain neurophysiology. Oxford University Press, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199642489.003.0059.

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Physiological pain is evoked by intense (noxious) stimuli acting on healthy tissue functioning as a warning signal to avoid damage of the tissue. In contrast, pathophysiological pain is present in the course of disease, and it is often elicited by low-intensity stimulation or occurs even as resting pain. Causes of pathophysiological pain are either inflammation or injury causing pathophysiological nociceptive pain or damage to nerve cells evoking neuropathic pain. The major peripheral neuronal mechanism of pathophysiological nociceptive pain is the sensitization of peripheral nociceptors for m

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42

Reddy, Ugan, and Nicholas Hirsch. Diagnosis, assessment, and management of myasthenia gravis and paramyasthenic syndromes. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199600830.003.0244.

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Diseases that affect the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) interfere with normal nerve transmission and cause weakness of voluntary muscles. The two most commonly encountered are acquired myasthenia gravis (MG) and the Lambert–Eaton myasthenic syndrome (LEMS). Acquired MG is an autoimmune disease in which antibodies are directed towards receptors at the NMJ. In 85% of patients, IgG antibodies against the postsynaptic acetylcholine receptor (AChR) are found (seropositive MG). The thymus gland appears to be involved in the production of these which cause an increase rate of degradation of AChR result

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