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1
Noonan, Vanessa, and Elizabeth Dean. "Submaximal Exercise Testing: Clinical Application and Interpretation." Physical Therapy 80, no. 8 (2000): 782–807. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ptj/80.8.782.
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Abstract Compared with maximal exercise testing, submaximal exercise testing appears to have greater applicability to physical therapists in their role as clinical exercise specialists. This review contrasts maximal and submaximal exercise testing. Two major categories of submaximal tests (ie, predictive and performance tests) and their relative merits are described. Predictive tests are submaximal tests that are used to predict maximal aerobic capacity. Performance tests involve measuring the responses to standardized physical activities that are typically encountered in everyday life. To maximize the validity and reliability of data obtained from submaximal tests, physical therapists are cautioned to apply the tests selectively based on their indications; to adhere to methods, including the requisite number of practice sessions; and to use measurements such as heart rate, blood pressure, exertion, and pain to evaluate test performance and to safely monitor patients.
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Roberts, Dawn E., Erin E. Futrell, and Eric Toole. "Submaximal Walking Tests: A Review of Clinical Use." Journal of Clinical Exercise Physiology 11, no. 2 (2022): 62–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.31189/2165-6193-11.2.62.
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ABSTRACT Though graded exercise testing is the gold standard for assessing cardiorespiratory fitness, submaximal exercise testing is also useful to assess cardiorespiratory status and functional capacity when maximal testing is not feasible. Submaximal walking tests are advantageous as they have less risk, lower cost, require less time and equipment, and walking is a familiar activity that is easy to do in most environments. A number of submaximal walking tests exist for both overground and treadmill walking. Regression equations to predict V̇o2max values based on walking time, distance, and other variables that influence exercise tolerance have been developed for some submaximal tests, including the Rockport Fitness Walking Test and the Single-Stage Treadmill Walk Test. The 6-Minute Walk Test is a common test used in clinical populations to predict prognosis and assess change in functional capacity after intervention. Determining which submaximal walking test to use depends on purpose and setting, subject characteristics, equipment availability, space, and time. This review will provide clinicians with an overview of submaximal walking test protocols and provide reference equations and minimal clinically important difference values to interpret results.
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Dugas, Marc-Olivier, Pénélope Paradis-Deschênes, Laurie Simard, Tommy Chevrette, Patricia Blackburn, and Martin Lavallière. "Comparison of VO2max Estimations for Maximal and Submaximal Exercise Tests in Apparently Healthy Adults." Sports 11, no. 12 (2023): 235. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/sports11120235.
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Due to limited accessibility, direct measurement of VO2max is rarely performed in clinical settings or sports centers. As a result, regression equations have been developed and are currently used during exercise tests to provide an indirect estimation. The American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) has recommended a regression equation for running to provide an indirect estimation of VO2. However, significant differences have been observed between these estimations and directly measured VO2max. Additionally, since submaximal assessments may be more convenient for both athletes and sedentary/diseased individuals, they were included in the analysis. This study aimed to evaluate the accuracy of VO2max estimations provided using the ACSM running equation when used during both maximal and submaximal exercise tests among adult runners. A total of 99 apparently healthy and active adults (age: 39.9 ± 12.2 years; VO2max: 47.4 ± 6.0 mL O2/kg∙min−1) participated in this study. Two types of submaximal estimations were performed to predict VO2max: one based on age-predicted maximal heart rate (HRmax) (ACSMsubmax,Fox), and the second using the actual HRmax measured during the exercise test (ACSMsubmax,measured). The measured VO2max was compared to these estimations obtained from a single exercise test. Both maximal and submaximal exercise tests significantly overestimated VO2max (ACSMmax: +9.8, p < 0.001; ACSMsubmax,Fox: +3.4, p < 0.001; ACSMsubmax,measured: +3.8 mL O2/kg∙min−1, p < 0.001). However, the submaximal estimations were closer to the measured VO2max (p < 0.001). This analysis demonstrated that the included methods overestimated the true VO2max. Nonetheless, the submaximal exercise tests provided a more accurate prediction of VO2max compared to the maximal exercise tests when using the ACSM running equation.
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Landry, Jean-François, Jean-Pierre Després, Denis Prud'homme, et al. "A study of some potential correlates of the hypotensive effects of prolonged submaximal exercise in normotensive men." Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 70, no. 1 (1992): 53–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/y92-008.
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This study was undertaken (1) to examine the relation of plasma catecholamine and insulin levels to the blood pressure response during and after submaximal exercise, (2) to verify whether the blood pressure response to an epinephrine infusion is associated with the blood pressure response to a prolonged submaximal exercise, and (3) to study some potential correlates of the hypotensive effect of prolonged aerobic exercise. Nine normotensive young men (mean age 22.0 ± 1.4 years) were subjected to a 1-h epinephrine infusion protocol and a 1-h submaximal exercise test on a cycle ergometer. The two tests were performed 1 week apart. The physiological and hormonal responses observed during the submaximal exercise test were generally greater than those observed during the epinephrine infusion test. Blood pressure responses in both tests showed no significant association with changes in plasma insulin levels. Changes in plasma norepinephrine concentration were positively correlated with changes in systolic blood pressure during the submaximal exercise test but not during the epinephrine infusion. Results also showed that the blood pressure response to epinephrine infusion was not correlated with the blood pressure response to submaximal exercise. However, post-exercise and post-infusion systolic blood pressure responses (differences between "post-test" and "resting" values) were significantly associated (r = 0.81, p < 0.01). In addition, a significant hypotensive effect of submaximal exercise was observed for both systolic and diastolic blood pressure. However, the individual differences observed in the hypotensive effect of aerobic exercise appeared to be more related to variations in vascular sensitivity than to exercise-induced variations in plasma insulin and catecholamine levels, at least in this sample of healthy normotensive young men.Key words: blood pressure, exercise, catecholamines, insulin, epinephrine infusion.
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V??vere, Andrea L., Carl Foster, Glen Brice, Raymond Martinez, and John P. Porcari. "PREDICTING MAXIMAL HEART RATE THROUGH SUBMAXIMAL EXERCISE TESTS." Journal of Cardiopulmonary Rehabilitation 25, no. 5 (2005): 290. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00008483-200509000-00014.
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Katayama, Keisho, Erika Iwamoto, Koji Ishida, Teruhiko Koike, and Mitsuru Saito. "Inspiratory muscle fatigue increases sympathetic vasomotor outflow and blood pressure during submaximal exercise." American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 302, no. 10 (2012): R1167—R1175. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.00006.2012.
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The purpose of this study was to elucidate the influence of inspiratory muscle fatigue on muscle sympathetic nerve activity (MSNA) and blood pressure (BP) response during submaximal exercise. We hypothesized that inspiratory muscle fatigue would elicit increases in sympathetic vasoconstrictor outflow and BP during dynamic leg exercise. The subjects carried out four submaximal exercise tests: two were maximal inspiratory pressure (PImax) tests and two were MSNA tests. In the PImax tests, the subjects performed two 10-min exercises at 40% peak oxygen uptake using a cycle ergometer in a semirecumbent position [spontaneous breathing for 5 min and with or without inspiratory resistive breathing for 5 min (breathing frequency: 60 breaths/min, inspiratory and expiratory times were each set at 0.5 s)]. Before and immediately after exercise, PImax was estimated. In MSNA tests, the subjects performed two 15-min exercises (spontaneous breathing for 5 min, with or without inspiratory resistive breathing for 5 min, and spontaneous breathing for 5 min). MSNA was recorded via microneurography of the right median nerve at the elbow. PImax decreased following exercise with resistive breathing, whereas no change was found without resistance. The time-dependent increase in MSNA burst frequency (BF) appeared during exercise with inspiratory resistive breathing, accompanied by an augmentation of diastolic BP (DBP) (with resistance: MSNA, BF +83.4%; DBP, +23.8%; without resistance: MSNA BF, +19.2%; DBP, −0.4%, from spontaneous breathing during exercise). These results suggest that inspiratory muscle fatigue induces increases in muscle sympathetic vasomotor outflow and BP during dynamic leg exercise at mild intensity.
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Wolfe, L. A., R. M. Walker, A. Bonen, and M. J. McGrath. "Effects of pregnancy and chronic exercise on respiratory responses to graded exercise." Journal of Applied Physiology 76, no. 5 (1994): 1928–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1994.76.5.1928.
