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Rashid, Lubna, Khaled Alzafari, and Jan Kratzer. "Founder Personalities, Behaviors and New Venture Success in Sub-Saharan Africa." Technological Forecasting and Social Change 151 (February 2020): 119766. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119766.
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ADO, ABDOULKADRE, ELIE CHRYSOSTOME, and ZHAN SU. "EXAMINING ADAPTATION STRATEGIES OF SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN IMMIGRANT ENTREPRENEURS IN CHINA: THE CASE OF GUANGDONG." Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship 21, no. 04 (December 2016): 1650027. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s1084946716500278.
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This paper examines how sub-Saharan Africans do business in China, particularly in the province of Guangdong. Through a qualitative approach, the paper analyzes data obtained from twenty interviews with sub-Saharan Africans. It’s a descriptive study that explores the strategies, tactics and attitudes adopted by those sub-Saharan Africans to cope with a particularly difficult Chinese business environment. Using the concepts of foreignness and adaptation, the study identified four categories of immigrant entrepreneurs: the assimilators, the conservatives, the adventurers and the cautious. Concomitantly, this research identified factors and skills that contributed significantly to immigrants’ success in China. The paper also underlines challenges sub-Saharan Africans still face in China and the unconventional tactics they use. The study represents an insightful exploration of an increasingly important subject but still under-studied. It calls for a thorough research toward the understanding of African businesses in China.
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Neuland, Ernst, and Johan Hough. "Key success factors for business operations in emerging markets: Qualitative results from Sub-Saharan Africa." Corporate Ownership and Control 8, no. 1 (2010): 419–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.22495/cocv8i1c4p1.
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As the world economy is emerging from the global financial crisis, it is generally expected that economic recovery will be slow, with emerging economies, including those of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), expected to be the leading economic performers for some time to come. As economic prospects improve and global competitiveness intensifies, multinational companies (MNCs) will increasingly explore these opportunities that emerging markets offer, despite the higher inherent risks associated with the attractive profit potential that these markets offer compared to developed country markets. More specifically, the focus of MNCs in recent times has shifted to capturing a share of the market at the bottom of the economic pyramid (BOP) in emerging markets, estimated to be in excess of 4 billion people worldwide who are poor and underserved by the private sector, which includes MNCs. However, many MNCs have approached emerging and especially BOP markets within these markets based on flawed analyses, inappropriate strategies, and with existing portfolios of products and services developed and priced for Western markets which are often out of reach of both existing and potential customers in BOP markets. Based on qualitative research using a multiple case study approach, the purpose of this article is to identify strategic and operational key success factors for MNCs operating successfully in selected SSA country markets.
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Baer, Wolfgang, Ahmed Bounfour, and Thomas J. Housel. "An econophysics non-monetized theory of value." Journal of Intellectual Capital 19, no. 3 (May 14, 2018): 519–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jic-01-2017-0001.
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Purpose Mobile phones are radically transforming micro-finance in Sub-Saharan Africa, and Kenya, in particular. The introduction of the micro-financial transaction mobile phone application, “MPesa,” created a means to facilitate micro-transactions without the need for an intermediary, such as a banking system. The purpose of this paper is to posit an econophysics model to predict the value of Mpesa for Kenyan and South African consumers. The econophysics framework posits several fitness matrices and a distance measure that can account for the concepts of mass, distance, momentum, velocity, action, and force. The authors begin with a table of the match between the physics concepts and the economic concepts followed by the vector model that utilizes these concepts for the MPesa application case. In this paper, the authors will argue that MPesa succeeded in Sub-Saharan African countries, such as Kenya, because the fit between what this group of customers needed and the solutions Safaricom’s MPesa offered was a better fit with a smaller distance to adoption than in the South African case. Design/methodology/approach The research develops an econophysics approach to the assessment of micro-finance development in Sub-Saharan countries. Findings The research shows clearly the reasons of the success of MPesa in Kenya in comparison of its relative failure in South Africa: the distance between customers’ expectations and the system supply. Research limitations/implications The research is limited to two case studies and needs to be extended to other contexts, in order to demonstrate its robustness, especially with regard to the intangible dimension, e.g., the distance between a system potential and what it really offers. Practical implications The research shows the importance of system’s characteristics in its success. Social implications The social implications are very high, especially in this case, where micro-finance is a high stake for developing societies. Originality/value This is one of the first works to develop an econophysics approach for the evaluation of the key characteristics of a system.
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Adom, Kwame, and Irene Tiwaa Asare-Yeboa. "An evaluation of human capital theory and female entrepreneurship in sub-Sahara Africa." International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship 8, no. 4 (November 21, 2016): 402–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ijge-12-2015-0048.