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Effects of cycle ergometer conditioning (heart rate 143 +/- 2 beats/min, 25 min/session, 3 sessions/wk) during the second and third trimesters of pregnancy were studied in 18 healthy previously sedentary women. A nonexercising control group (n = 9) was also studied. Graded exercise tests were conducted for both groups at approximately 17, 27, and 37 wk of gestation and at 20 wk postpartum. Both groups exhibited augmented ventilatory responses to exercise throughout pregnancy. Significant aerobic conditioning effects observed in the exercised group between entry and third trimester of pregnancy testing included a 17% increase in oxygen pulse at peak exercise, reduction in the respiratory exchange ratio during standard submaximal exercise, and an increase in work rate at the onset of blood lactate accumulation. Onset of blood lactate accumulation did not change significantly in the control group. Respiratory exchange ratio at peak exercise was higher in postpartum tests compared with those conducted in late gestation in both groups. Peak postexercise lactate levels were also significantly lower in second and third trimesters of pregnancy testing compared with postpartum in the control group. This effect appeared to be prevented by physical conditioning in the exercised group. The study results support the hypothesis that moderate aerobic conditioning increases maximal aerobic power and the capacity for sustained submaximal exercise. Chronic exercise also appeared to help to preserve anaerobic working capacity in late gestation.
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COVEY, MARGARET K., JANET L. LARSON, and SCOTT WIRTZ. "Reliability of submaximal exercise tests in patients with COPD." Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 31, no. 9 (1999): 1257–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00005768-199909000-00005.
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ROSE, R. J., and R. M. CHRISTLEY. "How useful are submaximal exercise tests to forecast performance?" Equine Veterinary Journal 27, S18 (2010): 471–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.2042-3306.1995.tb04975.x.
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Castner, Diobel M., Daniela A. Rubin, Daniel A. Judelson, and Andrea M. Haqq. "Effects of Adiposity and Prader-Willi Syndrome on Postexercise Heart Rate Recovery." Journal of Obesity 2013 (2013): 1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/384167.
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Heart rate recovery (HRR) is an indicator of all-cause mortality in children and adults. We aimed to determine the effect of adiposity and Prader-Willi Syndrome (PWS), a congenital form of obesity, on HRR. Sixteen children of normal weight (NW = body fat % ≤85th percentile, 9.4 ± 1.1 y), 18 children with obesity (OB = body fat % >95th percentile, 9.3 ± 1.1 y), and 11 PWS youth (regardless of body fat %; 11.4 ± 2.5 y) completed peak and submaximal bike tests on separate visits. HRR was recorded one minute following peak and submaximal exercises. All groups displayed similar HRR from peak exercise, while NW (54 ± 16 beats) and OB (50 ± 12 beats) exhibited a significantly faster HRR from submaximal exercise than PWS (37 ± 14 beats). These data suggest that excess adiposity does not influence HRR in children, but other factors such as low cardiovascular fitness and/or autonomic dysfunction might be more influential.
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Hedlund, Eva R., Bo Lundell, Liselott Söderström, and Gunnar Sjöberg. "Can endurance training improve physical capacity and quality of life in young Fontan patients?" Cardiology in the Young 28, no. 3 (2017): 438–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1047951117002360.
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AbstractObjectiveChildren after Fontan palliation have reduced exercise capacity and quality of life. Our aim was to study whether endurance training could improve physical capacity and quality of life in Fontan patients.MethodsFontan patients (n=30) and healthy age- and gender-matched control subjects (n=25) performed a 6-minute walk test at submaximal capacity and a maximal cycle ergometer test. Quality of life was assessed with Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory Version 4.0 questionnaires for children and parents. All tests were repeated after a 12-week endurance training programme and after 1 year.ResultsPatients had decreased submaximal and maximal exercise capacity (maximal oxygen uptake 35.0±5.1 ml/minute per·kg versus 43.7±8.4 ml/minute·per·kg, p<0.001) and reported a lower quality of life score (70.9±9.9 versus 85.7±8.0, p<0.001) than controls. After training, patients improved their submaximal exercise capacity in a 6-minute walk test (from 590.7±65.5 m to 611.8±70.9 m, p<0.05) and reported a higher quality of life (p<0.01), but did not improve maximal exercise capacity. At follow-up, submaximal exercise capacity had increased further and improved quality of life was sustained. The controls improved their maximal exercise capacity (p<0.05), but not submaximal exercise capacity or quality of life after training. At follow-up, improvement of maximal exercise capacity was sustained.ConclusionsWe believe that an individualised endurance training programme for Fontan patients improves submaximal exercise capacity and quality of life in Fontan patients and the effect on quality of life appears to be long-lasting.
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Carpenter, M. W., S. P. Sady, M. A. Sady, B. Haydon, D. R. Coustan, and P. D. Thompson. "Effect of maternal weight gain during pregnancy on exercise performance." Journal of Applied Physiology 68, no. 3 (1990): 1173–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1990.68.3.1173.
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We examined the effect of maternal weight gain during pregnancy on exercise performance. Ten women performed submaximal cycle (up to 60 W) and treadmill (4 km/h, up to 10% grade) exercise tests at 34 +/- 1.5 (SD) wk gestation and 7.6 +/- 1.7 wk postpartum. Postpartum subjects wearing weighted belts designed to equal their body weight during the antepartum tests performed two additional treadmill tests. Absolute O2 uptake (VO2) at the same work load was higher during pregnancy than postpartum during cycle (1.04 +/- 0.08 vs. 0.95 +/- 0.09 l/min, P = 0.014), treadmill (1.45 +/- 0.19 vs. 1.27 +/- 0.20 l/min, P = 0.0002), and weighted treadmill (1.45 +/ 0.19 vs. 1.36 +/- 0.20 l/min, P = 0.04) exercise. None of these differences remained, however, when VO2 was expressed per kilogram of body weight. Maximal VO2 (VO2max) estimated from the individual heart rate-VO2 curves was the same during and after pregnancy during cycling (1.96 +/- 0.37 to 1.98 +/- 0.39 l/min), whereas estimated VO2max increased postpartum during treadmill (2.04 +/- 0.38 to 2.21 +/- 0.36 l/min, P = 0.03) and weighted treadmill (2.04 +/- 0.38 to 2.19 +/- 0.38 l/min, P = 0.03) exercise. We conclude that increased body weight during pregnancy compared with the postpartum period accounts for 75% of the increased VO2 during submaximal weight-bearing exertion in pregnancy and contributes to reduced exercise capacity. The postpartum increase in estimated VO2max during weight-bearing exercise is the result of consistently higher antepartum heart rates during all submaximal work loads.
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Gallagher, C. G., E. Brown, and M. Younes. "Breathing pattern during maximal exercise and during submaximal exercise with hypercapnia." Journal of Applied Physiology 63, no. 1 (1987): 238–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1987.63.1.238.
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During progressive exercise ventilation (VI) initially increases through increases in both tidal volume (VT) and respiratory frequency (f) but at high levels of exercise further increases in VI are almost completely due to increases in f and a VT plateau is seen. We wished to determine whether the presence of the VT plateau is due to a tachypneic influence related to very high levels of exercise or whether it represents a stereotypic response of the respiratory system at high levels of VI. We therefore compared breathing pattern in six subjects during maximal incremental exercise (ME) with that in the same subjects when similar levels of VI were obtained by a combination of submaximal exercise and hypercapnia (E/CO2). A VT plateau was seen in all ME and E/CO2 tests. There was no significant difference in the level of the VT plateau between the ME (2.93 +/- 0.17 liters) and E/CO2 (2.97 +/- 0.12 liters) tests. We conclude that the presence and level of the VT plateau during ME is not due to a tachypneic stimulus related to very high levels of exercise but is a function of the level of VI.
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Ferrar, Katia, Harrison Evans, Ashleigh Smith, Gaynor Parfitt, and Roger Eston. "A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Submaximal Exercise-Based Equations to Predict Maximal Oxygen Uptake in Young People." Pediatric Exercise Science 26, no. 3 (2014): 342–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/pes.2013-0153.
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Many equations to predict maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O2max) from submaximal exercise tests have been proposed for young people, but the composition and accuracy of these equations vary greatly. The purpose of this systematic review was to analyze all submaximal exercise-based equations to predict V̇O2max measured via direct gas analysis for use with young people. Five databases were systematically searched in February 2013. Studies were included if they used a submaximal, exercise-based method to predict V̇O2max; the actual V̇O2max was gas analyzed; participants were younger than 18 years; and equations included at least one submaximal exercise-based variable. A meta-analysis and narrative synthesis were conducted. Sixteen studies were included. The mean equation validity statistic was strong, r = .786 (95% CI 0.747–0.819). Subgroup meta-analysis suggests exercise mode may contribute to the overall model, with running- and walking-based predictive equations reporting the highest mean r values (running r = .880; walking r = .821) and cycling the weakest (r = .743). Selection of the most appropriate equation should be guided by factors such as purpose, logistic limitations, appropriateness of the validation sample, the level of study bias, and the degree of accuracy. Suggestions regarding the most accurate equation for each exercise mode are provided.
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Katayama, Keisho, Koji Ishida, Erika Iwamoto, Motoyuki Iemitsu, Teruhiko Koike, and Mitsuru Saito. "Hypoxia augments muscle sympathetic neural response to leg cycling." American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 301, no. 2 (2011): R456—R464. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.00119.2011.
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It was demonstrated that acute hypoxia increased muscle sympathetic nerve activity (MSNA) by using a microneurographic method at rest, but its effects on dynamic leg exercise are unclear. The purpose of this study was to clarify changes in MSNA during dynamic leg exercise in hypoxia. To estimate peak oxygen uptake (V̇o2 peak), two maximal exercise tests were conducted using a cycle ergometer in a semirecumbent position in normoxia [inspired oxygen fraction (FiO2) = 0.209] and hypoxia (FiO2 = 0.127). The subjects performed four submaximal exercise tests; two were MSNA trials in normoxia and hypoxia, and two were hematological trials under each condition. In the submaximal exercise test, the subjects completed two 15-min exercises at 40% and 60% of their individual V̇o2 peak in normoxia and hypoxia. During the MSNA trials, MSNA was recorded via microneurography of the right median nerve at the elbow. During the hematological trials, the subjects performed the same exercise protocol as during the MSNA trials, but venous blood samples were obtained from the antecubital vein to assess plasma norepinephrine (NE) concentrations. MSNA increased at 40% V̇o2 peak exercise in hypoxia, but not in normoxia. Plasma NE concentrations did not increase at 40% V̇o2 peak exercise in hypoxia. MSNA at 40% and 60% V̇o2 peak exercise were higher in hypoxia than in normoxia. These results suggest that acute hypoxia augments muscle sympathetic neural activation during dynamic leg exercise at mild and moderate intensities. They also suggest that the MSNA response during dynamic exercise in hypoxia could be different from the change in plasma NE concentrations.
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Hughson, Richard L., and John M. Kowalchuk. "Kinetics of Oxygen Uptake for Submaximal Exercise in Hyperoxia, Normoxia, and Hypoxia." Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology 20, no. 2 (1995): 198–210. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/h95-014.
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This study evaluated the dynamic response of [Formula: see text] in 6 healthy men at the onset and end of submaximal step changes in work rate during a pseudorandom binary sequence (PRBS) exercise test and during ramp incremental exercise to exhaustion while breathing three different gas mixtures. The fractional concentrations of inspired O2 were 0.14, 0.21, and 0.70 for the hypoxic, normoxic, and hyperoxic tests, respectively. Both maximal [Formula: see text] and work rate was significantly reduced in hypoxic tests compared to normoxic and hyperoxic tests. Maximal work rate was greater in hyperoxia than in normoxia. Work rate at ventilatory threshold was lower in hypoxia than in normoxia and hyperoxia but above the upper limit of exercise for the submaximal tests. Hypoxia significantly slowed the response of [Formula: see text] both at the onset and end of exercise compared to normoxia and hyperoxia. Hypoxia also modified the response to PRBS exercise, and again there was no difference between normoxia and hyperoxia. These data support the concept that [Formula: see text] kinetics can be slowed from the normoxic response by a hypoxic gas mixture. Key words: [Formula: see text]max, ventilatory threshold, oxygen deficit, pseudorandom binary sequence
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Cordingley, Dean M., Richard Girardin, Marc P. Morissette, et al. "Graded Aerobic Treadmill Testing in Adolescent Traumatic Brain Injury Patients." Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences / Journal Canadien des Sciences Neurologiques 44, no. 6 (2017): 684–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cjn.2017.209.
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AbstractPurpose: To examine the safety and tolerability of clinical graded aerobic treadmill testing in recovering adolescent moderate and severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) patients referred to a multidisciplinary pediatric concussion program. Methods: We completed a retrospective case series of two moderate and five severe TBI patients (mean age, 17.3 years) who underwent initial Buffalo Concussion Treadmill Testing at a mean time of 71.6 days (range, 55-87) postinjury. Results: Six patients completed one graded aerobic treadmill test each and one patient underwent initial and repeat testing. There were no complications. Five initial treadmill tests were completely tolerated and allowed an accurate assessment of exercise tolerance. Two initial tests were terminated early by the treatment team because of neurological and cardiorespiratory limitations. As a result of testing, two patients were cleared for aerobic exercise as tolerated and four patients were treated with individually tailored submaximal aerobic exercise programs resulting in subjective improvement in residual symptoms and/or exercise tolerance. Repeat treadmill testing in one patient performed after 1 month of treatment with submaximal aerobic exercise prescription was suggestive of improved exercise tolerance. One patient was able to tolerate aerobic exercise following surgery for posterior glottic stenosis. Conclusions: Preliminary results suggest that graded aerobic treadmill testing is a safe, well tolerated, and clinically useful tool to assess exercise tolerance in appropriately selected adolescent patients with TBI. Future prospective studies are needed to evaluate the effect of tailored submaximal aerobic exercise prescription on exercise tolerance and patient outcomes in recovering adolescent moderate and severe TBI patients.
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Poulin, M. J., D. H. Paterson, D. Govindasamy, and D. A. Cunningham. "Endurance training of older men: responses to submaximal exercise." Journal of Applied Physiology 73, no. 2 (1992): 452–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1992.73.2.452.
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The purpose of this study was to quantify the exercise response of older subjects on a time-to-fatigue (TTF) submaximal performance test before and after a training program. Eight older men (67.4 +/- 4.8 yr) performed two maximal treadmill tests to determine maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max) and ventilation threshold (TVE) and a constant-load submaximal exercise treadmill test that required an oxygen uptake (VO2) between TVE and VO2max. The submaximal test, performed at the same absolute work rate before and after the training program, was performed to volitional fatigue to measure endurance time. The men trained under supervision at an individualized pace representing approximately 70% of VO2max (80% maximum heart rate) for 1 h, four times per week for 9 wk. Significant increases were demonstrated for VO2max (ml.kg-1.min-1; 10.6%); maximal ventilation (VE, l/min; 11.6%), and TVE (l/min; 9.8%). Weight decreased 2.1%. Performance time on the TTF test increased by 180% (7.3 +/- 3.0 to 20.4 +/- 13.5 min). The similar end points for VO2, VE, and heart rate during the TTF and maximal treadmill tests established that the TTF test was stopped because of physiological limitations. The increase in performance time among the subjects was significantly correlated with improvements in VO2max and TVE, with the submaximal work rate representing a VO2 above TVE by 88% of the difference between TVE and VO2max pretraining and 73% of this difference on posttraining values.
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Shuleva, Kathleen M., Gary R. Hunter, Donna J. Hester, and Donna L. Dunaway. "Exercise Oxygen Uptake in 3- through 6-Year-Old Children." Pediatric Exercise Science 2, no. 2 (1990): 130–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/pes.2.2.130.
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This study compared submaximal and maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O2 max) in children ages 3–4 and 5–6 years. Methods appropriate for this age group were developed to elicit maximal performance on the exercise tests. Subjects (N = 22) performed progressive treadmill walking tests. The criteria used to determine whether V̇O2 max was reached were a plateauing of oxygen uptake, HR > 195, and an R > 1.00. The V̇O2 max for the 3- and 4-year-olds (44.5 ml•kg−1•min−1) was not significantly different from that of the 5- and 6-year-olds (44.1 ml•kg−1•min−1). At submaximal levels, 5- and 6-year-olds had significantly lower relative oxygen uptake, indicating better economy in walking. A large proportion of children met testing criteria for V̇O2 max. Test-retest results indicated that the tests were reliable.
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Lee, Bum-Suk, Jae-Hyuk Bae, Yu-Jin Choi, and Jung-Ah Lee. "Predicting Maximum Oxygen Uptake from Non-Exercise and Submaximal Exercise Tests in Paraplegic Men with Spinal Cord Injury." Healthcare 11, no. 5 (2023): 763. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/healthcare11050763.