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Purpose The study aims to evaluate critically how the elements of human capital theory such as level of education, area of education, training and prior work experience influence female entrepreneurship in sub-Saharan Africa, with focus on Ghana. Though it is very critical that the elements of human capital are known and assessed, there is currently very little known about the elements of human capital as pertains to female entrepreneurship in Ghana. This situation has called for a study such as this one. Design/methodology/approach A phenomenological paradigm was adopted for the study. This includes in-depth interview, documentation and observation. Unlike narrative research that reports on lived experiences of an individual, phenomenological study focuses on describing the lived experiences of several individuals. It is mainly a descriptive account of shared experiences of those individuals located near universal lived experience(s). Findings Reporting data from a 2014 qualitative in-depth interview of 25 women entrepreneurs in Accra who work in service delivery, manufacturing and trading, it was revealed that level of education, business training and knowledge gained during the course of their work were crucial factors for their success. As a consequence, this study calls for effective policies that will encourage education and training of women entrepreneurs, especially those with low levels of education, on a sustainable basis. Research limitations/implications The study focused on some of the elements of human capital and women’s entrepreneurship in Ghana. However, there exist other issues that are critical to the development of female entrepreneurship in the sub-Saharan region that can be explored to provide more insight on this subject or different context. Practical implications The human capital dimensions which were evaluated for this study included level of education, area of education, business training and experience gained from prior employment. The outcome is that these elements are crucial for the success of women entrepreneurs in Ghana, but there is the need for wider research in other global regions on women entrepreneurs and human capital factors and whether similar variations prevail. Originality/value Evidence from the literature reveals that little is known until now to evaluate the elements of the human capital of female entrepreneurs in Ghana, and this study seeks to bridge this gap. Results are examined comparing what is pertaining in other international communities, thus avoiding a merely national viewpoint.
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Emonena, Sunny Ekakitie, and Egede Nwawuku Matteo. "Driving SMEs Through Nepotism and Individualism: A Cross Cultural Analysis & Implications for Enterprise Success in Sub-Sahara Africa." Journal of Management and Strategy 11, no. 2 (June 1, 2020): 29. http://dx.doi.org/10.5430/jms.v11n2p29.
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As we gravitate deeper into the 21st century, work patterns that drive productivity tend towards teamwork, group specialization, hi-tech and hi-touch processes. This study in acknowledging this new paradigm advocates the adoption of the twin practices of nepotism and individualism for African SMEs. The authors argue that given the peculiar cultural inclinations of Africans where socio-economic activities are woven around family subsistence and individualism in optimizing skills and competences, coupled with readily available labour in most African families; it will be economically wise to drive SMEs set-up and start-ups through family. The authors contend that given the weak capacities of African entrepreneurs competitively, they can become effective if they make a strategic retreat and gradually develop their enterprises via deploying family resources cost effectively to increment capacities for productivity. The paper in examining extant literature evidenced the application of nepotism and individual acumen in the growth of enterprises across notable cultures in the world. Theories of entrepreneurship lending credence to arguments canvassed include Cantillon’s theory, the Knightian theory, the individual-opportunity nexus theory and the Mill’s theory of individualism among others. These along with empirical studies outcome cited reveal the immense benefits and successes recoverable in the creation/administration of SMEs along these dimensions. In the light of these benefits, the authors suggest among others that policies of government in sub-Saharan Africa should tilt towards incentives for family-patterned SMEs. It also advocates for a platform were innovative SMEs can receive recognition and sponsorship from government and trade/industrial associations. Finally, the paper suggests that SMEs in Africa link up via the Internet with SMEs abroad with a history of family business to learn success and survival strategies and gradually become global players themselves.
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Oyedele, Adesegun, and Fuat Firat. "Institutions, small local firms’ strategies, and global alliances in sub-Saharan Africa emerging markets." International Marketing Review 37, no. 1 (December 16, 2019): 156–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/imr-01-2019-0022.
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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to respond to the call of international marketing professionals for more studies on strategies that firms use in response to the complexities of interacting with other institutions in the emerging markets (EMs) of sub-Saharan Africa. The key research question investigated by employing the exploratory qualitative data gathered is: What strategies and global alliances do small local firms (SLFs) in Nigeria adopt to succeed under complex market conditions? Design/methodology/approach The methodology employed is exploratory qualitative research. The authors conducted extended interviews to generate rich case study data from the top management of the selected SLFs in Nigeria. The interview data were assessed using open, axial and selective coding to uncover macro-narratives that guide SLFs’ strategies and global alliances. Findings The macro-narratives derived from the qualitative case analysis reveal a theoretical framework centered on three major elements of competitive strategies in Nigeria: build global capacity and strategic alliances from the get-go; develop local strategic alliances; master matching alliance partners’ needs to create innovative payment plans and, when necessary, shift the transaction cost burden to alliance partners. Matching theory rather than traditional network theories is better at explicating SLFs’ alliances in Nigeria. Implementation of these strategies requires flexible strategic initiatives. Originality/value The study adapts institutional interaction theory, network theory, matching alliance perspective, trade credit theories and the literature on small firms’ strategies in EMs to explicate successful small local firm strategies and global alliances under complex market conditions in Nigeria. The recognition that SLFs regularly migrate and shift the burden of transactions’ cost to multiple stakeholders in the supply network by matching customers and supplier needs is important. The discovery of matching theory in explicating SLFs’ global alliances in Nigeria is unique to this study.
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Adomako, Samuel, Albert Danso, Nathaniel Boso, and Bedman Narteh. "Entrepreneurial alertness and new venture performance: Facilitating roles of networking capability." International Small Business Journal: Researching Entrepreneurship 36, no. 5 (January 10, 2018): 453–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0266242617747667.