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This study aimed to develop prediction equations for maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max) based on non-exercise (anthropometric) and submaximal exercise (anthropometric and physiological) variables in paraplegic men with a spinal cord injury. All participants were tested on an arm ergometer using a maximal graded exercise test. Anthropometric variables such as age, height, weight, body fat, body mass index, body fat percentage, and arm muscle mass and physiological variables such as VO2, VCO2, and heart rate at 3 and 6 min of graded exercise tests were included in the multiple linear regression analysis. The prediction equations revealed the following. Regarding non-exercise variables, VO2max was correlated with age and weight (equation R = 0.771, R2 = 0.595, SEE= 3.187). Regarding submaximal variables, VO2max was correlated with weight and VO2 and VCO2 at 6 min (equation R = 0.892, R2 = 0.796, SEE = 2.309). In conclusion, our prediction equations can be used as a cardiopulmonary function evaluation tool to estimate VO2max simply and conveniently using the anthropometric and physiological characteristics of paraplegic men with spinal cord injuries.
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Kim, Dong-Kyu, and Maeng-Kyu Kim. "Effectiveness of a New Internal Nasal Dilator in Pulmonary Function and Exercise Performance." Exercise Science 30, no. 4 (2021): 481–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.15857/ksep.2021.00486.
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PURPOSE: This study aimed to examine changes in pulmonary function induced by an internal nasal dilator (IND) and to determine whether an IND enhances exercise performance.METHODS: Young, healthy men (n=13) were randomly assigned either an IND or control (CON) session to perform a pulmonary function test (PFT). All participants then completed treadmill exercise tests that consisted of maximal and submaximal running with or without an IND.RESULTS: Some variables of PFTs were increased in men that used INDs compared to those in the CON group (p<.05, respectively). There was a significant difference between sessions in energy cost during the running test (65% VO2max) (p<.05). In the IND group, respiratory muscle fatigue during exercise was lower, and relaxation of respiratory muscles after exercise was faster, as compared with the CON group (p<.05).CONCLUSIONS: IND may contribute to improvements in pulmonary function. Furthermore, INDs may reduce energy costs and respiratory muscle fatigue during submaximal exercise by maintaining nasal breathing and facilitating respiratory muscle relaxation after maximal exercise tests.
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Haraldsson, Bjarki T., Christoffer H. Andersen, Katrine T. Erhardsen, et al. "Submaximal Elastic Resistance Band Tests to Estimate Upper and Lower Extremity Maximal Muscle Strength." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 5 (2021): 2749. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052749.
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Muscle strength assessment is fundamental to track the progress of performance and prescribe correct exercise intensity. In field settings, simple tests are preferred. This study develops equations to estimate maximal muscle strength in upper- and lower-extremity muscles based on submaximal elastic resistance tests. Healthy adults (n = 26) performed a maximal test (1 RM) to validate the ability of the subsequent submaximal tests to determine maximal muscle strength, with elastic bands. Using a within-group repeated measures design, three submaximal tests of 40%, 60%, and 80% during (1) shoulder abduction, (2) shoulder external rotation, (3) hip adduction, and (4) prone knee flexion were performed. The association between number of repetitions and relative intensity was modeled with both 1st and 2nd order polynomials to determine the best predictive validity. For both upper-extremity tests, a strong linear association between repetitions and relative intensity was found (R2 = 0.97–1.00). By contrast, for the lower-extremity tests, the associations were fitted better with a 2nd order polynomial (R2 = 1.00). The results from the present study provide formulas for predicting maximal muscles strength based on submaximal resistance in four different muscles groups and show a muscle-group-specific association between repetitions and intensity.
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Swank, Ann M., Alissa Moore, Daniel C. Funk, Lynne Steinel, Robert J. Robertson, and John T. Manire. "Evaluation of Anticipation Bias for RPE during Progressive Exercise Testing." Perceptual and Motor Skills 100, no. 3 (2005): 841–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pms.100.3.841-850.
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This study evaluated a possible anticipation bias when ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) were obtained during submaximal progressive exercise testing. Perceptual estimates were obtained using the CR-10 category-ratio scale. 13 subjects, 7 men and 6 women ( M age = 26.8 ± 6.4 yr., height = 2.7 ± .17 m, weight = 73.0 ± 18.2 kg, VO2 peak = 46.7 ± 5.6 ml · kg−1 · min−1 for men and 47.8 ± 7.3 ml · kg−1 · min.−1 for women) recruited from the university student population participated. Each subject underwent two submaximal progressive exercise tests separated by at least 48 hr. using the cycle as test mode and the YMCA protocol. Power outputs established during the first test were presented in random order during the second test. Differentiated RPE for the Peripheral, Respiratory-Metabolic, and the undifferentiated signals, and heart rate, were measured during the last 15 sec. of each of the four stages of exercise. In comparing responses between the two tests, significant differences were observed for both heart rate and the Respiratory-Metabolic signal during power output 4, using repeated-measures analysis of variance. However, a 95% limit of agreement test was significant only for heart rate as the 95% confidence interval for the Respiratory-Metabolic signal overlapped zero and thus was not significantly different. No significant differences were found for the undifferentiated or peripheral signals between the two tests. Results indicate that both undifferentiated and differentiated RPE are given without significant anticipation bias during submaximal progressive cycle exercise.
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Akkerman, Moniek, Marco van Brussel, Bart C. Bongers, Erik H. J. Hulzebos, Paul J. M. Helders, and Tim Takken. "Oxygen Uptake Efficiency Slope in Healthy Children." Pediatric Exercise Science 22, no. 3 (2010): 431–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/pes.22.3.431.
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The objective of this study was to investigate the characteristics of the submaximal Oxygen Uptake Efficiency Slope (OUES) in a healthy pediatric population. Bicycle ergometry exercise tests with gas-analyses were performed in 46 healthy children aged 7–17 years. Maximal OUES, submaximal OUES, V̇O2peak, VEpeak, and ventilatory threshold (VT) were determined. The submaximal OUES correlated highly with V̇O2peak, VEpeak, and VT. Strong correlations were found with basic anthropometric variables. The submaximal OUES could provide an objective, independent measure of cardiorespiratory function in children, reflecting efficiency of ventilation. We recommend expressing OUES values relative to Body Surface Area (BSA) or Fat Free Mass (FFM).
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Birnbaumer, Philipp, Lena Weiner, Tanja Handl, Gerhard Tschakert, and Peter Hofmann. "Effects of Different Durations at Fixed Intensity Exercise on Internal Load and Recovery—A Feasibility Pilot Study on Duration as an Independent Variable for Exercise Prescription." Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology 7, no. 3 (2022): 54. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jfmk7030054.
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Duration is a rarely investigated marker of exercise prescription. The aim of this study was to test the feasibility of the methodological approach, assessing effects of different duration constant-load exercise (CLE) on physiological responses (internal load) and recovery kinetics. Seven subjects performed an incremental exercise (IE) test, one maximal duration CLE at 77.6 ± 4.8% V˙O2max, and CLE’s at 20%, 40%, and 70% of maximum duration. Heart rate (HR), blood lactate (La), and glucose (Glu) concentrations were measured. Before, 4, 24, and 48 h after CLE’s, submaximal IE tests were performed. HR variability (HRV) was assessed in orthostatic tests (OT). Rating of perceived exertion (RPE) was obtained during all tests. CLE’s were performed at 182 ± 27 W. HRpeak, Lapeak, V˙Epeak, and RPEpeak were significantly higher in CLE’s with longer duration. No significant differences were found between CLE’s for recovery kinetics for HR, La, and Glu in the submaximal IE and for HRV or OT. Despite no significant differences, recovery kinetics were found as expected, indicating the feasibility of the applied methods. Maximum tests and recovery tests closer to CLE’s termination are suggested to better display recovery kinetics. These findings are a first step to prescription of exercise by both intensity and duration on an individual basis.
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Marciniuk, D., D. McKim, R. Sanii, and M. Younes. "Role of central respiratory muscle fatigue in endurance exercise in normal subjects." Journal of Applied Physiology 76, no. 1 (1994): 236–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1994.76.1.236.
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The role of central respiratory muscle fatigue in determining endurance time (ET) of steady-state ergometry, ventilation (VE), and breathing pattern during exhaustive submaximal exercise is not known. Six normal subjects exercised on a cycle ergometer to exhaustion at 72–82% of maximal power output on three occasions. During the second test, inspiratory muscle load was reduced (approximately 50% of baseline load) for all but the last 3 min of exercise. ET was determined, and VE, tidal volume (VT), respiratory rate (f), and sense of breathing effort (Borg scale) were assessed at different points during the assisted exercise and compared with the values obtained at the same time in identical tests without assist, carried out before and after the assisted test (different days). Borg scale rating was less and there was a nonsignificant trend for VT and VE to be higher and for f to be lower when the assist was in place than at the same time during the unassisted runs. In the last 3 min of exercise, when the respiratory load was comparable (assist removed) but ventilatory work history was different, there were no significant differences in sense of respiratory effort, VE, VT, or f between the experimental and control tests, and ET was also similar. We conclude that central respiratory muscle fatigue plays no role in determining ET, sense of respiratory effort, or breathing pattern in normal subjects during exhaustive submaximal exercise.