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An ability to act upon an entrepreneurial opportunity is a major driver of new venture success. However, scholarly knowledge is limited on how and when entrepreneur alertness to entrepreneurial opportunities drives new venture success. This article addresses this gap arguing that variations in new venture performance are a function of levels of entrepreneurial alertness and networking capabilities. Using primary data gathered from 203 new ventures operating in a sub-Saharan African economy, Ghana, we find that increases in the levels of entrepreneurial alertness are related to increases in new venture performance. Additionally, we find that, under conditions of increased use of social and business networking capabilities, the potency of entrepreneurial alertness as a driver of new venture success is amplified. Theoretical, managerial and policy implications of these findings are discussed.
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Tyce, Matthew. "The politics of industrial policy in a context of competitive clientelism: The case of Kenya’s garment export sector." African Affairs 118, no. 472 (January 18, 2019): 553–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/afraf/ady059.
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Abstract The success of Kenya’s garment export sector relative to other African countries challenges a growing pessimism regarding the prospects of devising and implementing industrial policy in contemporary Africa, particularly in contexts characterized by Competitive Clientelism. Kenya became sub-Saharan Africa’s fourth largest exporter of garments by value during the last two decades, catching up with major players like Lesotho and South Africa while converging on the two largest exporters, Mauritius and Madagascar. Nuancing existing explanations for the sector’s growth, which emphasize external factors like trade regimes and donor interventions, this article assigns a central role to the state and the balance of power that underpins it. The interests of key actors within Kenya’s political settlement aligned in a way that allowed the country’s Export Processing Zones (EPZ) programme to be relatively insulated from political pressures, giving the Export Processing Zones Authority (EPZA) sufficient autonomy and coordination capacities to administer a highly-conducive business environment for predominantly foreign garment firms. However, while the sector’s employment and foreign exchange contributions have ensured ongoing political support, the resulting increase in garment firms’ holding power has made them more assertive in demanding policies that are not only decoupled from learning processes, but detrimental to other industry players.
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Kleemann, Linda. "The relevance of business practices in linking smallholders and large agro-businesses in Sub-Sahara Africa." International Food and Agribusiness Management Review 19, no. 4 (December 1, 2016): 65–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.22434/ifamr2015.0204.
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Smallholders often have to certify according to international standards and produce under contract for large agro-businesses to access export markets. While mostly positive effects for the farmers have been found for contracts and certifications, often these effects do not persist because contracts fail and certifications are not renewed. We suggest that individual firm behavior is crucial for the long-term success of farmer-agro-business relationships. In this article, we use data of 386 smallholders in the pineapple export sector in Ghana, analyze them quantitatively and enrich it by a detailed case study of a large-scale agro-business in Ghana. The results show that, in an environment with weak contract enforcement, certification is an agent of change in farmer-agro-business relations and that building trust and aligning expectations of farmers and firms largely determine success. We conclude that individual firm behavior matters more than taken into account in previous research. Our case study shows that three ‘R’ – reliability, reputation and respect – constitute the basis for contract relationships that benefit all.
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Adobor, Henry. "Entrepreneurial failure in agribusiness: evidence from an emerging economy." Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development 27, no. 2 (March 8, 2020): 237–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jsbed-04-2019-0131.
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PurposeThis article extends the literature on agricultural entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial failure in Ghana, a country in sub-Saharan Africa by exploring failure in a cohort of firms. As engines of economic growth, the performance of micro, small, and medium-sized firms is important. Agro-based enterprises, in particular, are vital because entrepreneurial failure in agribusiness affects food security, and is disruptive to social and economic stability.Design/methodology/approachUsing qualitative data from interviews, we identified reasons for the failure of a group of entrepreneurs associated with a novel agribusiness activity in an otherwise economically attractive market in an emerging economy. The data for the study came from 69 respondents who started and exited aquaculture, a form of agribusiness within a period.FindingsThe results of this study show that there can be negative effects of social structure on entrepreneurial behavior and outcomes. The strong social ties that emerged among the farmer-entrepreneurs led to excessive peer-to-peer copying and knowledge sharing, leading to premature closure of the search for nonredundant ideas. One consequence of that was the narrowing of the pool of available knowledge, which if broadened, may have improved the chances of success of these businesses. Also, the results demonstrate that a lack of institutional support in the form of training in the appropriate management of a new technology adversely affected the farmer-entrepreneurs and their businesses. It is important for governments that introduce a new economic activity to provide the scaffolding, including an understanding of the value chain, to enhance the chances of the economic success of ventures. Entrepreneurs for their part need to broaden their search for new ideas outside their peer groups to increase their chances of accessing non-redundant knowledge.Research limitations/implicationsThe sample size is small, limiting the generalization of findings and the recollection of events may fade with the passage of time, especially since most of the farmers did not keep written records.Practical implicationsFirst, entrepreneurship and economic development, long held as a panacea for moving developing countries out of poverty, may require consistent government support. Second, entrepreneurs venturing into business need to understand the particular challenges associated with a novel activity. Finally, entrepreneurs need to recognize that interconnectedness should not necessarily lead to the convergence of ideas and behavior.Originality/valueThe study extends and contextualizes the literature on agricultural entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial failure. Besides, the study focuses on entrepreneurial failure in Sub-Saharan Africa, an under-researched setting.