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White, Harry, and Tom Gurney. "Chlorella Supplementation Reduces Blood Lactate Concentration and Increases O2 Pulse during Submaximal and Maximal Cycling in Young Healthy Adults." Nutrients 16, no. 5 (2024): 697. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu16050697.
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Chlorella supplementation is reported to improve V˙O2max following extended supplementation periods (~3 weeks). However, there is little research on its impact over submaximal exercise intensities and following shorter supplementation regimens. This study aimed to investigate the efficacy of 6 g/day 2-day chlorella supplementation on exercise performance in healthy young adults. Twenty young healthy adults (Males = 16, Females = 4) (Age 22 ± 6 years, V˙O2max 42.7 ± 9.6 mL/(kg·min)) were recruited for this double-blinded, randomised cross-over study. Participants ingested 6 g/day of chlorella or a placebo for 2 days, with a one-week washout period between trials. Exercise testing consisted of a 20 min submaximal cycle at 40% of their work rate max (WRmax) (watts), followed by an incremental V˙O2max test. Lactate (mmol/L), heart rate (b/min), oxygen consumption (mL/(kg·min)), O2 pulse (mL/beat), respiratory exchange ratio (RER), and WRmax were compared across conditions. Following chlorella supplementation, blood lactate levels were significantly lower (p < 0.05) during submaximal exercise (3.05 ± 0.92 mmol/L vs. 2.67 ± 0.79 mmol/L) and following V˙O2max tests (12.79 ± 2.61 mmol/L vs. 11.56 ± 3.43 mmol/L). The O2 pulse was significantly higher (p < 0.05) following chlorella supplementation during submaximal (12.6 ± 3.5 mL/beat vs. 13.1 ± 3.5 mL/beat) and maximal exercise intensity (16.7 ± 4.6 mL/beat vs. 17.2 ± 4.5 mL/beat). No differences existed between conditions for oxygen consumption, RER, V˙O2max, or WRmax. A total of 2 days of 6 g/day chlorella supplementation appears to lower the blood lactate response and increase O2 pulse during both submaximal and maximal intensity exercise but did not lead to any improvements in V˙O2max.
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Takken, Tim, Wim G. Groen, Erik H. Hulzebos, et al. "Exercise Stress Testing in Children with Metabolic or Neuromuscular Disorders." International Journal of Pediatrics 2010 (2010): 1–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2010/254829.
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The role of exercise as a diagnostic or therapeutic tool in patients with a metabolic disease (MD) or neuromuscular disorder (NMD) is relatively underresearched. In this paper we describe the metabolic profiles during exercise in 13 children (9 boys, 4 girls, age 5–15 yrs) with a diagnosed MD or NMD. Graded cardiopulmonary exercise tests and/or a 90-min prolonged submaximal exercise test were performed. During exercise, respiratory gas-exchange and heart rate were monitored; blood and urine samples were collected for biochemical analysis at set time points. Several characteristics in our patient group were observed, which reflected the differences in pathophysiology of the various disorders. Metabolic profiles during exercises CPET and PXT seem helpful in the evaluation of patients with a MD or NMD.
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DAVIE, A. L., and D. J. EVANS. "Blood Lactate Responses to Submaximal Field Exercise Tests in Thoroughbred Horses." Veterinary Journal 159, no. 3 (2000): 252–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/tvjl.1999.0420.
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Rankinen, Tuomo, Sari Väisänen, llkka Penttilä, and Rainer Rauramaa. "Acute Dynamic Exercise Increases Fibrinolytic Activity." Thrombosis and Haemostasis 73, no. 02 (1995): 281–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-0038-1653765.
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SummaryThe influence of acute bouts of dynamic exercise on plasma tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), plasminogen activator inhibitor (PAI) and fibrinogen was investigated on nine healthy non-smoking men aged 23 to 37 years. Subjects performed maximal and two submaximal (duration 30 min, intensity 50% [aerobic threshold] and 78% [anaerobic threshold] V02max) bicycle ergospirometry tests separated by seven days. The order of the submaximal tests was randomized. Blood samples were drawn before, immediately after and 24 h after each test. Plasma tPA and PAI activities were measured amidolytically, and fibrinogen concentration by thrombin method. All postexercise values were corrected for the change in plasma volume. The pre-exercise tPA and PAI activities and fibrinogen concentration were similar in each tests. tPA activity increased during each test (from 2.0 [SEM 0.24] IU/ml to 20.3 [3.14] during maximal, 2.0 [0.22] to 19.0 [2.59] during anaerobic threshold test, 1.8 [0.22] to 5.5 [0.82] during aerobic threshold; p <0.001 during all tests, p = 0.01 aerobic threshold vs maximal and anaerobic threshold). PAI activity decreased during maximal (from 6.6 [2.51] AU/ml to 2.0 [2.00], p <0.05) and anaerobic threshold (5.0 [2.07] to 0.2 [0.22], p <0.01) tests but not during aerobic threshold test (7.0 [3.69] to 4.5 [2.93], p = 0.123). One subject had clearly higher pre-exercise PAI activity and smaller tPA response to exercise as compared to other subjects. All 24 h post-exercise activities were similar to pre-exercise values. Plasma fibrinogen concentration did not change during any tests. Single acute bouts of dynamic exercise transiently increase tPA and decrease PAI activity without affecting plasma fibrinogen concentration in healthy young men.
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Berzosa, C., I. Cebrián, L. Fuentes-Broto, et al. "Acute Exercise Increases Plasma Total Antioxidant Status and Antioxidant Enzyme Activities in Untrained Men." Journal of Biomedicine and Biotechnology 2011 (2011): 1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2011/540458.
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Antioxidant defences are essential for cellular redox regulation. Since free-radical production may be enhanced by physical activity, herein, we evaluated the effect of acute exercise on total antioxidant status (TAS) and the plasma activities of catalase, glutathione reductase, glutathione peroxidase, and superoxide dismutase and its possible relation to oxidative stress resulting from exercise. Healthy untrained male subjects () performed three cycloergometric tests, including maximal and submaximal episodes. Venous blood samples were collected before and immediately after each different exercise. TAS and enzyme activities were assessed by spectrophotometry. An increase of the antioxidant enzyme activities in plasma was detected after both maximal and submaximal exercise periods. Moreover, under our experimental conditions, exercise also led to an augmentation of TAS levels. These findings are consistent with the idea that acute exercise may play a beneficial role because of its ability to increase antioxidant defense mechanisms through a redox sensitive pathway.
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Ainsworth, Barbara E., Robert G. McMurray, and Susan K. Veazey. "Prediction of Peak Oxygen Uptake from Submaximal Exercise Tests in Older Men and Women." Journal of Aging and Physical Activity 5, no. 1 (1997): 27–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/japa.5.1.27.
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The purpose of this study was to determine the accuracy of two submaximal exercise tests, the Sitting-Chair Step Test (Smith & Gilligan. 1983) and the Modified Step Test (Amundsen, DeVahl, & Ellingham, 1989) to predict peak oxygen uptake (VO2 peak) in 28 adults ages 60 to 85 years. VO2 peak was measured by indirect calorimetry during a treadmill maximal graded exercise test (VO2 peak, range 11.6–31.1 ml · kg −l · min−1). In each of the submaximal tests, VO2 was predicted by plotting stage-by-stage submaximal heart rate (HR) and perceived exertion (RPE) data against VO2 for each stage and extrapolating the data to respective age-predicted maximal HR or RPE values. In the Sitting-Chair Step Test (n = 23), no significant differences were observed between measured and predicted VO2 peak values (p > .05). However, predicted VO2 peak values from the HR were 4.3 ml · kg−1 · min−1 higher than VO2 peak values predicted from the RPE data (p < .05). In the Modified Step Test (n = 22), no significant differences were observed between measured and predicted VO2 peak values (p > .05). Predictive accuracy was modest, explaining 49–78% of the variance in VO2 peak. These data suggest that the Sitting-Chair Step Test and the Modified Step Test have moderate validity in predicting VO2 peak in older men and women.