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Mulu, Hundera, Geert Duysters, Wim Naudé, and Josette Dijkhuizen. "The conflict between social role expectations and entrepreneurial role demands among women entrepreneurs in sub-Saharan Africa: empirical study from Ethiopia." Gender in Management: An International Journal 36, no. 3 (March 8, 2021): 430–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/gm-08-2019-0141.
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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to develop items for measuring the role conflict between social role expectations (SREs) and entrepreneurial role demands (ERDs) among women entrepreneurs in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Design/methodology/approach This paper uses 20 interviews and literature from SSA to develop items, a survey of 408 to conduct factor analysis and a survey of 307 to conduct criterion validity analysis. Findings Statistical analysis shows that the scales used adequately captured two dimensions of SRE and ERD conflict: SRE-to-ERD conflict and ERD-to-SRE conflict. It was found that the SRE-to-ERD-conflict scale is reliable and valid with the five dimensions of entrepreneurial success and that women entrepreneur’s experience significant role conflict between SREs and ERDs. Research limitations/implications The implication is that standard scales measuring work and family conflict, which tend to focus solely on the work and family context, cannot adequately account for role conflict among women entrepreneurs. Practical implications The practical implications of these findings are discussed. Originality/value New scale items form measuring the conflict between SREs and ERDs were developed.
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Bragoli, Gabriella, M. Craig Edwards, Shida Henneberry, and Craig Watters. "Interpreting the Impact of a Professional Development Program: Views of Entrepreneur Fellows from Kenya, South Africa, and Uganda One Year Later." Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education 28, no. 3 (April 15, 2021): 28–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.5191/jiaee.2021.28321.
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We conducted a qualitative study that examined the experiences of entrepreneurs who participated in a five-week-long professional development and cultural exchange fellowship program. The Entrepreneur Fellows represented three Sub-Saharan African nations and an array of enterprises, including agriculture and its allied fields, youth development organizations, and social ventures. The study assessed the post-fellowship experiences of the participants, especially regarding their enterprise-related goals, motivations and challenges, community-level impacts, as well as networking and communication practices. Analysis of data derived from 11 semi-structured interviews revealed three overarching themes and nine subthemes. The Entrepreneur Fellows were committed to life-long learning and sharing information, gained new business skills, and expanded their global networks. The Fellows valued their program participation and viewed it as a mark of success. Further, participants were motivated not only by the growth of their enterprises, but also the potential to positively impact their communities. Our findings imply the need for multi-year, longitudinal research, including economic impact data from the Fellows’ enterprises. We also recommend that similar programming be supported and delivered in the future.
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Cleland, John. "POPULATION GROWTH, EMPLOYMENT, AND LIVELIHOODS: THE TRIPLE CHALLENGE." Journal of Demographic Economics 83, no. 1 (February 13, 2017): 51–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/dem.2016.15.
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AbstractOver the next 35 years, the total population of sub-Saharan Africa is projected to increase by 118%, with a greater rise of of 156% of people in the prime working ages. To cope with population growth and exploit the slowly unfolding, favorable change in age structure, countries face a triple challenge. Agricultural productivity has to improve. Prospects are good, though climate change remains a threat. Manufacturing jobs need to be created on a far larger scale than hitherto. Success is uncertain because much depends on foreign investors and the actions of competing low-wage countries in Asia. The third challenge concerns the non-agricultural informal sector, which, even under optimistic assumptions about manufacturing, will continue to provide livelihoods for a large segment of the population. Entrepreneurship needs to be encouraged so that an increasing proportion of family enterprises evolve into larger businesses. There is no blueprint to achieve this evolution and much will depend on the hard work and ingenuity of individuals.
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Sallah, Cynthia Ayorkor, and Livingstone Divine Caesar. "Intangible resources and the growth of women businesses." Journal of Entrepreneurship in Emerging Economies 12, no. 3 (January 10, 2020): 329–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jeee-05-2019-0070.
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Purpose Intangible assets are widely considered as key success factors for the growth of businesses in various economies. While the relationship between intangible assets or resources and business growth or performance have been extensively researched in advanced economies, there is limited understanding of the complexity of the phenomenon in developing/emerging markets. In Ghana specifically, there is a dearth of research on the impact of intangible assets on the growth of women businesses. Consequently, this paper aims to investigate how intangible assets available to women entrepreneurs contribute to the performance of their businesses. Design/methodology/approach Using an exploratory sequential research design (a type of mixed methods design), the data collection was organized into two main phases. The first phase was the qualitative phase where nine respondents were interviewed, and the responses were analysed using thematic analysis. The second phase was the quantitative phase where some 264 questionnaires were collected and analysed using multiple regression analysis. Findings Specifically, the findings focused on three intangible resources: social capital, human capital and reputational capital. The study found that, social, human and reputational capital all significantly contributed to the growth of women businesses. The study also showed a positive and significant effect of social capital, reputational capital and human capital on business growth. Practical implications These findings have implications for women entrepreneurs in Ghana. If they must grow their businesses, then using intangible assets alone may not be able to deliver growth in the required proportions. Serious consideration must be given to the significant impact of intra and extra industry networking and the social competency skills of the entrepreneur. The rationality of this assertion hinges on the findings made from this study that social competence can be effectively used to further enhance the effects of the value of one’s intangible assets. Originality/value Policymakers in Sub-Saharan Africa and specifically Ghana have accorded high priority to private sector entrepreneurship towards reduction in the dependence of the citizenry on government for jobs. Perhaps, this paper adds to the growing body of knowledge on female entrepreneurship in Ghana to understand how intangible assets available to women entrepreneurs contribute to the performance of their businesses.
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Wamalwa, Herbert, Radha Upadhyaya, Paul Kamau, and Dorothy McCormick. "Strategies of Kenyan firms: a case study of food processing firms in Nairobi." African Journal of Economic and Management Studies 10, no. 4 (December 2, 2019): 507–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ajems-09-2018-0282.
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Purpose While many studies have discussed the regulatory constraints that hinder industrial development in sub-Saharan Africa, little attention has been paid to the behavior of those firms that succeed despite a challenging business environment. The purpose of this paper is to fill this gap by focusing on specific strategies of a subset of successful industrial firms in Kenya. Design/methodology/approach The paper draws on two data sets. First, a quantitative data set based on a survey of food processing firms provides an overall profile of the sub-sector and the strategies employed by successful Kenyan firms. Second, qualitative in-depth case studies unpack the concept of strategy from the perspective of the firm, with the aim of showing the links between vision and strategy and the adaptive nature of firm strategy. Findings The quantitative data set reveals that the most important strategies used by agri-processing firms are differentiation strategies (selling at a premium), cost reduction strategies and niche strategies. A second major finding, based on the case study interviews, is that Kenyan firms adopt a combination of strategies to cope with the volatile business environment and grow their market. Furthermore, the qualitative interviews reveal that the vision of the leader is linked to firm strategy and firms follow an adaptive approach to strategy development. Originality/value The paper’s original contribution is the conclusion that while the existing typologies of strategy were acknowledged by respondents, their actual strategies were composites resulting from adaptive strategy development. This conclusion was made possible by the paper’s mixed methods approach.
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Rwelamila, Pantaleo Mutajwaa Daniel, and Neha Purushottam. "Strategic project management as an innovative approach for sustainable green campus buildings in Africa." Smart and Sustainable Built Environment 5, no. 3 (September 5, 2016): 261–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/sasbe-09-2015-0029.
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Purpose Across the African continent many colleges and universities are facing hurdles in sustaining green building initiatives. Often the barriers to green building are not purely financial, they include a significant number of non-financial issues directly connected with the way green building initiatives are integrated within the management of these higher learning institutions (HLIs). The purpose of this paper is to explore the reasons behind widespread barriers and the ways in which the barriers could be overcome through strategic project management. Design/methodology/approach The paper includes a critical review of existing literature on barriers to sustaining green building initiatives and an argument is built on the need to manage these initiatives as projects. Consequently it establishes that there is a seamless connection between HLIs strategies and projects, hence strategic project management as a framework to sustain the green campus culture. Findings Despite numerous barriers facing African HLIs in embracing green campus buildings (GCBs) as part of their permanent business undertakings; this review strongly suggest a change of direction from “traditional approaches” to strategic project management, where all green building initiatives are transformed to programmes and portfolios dealing with sub-sets of the core business of HLIs. Practical implications Strategic decision to include green campus building initiatives (GCBIs) as part of HLIs core strategic business projects will bring permanence in GCB thinking and resources will be allocated to GCBIs and green campus thinking may become a norm and one of the metrics for organization success. Social implications Strategic project as a way to creating a conducive-environment for GCBIs success will become a constant and part of the way in which African HLIs are managed. Originality/value Contemporary management approaches like strategic project management is embraced as mean for allowing under-resourced African HLIs achieving significant reduction in greenhouse gas emissions.
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Mmieh, Frederick, and Nana Owusu-Frimpong. "The making of a Sub-Saharan African success story: The case of cross-border listing of trust bank limited of the Gambia on the Ghana Stock Exchange." Thunderbird International Business Review 51, no. 4 (July 2009): 369–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/tie.20273.
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Eberhard, Anton, and Katharine Nawaal Gratwick. "IPPs in Sub-Saharan Africa: Determinants of success." Energy Policy 39, no. 9 (September 2011): 5541–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2011.05.004.
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Uduji, Joseph Ikechukwu, Elda Nduka Okolo-Obasi, and Simplice Asongu. "Women’s participation in the offshore and inshore fisheries entrepreneurship." Journal of Enterprising Communities: People and Places in the Global Economy 14, no. 2 (April 23, 2020): 247–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jec-01-2020-0010.
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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to critically examine the multinational oil companies’ corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives in Nigeria. Its special focus is to investigate the impact of the global memorandum of understanding (GMoU) on women involved in offshore and inshore fisheries entrepreneurship in the coastal communities of the Niger Delta region. Design/methodology/approach This paper adopts a survey research technique, aimed at gathering information from a representative sample of the population, as it is essentially cross-sectional, describing and interpreting the current situation. A total 800 respondents were sampled across the coastal communities of the Niger Delta region. Findings The results from the use of a combined propensity score matching and logit model indicate that the GMoU model is gender insensitive, as extensive inequality restrains fisherwomen’s participation in the offshore and inshore fisheries entrepreneurship, often due to societal norms and customs that greatly frustrate women’s development in fisheries. Practical implications This implies that if fisherwomen continue in this unfavourable position, their reliance on menfolk would remain while trying to access financial support and decision-making regarding fisheries entrepreneurship development. Social implications The inshore and offshore fisheries entrepreneurship development can only succeed if cluster development boards of GMoUs are able to draw all the resources and talents and if fisherwomen are able to participate fully in the GMoUs intervention plans and programme. Originality/value This research contributes to the gender debate in fisheries entrepreneurship development from a CSR perspective in developing countries and rationale for demands for social projects by host communities. It concludes that business has an obligation to help in solving problems of public concern, and that CSR priorities in Sub-Saharan Africa should be aimed towards addressing the peculiarity of the socio-economic development challenges of the countries and be informed by socio-cultural influences.