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Bosch, Andrew N., Kirsten C. Flanagan, Maaike M. Eken, Adrian Withers, Jana Burger, and Robert P. Lamberts. "Physiological and Metabolic Responses to Exercise on Treadmill, Elliptical Trainer, and Stepper: Practical Implications for Training." International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism 31, no. 2 (2021): 135–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.2020-0155.
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Elliptical trainers and steppers are proposed as useful exercise modalities in the rehabilitation of injured runners due to the reduced stress on muscles and joints when compared to running. This study compared the physiological responses to submaximal running (treadmill) with exercise on the elliptical trainer and stepper devices at three submaximal but identical workloads. Authors had 18 trained runners (male/female: N = 9/9, age: mean ± SD = 23 ± 3 years) complete randomized maximal oxygen consumption tests on all three modalities. Submaximal tests of 3 min were performed at 60%, 70%, and 80% of peak workload individually established for each modality. Breath-by-breath oxygen consumption, heart rate, fuel utilization, and energy expenditure were determined. The value of maximal oxygen consumption was not different between treadmill, elliptical, and stepper (49.3 ± 5.3, 48.0 ± 6.6, and 46.7 ± 6.2 ml·min−1·kg−1, respectively). Both physiological measures (oxygen consumption and heart rate) as well as carbohydrate and fat oxidation differed significantly between the different exercise intensities (60%, 70%, and 80%) but did not differ between the treadmill, elliptical trainer, and stepper. Therefore, the elliptical trainer and stepper are suitable substitutes for running during periods when a reduced running load is required, such as during rehabilitation from running-induced injury.
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Noordhof, Dionne A., Thijs Schoots, Derk H. Hoekert, and Jos J. de Koning. "Is Gross Efficiency Lower at Acute Simulated Altitude Than at Sea Level?" International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 8, no. 3 (2013): 319–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.8.3.319.
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Purpose:The purpose of this study was to test the assumption that gross efficiency (GE) at sea level (SL) is representative of GE at altitude (AL). It was hypothesized that an increased cost of ventilation and heart rate, combined with a higher respiratory-exchange ratio, at AL might result in a decrease in GE.Methods:Trained men (N = 16) completed 2 maximal incremental tests and 2 GE tests, 1 at SL and 1 at an acute simulated AL of 1500 m (hypobaric chamber). GE was determined during submaximal exercise at 45%, 55%, and 65% of the altitude-specific power output attained at VO2max.Results:GE determined at the highest submaximal exercise intensity with a mean RER ≤1.0, matched for both conditions, was significantly lower at AL (AL 20.7% ± 1.1% and SL 21.4% ± 0.8%, t15 = 2.9, P < .05).Conclusion:These results demonstrate that moderate AL resulted in a significantly lower GE during cycling exercise than SL. However, it might be that the lower GE at AL is caused by the lower absolute exercise intensity.
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Guadagni, Veronica, Lauren L. Drogos, Amanda V. Tyndall, et al. "Aerobic exercise improves cognition and cerebrovascular regulation in older adults." Neurology 94, no. 21 (2020): e2245-e2257. http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/wnl.0000000000009478.
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ObjectiveTo test the hypothesis that aerobic exercise is associated with improvements in cognition and cerebrovascular regulation, we enrolled 206 healthy low-active middle-aged and older adults (mean ± SD age 65.9 ± 6.4 years) in a supervised 6-month aerobic exercise intervention and assessed them before and after the intervention.MethodsThe study is a quasi-experimental single group pre/postintervention study. Neuropsychological tests were used to assess cognition before and after the intervention. Transcranial Doppler ultrasound was used to measure cerebral blood flow velocity. Cerebrovascular regulation was assessed at rest, during euoxic hypercapnia, and in response to submaximal exercise. Multiple linear regression was used to examine the association between changes in cognition and changes in cerebrovascular function.ResultsThe intervention was associated with improvements in some cognitive domains, cardiorespiratory fitness, and cerebrovascular regulation. Changes in executive functions were negatively associated with changes in cerebrovascular resistance index (CVRi) during submaximal exercise (β = −0.205, p = 0.013), while fluency improvements were positively associated with changes in CVRi during hypercapnia (β = 0.106, p = 0.03).ConclusionThe 6-month aerobic exercise intervention was associated with improvements in some cognitive domains and cerebrovascular regulation. Secondary analyses showed a novel association between changes in cognition and changes in cerebrovascular regulation during euoxic hypercapnia and in response to submaximal exercise.
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Yamamoto, Y., R. L. Hughson, and J. C. Peterson. "Autonomic control of heart rate during exercise studied by heart rate variability spectral analysis." Journal of Applied Physiology 71, no. 3 (1991): 1136–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1991.71.3.1136.
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Spectral analysis of heart rate variability (HRV) might provide an index of relative sympathetic (SNS) and parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) activity during exercise. Eight subjects completed six 17-min submaximal exercise tests and one resting measurement in the upright sitting position. During submaximal tests, work rate (WR) was increased for the initial 3 min in a ramp fashion until it reached constant WRs of 20 W, or 30, 60, 90, 100, and 110% of the predetermined ventilatory threshold (Tvent). Ventilatory profile and alveolar gas exchange were monitored breath by breath, and beat-to-beat HRV was measured as R-R intervals of an electrocardiogram. Spectral analysis was applied to the HRV from 7 to 17 min. Low-frequency (0–0.15 Hz) and high-frequency (0.15–1.0 Hz) areas under power spectra (LO and HI, respectively) were calculated. The indicator of PNS activity (HI) decreased dramatically (P less than 0.05) when the subjects exercised compared with rest and continued to decrease until the intensity reached 60% Tvent. The indicator of SNS activity (LO/HI) remained unchanged up to 100% Tvent, whereas it increased abruptly (P less than 0.05) at 110% Tvent. The results suggested that (cardiac) PNS activity decreased progressively from rest to a WR equivalent to 60% Tvent, and SNS activity increased only when exercise intensity exceeded Tvent.
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Lewis, Nathan A., Colin Towey, Georgie Bruinvels, Glyn Howatson, and Charles R. Pedlar. "Effects of exercise on alterations in redox homeostasis in elite male and female endurance athletes using a clinical point-of-care test." Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism 41, no. 10 (2016): 1026–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/apnm-2016-0208.
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Exercise causes alterations in redox homeostasis (ARH). Measuring ARH in elite athletes may aid in the identification of training tolerance, fatigued states, and underperformance. To the best of our knowledge, no studies have examined ARH in elite male and female distance runners at sea level. The monitoring of ARH in athletes is hindered by a lack of reliable and repeatable in-the-field testing tools and by the rapid turnaround of results. We examined the effects of various exercise intensities on ARH in healthy (non-over-reached) elite male and female endurance athletes using clinical point-of-care (POC) redox tests, referred to as the free oxygen radical test (FORT) (pro-oxidant) and the free oxygen radical defence (FORD) (antioxidant). Elite male and female endurance athletes (n = 22) completed a discontinuous incremental treadmill protocol at submaximal running speeds and a test to exhaustion. Redox measures were analyzed via blood sampling at rest, warm-up, submaximal exercise, exhaustion, and recovery. FORD was elevated above rest after submaximal and maximal exercise, and recovery (p < 0.05, d = 0.87–1.55), with only maximal exercise and recovery increasing FORT (p < 0.05, d = 0.23–0.32). Overall, a decrease in oxidative stress in response to submaximal and maximal exercise was evident (p < 0.05, d = 0.46). There were no gender differences for ARH (p > 0.05). The velocity at lactate threshold (vLT) correlated with the FORD response at rest, maximal exercise, and recovery (p < 0.05). Using the clinical POC redox test, an absence of oxidative stress after exhaustive exercise is evident in the nonfatigued elite endurance athlete. The blood antioxidant response (FORD) to exercise appears to be related to a key marker of aerobic fitness: vLT.
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Hammado, Nurussyariah, Etno Setyagraha, and Fadra Naufal Rannu. "The effect of fish oil supplementation on fatigue perception following submaximal exercise during the COVID-19 pandemic." Journal Sport Area 8, no. 1 (2023): 68–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.25299/sportarea.2023.vol8(1).10187.