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Rodríguez-Pose, Andrés, and Sylvia A. R. Tijmstra. "Local Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa." Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy 25, no. 4 (August 2007): 516–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/c5p.
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It has often been argued that Africa in general, and Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) in particular, is ‘different’ and that it therefore requires ‘exceptional’ solutions to its development problems. In contrast, in this paper we argue that strong internal heterogeneity combined with general trends similar to those experienced elsewhere in the world make local economic development (LED) as likely to succeed in SSA as in other low- and middle-income countries. The likelihood of success depends mostly on place-specific conditions. Many of the most prosperous parts of the continent already have the basic enabling conditions for the design and implementation of LED strategies in place. Less favourable resource endowments, poor accessibility, and relatively weak civil societies can undermine the viability of LED outside the wealthier and most prosperous areas. In smaller urban areas and intermediate regions and city-regions, which lack only a few of the basic preconditions for LED, further capacity building may still enable the success of the approach. In contrast, LED may not be relevant for the poorest and most remote parts of SSA, where existing conditions do not provide a strong enough base on which to build LED strategies.
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Rogerson, Christian M. "Unpacking business tourism mobilities in sub-Saharan Africa." Current Issues in Tourism 18, no. 1 (March 24, 2014): 44–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2014.898619.
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Anderson, Johanna. "A School Library in Sub-Saharan Africa." Library and Information Research 35, no. 110 (August 7, 2011): 3–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.29173/lirg456.
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This paper reports on the success and suitability of a Western-donated school library in furthering literacy and reader development in Malawi.
A qualitative, case study approach was taken using semi-structured interviews with teachers and a library assistant at a primary school in Malawi.
The research reveals positive attitudes towards reading and literacy in a predominantly oral culture. Limitations include a lack of attention to reader development and inappropriateness of materials for the local context.
The study reveals that the book donation model commonly supported by international donors and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) falls short in its ability to contribute to global literacy and education targets. Recommendations to improve impact are given.
This research is original in representing the voices of school teachers in the debate over the suitability of libraries and the overseas book donation model to the sub-Saharan African context.
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Ware, Norma C., John Idoko, Sylvia Kaaya, Irene Andia Biraro, Monique A. Wyatt, Oche Agbaji, Guerino Chalamilla, and David R. Bangsberg. "Explaining Adherence Success in Sub-Saharan Africa: An Ethnographic Study." PLoS Medicine 6, no. 1 (January 27, 2009): e1000011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000011.
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Munamati, Muchaneta, Innocent Nhapi, and Shepherd Misi. "Exploring the determinants of sanitation success in Sub-Saharan Africa." Water Research 103 (October 2016): 435–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2016.07.030.
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Amadou, Akilou, and Tchamsé Aronda. "Structural transformation in sub-Saharan Africa." African Journal of Economic and Management Studies 11, no. 2 (March 16, 2020): 233–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ajems-06-2019-0236.
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PurposeRecent works on the structural transformation of developing countries usually include only a few countries because of the availability of data. Beyond the resulting lack of representativeness, these works also hit a strong disparity between the labour reallocation patterns of sub-regions. This paper devoted to sub-Saharan Africa, evaluates the performance of sub-Saharan Africa, as a whole, in structural transformation using a more exhaustive database and highlights key disparities that exist between the performances of sub-Saharan African sub-regions.Design/methodology/approachWith a database covering 43 sub-Saharan African countries classified into 4 sub-regions, the paper uses the shift-share method over the period 1991–2012 with sub-periods of 1991–2000 and 2000–2012.FindingsResults show that labour reallocation in sub-Saharan Africa occurred, though weakly, towards more productive activities over the period 1991–2012. Results also show a significant disparity between sub-regions' labour reallocation pattern. While East Africa has experienced a labour reallocation towards more productive activities, West Africa has seen a labour reallocation towards activities experiencing an increase in productivity. Central Africa and Southern Africa experienced a labour reallocation towards less productive activities, and these activities know, moreover, a decrease of productivity.Practical implicationsFindings suggest that any political strategy purposing to coordinate structural transformation in sub-Saharan Africa will result in a failure if countries' peculiarities are not taken into account.Originality/valueThis paper offers a representative picture of sub-Saharan Africa's structural transformation and illustrates disparities between its sub-regions' performances.
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Asongu, Simplice A., and Jacinta C. Nwachukwu. "Openness, ICT and entrepreneurship in sub-Saharan Africa." Information Technology & People 31, no. 1 (February 5, 2018): 278–303. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/itp-02-2017-0033.
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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine how information and communication technology (ICT) influences openness to improve the conditions of doing business in sub-Saharan Africa. Design/methodology/approach The data were collected for the period 2000-2012. ICT is proxied with internet and mobile phone penetration rates whereas openness is measured in terms of financial and trade globalisation. Ten indicators of doing business are used, namely: cost of business start-up procedures; procedure to enforce a contract; start-up procedures to register a business; time required to build a warehouse; time required to enforce a contract; time required to register a property; time required to start a business; time to export; time to prepare and pay taxes; and time to resolve an insolvency. The empirical evidence is based on generalised method of moments with forward orthogonal deviations. Findings While the authors find substantial evidence that ICT complements openness to improve conditions for entrepreneurship, the effects are contingent on the dynamics of openness, ICT and entrepreneurship. Theoretical and practical policy implications are discussed. Originality/value The inquiry is based on two contemporary development concerns: the need for policy to leverage on the ICT penetration potential in the sub-region and the relevance of entrepreneurship in addressing associated issues of population growth such as unemployment.
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Bräutigam, Deborah, Lise Rakner, and Scott Taylor. "Business associations and growth coalitions in Sub-Saharan Africa." Journal of Modern African Studies 40, no. 4 (November 28, 2002): 519–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022278x02004056.
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Why are ‘growth coalitions’ involving business interest groups and governments so rare in Africa? How has democratisation affected the possibilities for growth coalitions? In three cases with varying degrees of democracy – Mauritius, Zambia, and Zimbabwe – we find that hypotheses about growth coalitions that place importance on the organisation of the business sector are generally borne out. Yet even when the business community is organised in an ‘ideal’ manner, growth coalitions still depend on factors within the state: leadership, ideas, and capacity. Democratisation has a mixed effect. We find that in the case of Zambia, business–state relations did not improve despite a pro-democracy stance by business and the pro-business agenda of the democratic government coming to power in 1991. In Zimbabwe, the erosion of democracy reduced business access to state elites, breaking up a growth coalition that initially showed considerable promise. In Mauritius, the strengthening of democracy has paralleled the deepening of the growth coalition, and both have been reinforced by a strong economy. Our study shows that growth coalitions are possible in Africa; the key lies in determining the conditions under which such coalitions can be sustained in Africa's fragile polities.
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Asongu, Simplice, Nicholas Biekpe, and Vanessa Tchamyou. "Remittances, ICT and doing business in Sub-Saharan Africa." Journal of Economic Studies 46, no. 1 (January 7, 2019): 35–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jes-06-2017-0146.
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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine how linkages between information and communication technology (ICT) and remittances affect the doing of business. Design/methodology/approach The focus is on a panel of 49 Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries for the period 2000–2012. The empirical evidence is based on the generalized method of moments. Findings While the authors establish some appealing results in terms of net negative effects on constraints to the doing of business (i.e. time to start a business and time to pay taxes), some positive net effects are also apparent (i.e. number of start-up procedures, time to build a warehouse and time to register a property). The authors also establish ICT penetration thresholds at which the unconditional effect of remittances can be changed from positive to negative, notably: for the number of start-up procedures, an internet level of 9.00 penetration per 100 people is required, while for the time to build a warehouse, a mobile phone penetration level of 32.33 penetration per 100 people is essential. Practical and theoretical implications are discussed. Originality/value To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study to assess linkages between ICT, remittances and doing business in SSA.
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Dwumfour, Richard Adjei. "Explaining banking stability in Sub-Saharan Africa." Research in International Business and Finance 41 (October 2017): 260–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ribaf.2017.04.027.
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Betchoo, Nirmal Kumar. "Sub-Saharan Africa’s Perspective of Distance Learning." International Letters of Social and Humanistic Sciences 48 (February 2015): 185–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.18052/www.scipress.com/ilshs.48.185.
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This review article follows the author’s participation in the International DEASA Conference held in Mauritius in December 2014. There is a growing concern over the years to develop Open and Distance Learning (ODL) in sub-Saharan Africa based upon the fact that all nations are connected to the Internet and related technologies. In this perspective, the objective of encouraging distance learning comes from the fact that it had existed in Mauritius and several other countries in its traditional form through mail and correspondence courses. The fact that such type of education is gaining more recognition today calls the author to reflect upon how suitably distance education could be imparted in sub-Saharan Africa with the knowledge that it is still in its infancy since Africa is in general lagging behind in technology. There is no excuse given that governments in sub-Saharan Africa believe that distance learning helps building capacity in their respective countries and favours the advancement and growth of individuals. Blending both technology and education followed by governing principles of broadening educational access at the tertiary level might improve opportunities for development and growth. Illustrations are taken from different countries which have both met with the challenges and success of distance learning. It is found out that governments in sub-Saharan Africa need to move forward with bolder initiatives to ensure the success of open and distance learning in the region.
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Kohler, Marcel, and Thembeka Khumalo. "Upgrading Export Structure In Sub-Saharan Africa." International Business & Economics Research Journal (IBER) 14, no. 2 (March 2, 2015): 269. http://dx.doi.org/10.19030/iber.v14i2.9164.