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The pandemic of COVID-19 has created the "New Normal" lifestyle and limited people to performing their daily activities from home. These changes in turn affect the level of physical activities, including the intention to engage in regular exercise, in most people, subsequently putting them at risk of having negative effects due to being physically inactive. This condition may down regulate the human immune system, making it more vulnerable to various diseases. Oral supplementation of fish oil has been proposed to have benefits for decreasing pro-inflammatory markers induced by exercise. This study aimed to analyze the effect of fish oil supplementation on the degree of fatigue perception following submaximal exercise. Forty-four male college students participated in this non-equivalent pre-posttest experimental research. The participants were supplemented with 2 soft capsules of 1.5 grams of fish oil for 8 weeks. The effect of submaximal exercise was carried out by the sit-up and bleep tests, which were measured before and after 8 weeks of fish oil supplementation. The research procedure was approved by the ethics committee of the Makassar State University research institute. The results showed that there was a strong relationship between the administration of fish oil supplements and the level of fatigue perception following sit-ups and bleep tests (p values of -0.529 and -0.658, respectively) performed during the COVID-19 pandemic. This study concludes that the administration of fish oil supplementation affects the degree of fatigue perception after doing submaximal exercise, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic.
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Woods, Paul R., Robert P. Frantz, and Bruce D. Johnson. "The Usefulness of Submaximal Exercise Gas Exchange in Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension: A Case Series." Clinical Medicine Insights: Circulatory, Respiratory and Pulmonary Medicine 4 (January 2010): 117954842020100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/117954842020100402.
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Introduction Submaximal exercise gas exchange may be a useful tool to track responses to therapy in pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) patients. Methods Three patients diagnosed with idiopathic PAH, on differing therapies, were included. Standard clinical tests (echocardiography; 6 minute walk) were performed pre and 3-5 months after treatment. Gas exchange was measured during 3 minutes of step exercise at both time points. Results Gas exchange variables, end tidal CO2 (PETCO2) and the ratio of ventilation to CO2 production (VE/VCO2), during submaximal exercise were able to track patient responses to therapy over a 3-5 month period. Two patients demonstrated positive improvements, with an increased PETCO2 and decreased VE/VCO2 during light exercise, in response to an altered therapeutic regime. The third patient had a worsening of gas exchange (decreased PETCO2 and increased VE/VCO2) following no changes in the medical regime from the baseline visit. Conclusion Gas exchange variables measured during light submaximal exercise, such as PETCO2 and VE/VCO2, may be able to better detect small changes in functional status following treatment and could, therefore, be a useful tool to track disease severity in PAH patients. Further study is required to determine the clinical usefulness of these gas exchange variables.
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Wielemborek-Musial, Katarzyna, Katarzyna Szmigielska, Joanna Leszczynska, and Anna Jegier. "Blood Pressure Response to Submaximal Exercise Test in Adults." BioMed Research International 2016 (2016): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2016/5607507.
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Background. The assessment of blood pressure (BP) response during exercise test is an important diagnostic instrument in cardiovascular system evaluation. The study aim was to determine normal values of BP response to submaximal, multistage exercise test in healthy adults with regard to their age, gender, and workload.Materials and Methods. The study was conducted in randomly selected normotensive subjects(n=1015), 512 females and 498 males, aged 18–64 years (mean age 42.1 ± 12.7 years) divided into five age groups. All subjects were clinically healthy with no chronic diseases diagnosed. Exercise stress tests were performed using Monark bicycle ergometer until a minimum of 85% of physical capacity was reached. BP was measured at rest and at peak of each exercise test stage.Results. The relations between BP, age, and workload during exercise test were determined by linear regression analysis and can be illustrated by the equations: systolic BP (mmHg) = 0.346×load (W) + 135.76 for males and systolic BP (mmHg) = 0.103×load (W) + 155.72 for females.Conclusions. Systolic BP increases significantly and proportionally to workload increase during exercise test in healthy adults. The relation can be described by linear equation which can be useful in diagnostics of cardiovascular diseases.
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Lang, Morin, Guillem Vizcaíno-Muñoz, Paulina Jopia, Juan Silva-Urra, and Ginés Viscor. "Physiological Responses at Rest and Exercise to High Altitude in Lowland Children and Adolescents." Life 11, no. 10 (2021): 1009. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/life11101009.
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During the last decades, the number of lowland children exposed to high altitude (HA) has increased drastically. Several factors may influence the development of illness after acute HA exposure on children and adolescent populations, such as altitude reached, ascent velocity, time spent at altitude and, especially, their age. The main goal of this study was to evaluate the resting cardiorespiratory physiological and submaximal exercise responses under natural HA conditions by means of the six-minute walking test (six MWT). Secondly, we aimed to identify the signs and symptoms associated with acute mountain sickness (AMS) onset after acute HA exposure in children and adolescents. Forty-two children and adolescents, 18 boys and 24 girls aged from 11 to 15 years old, participated in this study, which was performed at sea level (SL) and during the first 42 hours at HA (3330 m). The Lake Louise score (LLS) was recorded in order to evaluate the evolution of AMS symptoms. Submaximal exercise tests (six MWT) were performed at SL and HA. Physiological parameters such as heart rate, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, respiratory rate and arterialized oxygen saturation were measured at rest and after ending exercise testing at the two altitudes. After acute HA exposure, the participants showed lower arterial oxygen saturation levels at rest and after the submaximal test compared to SL (p < 0.001). Resting heart rate, respiratory rate and diastolic blood pressure presented higher values at HA (p < 0.01). Moreover, heart rate, diastolic blood pressure and dyspnea values increased before, during and after exercise at HA (p < 0.01). Moreover, submaximal exercise performance decreased at HA (p < 0.001). The AMS incidence at HA ranged from 9.5% to 19%, with mild to moderate symptoms. In conclusion, acute HA exposure in children and adolescent individuals produces an increase in basal cardiorespiratory parameters and a decrement in arterial oxygen saturation. Moreover, cardiorespiratory parameters increase during submaximal exercise at HA. Mild to moderate symptoms of AMS at 3330 m and adequate cardiovascular responses to submaximal exercise do not contraindicate the ascension of children and adolescents to that altitude, at least for a limited period of time.
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Chuang, Tien-Yow, Chih-Hung Chen, Hwa-Ann Chang, Hui-Chen Lee, Cheng-Lian Chou, and Ji-Liang Doong. "Virtual Reality Serves as a Support Technology in Cardiopulmonary Exercise Testing." Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments 12, no. 3 (2003): 326–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/105474603765879567.
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The purpose of this study was to develop a virtual cycling system and examine the influence of virtual reality (VR) on test performance during clinical exercise testing. We aimed to compare the physiological responses of the cardiovascular and ventilatory systems during incremental exercise testing with or without VR, and to measure VR effects on the ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) and cycling duration throughout the test. Twelve healthy senior citizens (ten men and two women) with a mean age of 74.5-4.7 years participated in the study. The codes of behavior for this study included a maximum graded exercise tolerance test, a submaximal endurance VR exercise, and a submaximal endurance non-VR exercise. A friction-braked cycle ergometer was used to conduct the exercise tests. For the subject's movement speed to create an appropriate environment flow on the display screen, the bike was connected to a personal computer. The cardiorespiratory and hemodynamic parameters were evaluated at both peak and submaximal exertion. The results show that the VR versus non-VR programs did not differ on submaximal and peak exercise responses during the cycling test. However, significant differences were observed between the mean values for cycling duration, distance, and energy consumption. The difference between RPE curves for VR and non-VR protocols revealed promising results within 45 min. of cycling (Breslow test, p = .06); however, no statistical significance was achieved at the test termination (log rank test, p =.17). In conclusion, this study found that the maintenance of endurance, the increase in target intensity, and total energy consumption in exercise programs may be assisted by introducing VR technology. In addition, the activities taking place in virtual environments can be performed in complete safety.
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Hausen, Matheus, Pedro Paulo Soares, Marcus Paulo Araujo, et al. "Eliciting Higher Maximal and Submaximal Cardiorespiratory Responses During a New Taekwondo-Specific Aerobic Test." International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 13, no. 10 (2018): 1357–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2017-0846.
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Purpose: To propose and validate new taekwondo-specific cardiopulmonary exercise tests. Methods: Twelve male national-level taekwondo athletes (age 20 [2] y, body mass 67.5 [5.7] kg, height 175 [8] cm, and training experience 7 [3] y) performed 3 separate exercise tests in a randomized counterbalanced order: (1) a treadmill running cardiopulmonary exercise test (CPET) and (2) continuous and (3) interval taekwondo-specific cardiopulmonary exercise tests (cTKDet and iTKDet, respectively). The CPET was administered using an individualized ramp protocol. Taekwondo tests comprised sequences of turning kicks performed on a stationary target. The impacts were recorded via an electronic scoring sensor used in official competition. Stages on the cTKDet and iTKDet lasted 1 min and progressively reduced the kick interval duration. These were guided by a sound signal, starting with 4.6 s between kicks and reducing by 0.4 s every minute until the test ended. Oxygen uptake (), heart rate (HR), capillary blood lactate, and ratings of perceived exertion were measured. Results: Modest differences were identified in between the tests (F2,22 = 3.54; P = .046; effect size [ES] = 0.16). Maximal HR (HRmax) was higher during both taekwondo tests (F2,22 = 14.3; P = .001; ES = 1.14) compared with CPET. Specific tests also yielded higher responses in the first ventilatory threshold (F2,22 = 6.5; P = .04; ES = 0.27) and HR (F2,22 = 12.3; P < .001; ES = 1.06), and HR at the second ventilatory threshold (F2,22 = 5.7; P = .02; ES = 0.72). Conclusions: Taekwondo-specific cardiopulmonary tests enhance the validity of some cardiopulmonary responses and might therefore be considered to optimize routine diagnostic testing and training prescription for this athletic group.
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Hittinger, Elizabeth A., Jennifer L. Maher, Mark S. Nash, et al. "Ischemic preconditioning does not improve peak exercise capacity at sea level or simulated high altitude in trained male cyclists." Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism 40, no. 1 (2015): 65–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/apnm-2014-0080.
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Ischemic preconditioning (IPC) may improve blood flow and oxygen delivery to tissues, including skeletal muscle, and has the potential to improve intense aerobic exercise performance, especially that which results in arterial hypoxemia. The aim of the study was to determine the effects of IPC of the legs on peak exercise capacity (Wpeak), submaximal and peak cardiovascular hemodynamics, and peripheral capillary oxygen saturation (SpO2) in trained males at sea level (SL) and simulated high altitude (HA; 13.3% FIO2, ∼3650 m). Fifteen highly trained male cyclists and triathletes completed 2 Wpeak tests (SL and HA) and 4 experimental exercise trials (10 min at 55% altitude-specific Wpeak then increasing by 30 W every 2 min until exhaustion) with and without IPC. HA resulted in significant arterial hypoxemia during exercise compared with SL (73% ± 6% vs. 93% ± 4% SpO2, p < 0.001) that was associated with 21% lower Wpeak values. IPC did not significantly improve Wpeak at SL or HA. Additionally, IPC failed to improve cardiovascular hemodynamics or SpO2 during submaximal exercise or at Wpeak. In conclusion, IPC performed 45 min prior to exercise does not improve Wpeak or systemic oxygen delivery during submaximal or peak exercise at SL or HA. Future studies must examine the influence of IPC on local factors, such as working limb blood flow, oxygen delivery, and arteriovenous oxygen difference as well as whether the effectiveness of IPC is altered by the volume of muscle made ischemic, the timing prior to exercise, and high altitude acclimatization.
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Schutte, Nienke M., Ineke Nederend, James J. Hudziak, Meike Bartels, and Eco J. C. de Geus. "Twin-sibling study and meta-analysis on the heritability of maximal oxygen consumption." Physiological Genomics 48, no. 3 (2016): 210–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/physiolgenomics.00117.2015.
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Large individual differences exist in aerobic fitness in childhood and adolescence, but the relative contribution of genetic factors to this variation remains to be established. In a sample of adolescent twins and siblings ( n = 479), heart rate (HR) and maximal oxygen uptake (V̇o2max) were recorded during the climax of a graded maximal exercise test. In addition, V̇o2max was predicted in two graded submaximal exercise tests on the cycle ergometer and the treadmill, using extrapolation of the HR/V̇o2 curve to the predicted HRmax. Heritability estimates for measured V̇o2max were 60% in ml/min and 55% for V̇o2max in ml·min−1·kg−1. Phenotypic correlations between measured V̇o2max and predicted V̇o2max from either submaximal treadmill or cycle ergometer tests were modest (0.57 < r < 0.70), in part because of the poor agreement between predicted and actual HRmax. The majority of this correlation was explained by genetic factors; therefore, the submaximal exercise tests still led to very comparable estimates of heritability of V̇o2max. To arrive at a robust estimate for the heritability of V̇o2max in children to young adults, a sample size weighted meta-analysis was performed on all extant twin and sibling studies in this age range. Eight studies, including the current study, were meta-analyzed and resulted in a weighted heritability estimate of 59% (ml/min) and 72% (ml·min−1·kg−1) for V̇o2max. Taken together, the twin-sibling study and meta-analyses showed that from childhood to early adulthood genetic factors determine more than half of the individual differences in V̇o2max.
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Alajmi, Reem A., Carl Foster, John P. Porcari, Kimberley Radtke, and Scott Doberstein. "Comparison of non-maximal tests for estimating exercise capacity." Kinesiology 52, no. 1 (2020): 10–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.26582/k.52.1.2.
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Although maximal incremental exercise tests (GXT) are the gold standard for outcome assessment and exercise prescription, they are not widely available in either fitness or clinical exercise programs. This study compared the prediction of VO2max in healthy, sedentary volunteers using a non-exercise prediction (Matthews et al., 1999), RPE extrapolation to 19 and 20 and the Rockport Walking Test (RWT), and of ventilatory threshold (VT) using the Talk Test and RPE @ 13,14,15. Subjects performed a treadmill GXT with gas exchange, a submaximal treadmill with RPE and Talk Test, the RWT and Matthews. All methods provided reasonable estimates of both VO2max and VT, with correlations of &gt;0.80 and SEE~1.3 METs. VO2max was best estimated with the extrapolation to RPE=19. VT was intermediate between the TT Last Positive and Equivocal stages and between RPE 13 and 14. Non-maximal evaluation can be used in place of maximal GXT with gas exchange to make reasonable estimates of both VO2max and VT.
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Whitehead, M. T., S. D. Drake, C. E. Eschbach, J. C. Boyd, M. Magal, and R. F. Zoeller. "THE ACCURACY OF VO2MAX ESTIMATION FROM THREE COMMONLY USED SUBMAXIMAL EXERCISE TESTS." Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 33, no. 5 (2001): S301. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00005768-200105001-01701.
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Shephard, R. J. "Predicting Exercise Capacity Through Submaximal Fitness Tests in Persons With Multiple Sclerosis." Yearbook of Sports Medicine 2011 (January 2011): 300–302. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0162-0908(10)79789-0.
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Kuspinar, Ayse, Ross E. Andersen, Shang Yuan Teng, Miho Asano, and Nancy E. Mayo. "Predicting Exercise Capacity Through Submaximal Fitness Tests in Persons With Multiple Sclerosis." Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 91, no. 9 (2010): 1410–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2010.06.005.
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Afeef, Sahar, Keith Tolfrey, Julia K. Zakrzewski-Fruer, and Laura A. Barrett. "Performance of the FreeStyle Libre Flash Glucose Monitoring System during an Oral Glucose Tolerance Test and Exercise in Healthy Adolescents." Sensors 23, no. 9 (2023): 4249. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s23094249.
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This study’s aim was to assess FreeStyle Libre Flash glucose monitoring (FGM) performance during an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) and treadmill exercise in healthy adolescents. This should advance the feasibility and utility of user-friendly technologies for metabolic assessments in adolescents. Seventeen healthy adolescents (nine girls aged 12.8 ± 0.9 years) performed an OGTT and submaximal and maximal treadmill exercise tests in a laboratory setting. The scanned interstitial fluid glucose concentration ([ISFG]) obtained by FGM was compared against finger-prick capillary plasma glucose concentration ([CPG]) at 0 (pre-OGTT), −15, −30, −60, −120 min post-OGTT, pre-, mid-, post- submaximal exercise, and pre- and post- maximal exercise. Overall mean absolute relative difference (MARD) was 13.1 ± 8.5%, and 68% (n = 113) of the paired glucose data met the ISO 15197:2013 criteria. For clinical accuracy, 84% and 16% of FGM readings were within zones A and B in the Consensus Error Grid (CEG), respectively, which met the ISO 15197:2013 criteria of having at least 99% of results within these zones. Scanned [ISFG] were statistically lower than [CPG] at 15 (−1.16 mmol∙L−1, p < 0.001) and 30 min (−0.74 mmol∙L−1, p = 0.041) post-OGTT. Yet, post-OGTT glycaemic responses assessed by total and incremental areas under the curve (AUCs) were not significantly different, with trivial to small effect sizes (p ≥ 0.084, d = 0.14–0.45). Further, [ISFGs] were not different from [CPGs] during submaximal and maximal exercise tests (interaction p ≥ 0.614). FGM can be a feasible alternative to reflect postprandial glycaemia (AUCs) in healthy adolescents who may not endure repeated finger pricks.