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A major focus of research on trade policy reform relates to whether changes in global economic participation, brought about by such reform, provides for sustainable income growth in the countries concerned. The challenge for many African economies in this context is to improve their position in the global economy by upgrading their export structures. The authors empirical work suggests that export diversification is a critical first step in upgrading export structure in Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries. The authors find that the knowledge gained from the export diversification process, along with technology spillovers associated with FDI flows, are important drivers. Furthermore, they find evidence of learning by doing productivity gains from SSA exporting activity. On the whole, the authors do not find that the rise of Asian driver economies poses a significant threat to SSA export sophistication. What is crucial to the further success of SSA countries upgrading their export structure is government policy initiatives that prioritise the upgrading of infrastructure, human capital development and institutional reform. These efforts will ensure that SSA countries can realise real economic gains through improvements in their export structures rather than locking their economies into commodity dependence on the basis of their favourable natural resource endowments.
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Adikorley, Ruth Dede, Kristin Thoney-Barletta, Jeff Joines, and Lori Rothenberg. "Apparel sourcing in Sub-Saharan Africa." Research Journal of Textile and Apparel 21, no. 3 (September 11, 2017): 203–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/rjta-05-2017-0022.
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Purpose The purpose of this study is to examine why Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is not currently a major player in producing apparel for the US market and determine if SSA is likely to become one because of several opportunities that the region offers, including relatively low labor wages, an ample labor force and duty-free access to the USA through the 10-year renewal of AGOA. Design/methodology/approach In-depth interviews were conducted with eight high-level executives in apparel sourcing and trade agencies to obtain their views on the opportunities and challenges of sourcing in SSA in relation to other major apparel sourcing regions. A descriptive analysis of the qualitative data was used to answer three research questions. Findings The findings reveal that SSA is a competitive region to source from, because of low labor wages and the duty-free benefits through AGOA. However, several challenges hinder a significant increase in sourcing from SSA. The executives recommended that for SSA to be a significant force in the global apparel market, vertical supply chains should be developed, where raw materials like fabric are sourced from within the country/region and SSA governments should become more involved in business environment improvements. Originality/value At present, there is limited academic literature on sourcing and supplier selection in Africa, particularly in textile and apparel sourcing in SSA. Based on interviews from high-level executives engaged in the sourcing decision-making process, this study reveals the benefits, challenges and opportunities for sourcing apparel from SSA countries.
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Asongu, Simplice, and Joseph Nnanna. "Inclusive human development in sub-Saharan Africa." Journal of Enterprising Communities: People and Places in the Global Economy 14, no. 2 (April 17, 2020): 183–200. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jec-11-2019-0115.
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Purpose This study aims to assess the role of income levels (low and middle) in modulating governance (political and economic) to influence inclusive human development. Design/methodology/approach The empirical evidence is based on interactive quantile regressions and 49 countries in sub-Saharan Africa for the period 2000-2002. Findings The following main findings are established. Firstly, low income modulates governance (economic and political) to positively affect inclusive human development exclusively in countries with above-median levels of inclusive human development. It follows that countries with averagely higher levels of inclusive human development are more likely to benefit from the relevance of income levels in influencing governance for inclusive development. Secondly, the importance of middle income in modulating political governance to positively affect inclusive human development is apparent exclusively in the median while the relevance of middle income in moderating economic governance to positively influence inclusive human development is significantly apparent in the 10th and 75th quantiles. Thirdly, regardless of panels, income levels modulate economic governance to affect inclusive human development at a higher magnitude, compared to political governance. Policy implications are discussed in light of the post-2015 agenda of sustainable development goals and contemporary development paradigms. Originality/value This study complements the extant sparse literature on inclusive human development in Africa.
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Mohs, Ralf M. "Structural adjustment programmes in sub-Saharan Africa." Intereconomics 23, no. 2 (March 1988): 25–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02926238.
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Mohs, Ralf M. "Structural adjustment programmes in sub-Saharan Africa." Intereconomics 23, no. 1 (January 1988): 25–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02929964.
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Sen, Kunal, and Dirk Willem Te Velde. "State Business Relations and Economic Growth in Sub-Saharan Africa." Journal of Development Studies 45, no. 8 (September 2009): 1267–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00220380902863307.
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Blackburn, Michelle, Rick Holden, and Catherine Burrell. "Teaching critical reflection in Sub-Saharan Africa: business as usual?" Reflective Practice 15, no. 3 (February 14, 2014): 390–403. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14623943.2014.883303.
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Asongu, Simplice, and Nicholas Odhiambo. "Doing business and inclusive human development in Sub-Saharan Africa." African Journal of Economic and Management Studies 10, no. 1 (March 11, 2019): 2–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ajems-05-2018-0132.
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PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to examine how doing business affects inclusive human development in 48 Sub-Saharan Africa for the period 2000–2012.Design/methodology/approachThe measurement of inclusive human development encompasses both absolute pro-poor and relative pro-poor concepts of inclusive development. Three doing business variables are used, namely: the number of start-up procedures required to register a business, time required to start a business, and time to prepare and pay taxes. The empirical evidence is based on fixed effects and generalised method of moments regressions.FindingsThe findings show that increasing constraints to the doing of business have a negative effect on inclusive human development.Originality/valueThe study is timely and very relevant to the post-2015 Sustainable Development Agenda for two fundamental reasons: first, exclusive development is a critical policy syndrome in Africa because about 50 per cent of countries in the continent did not attain the Millennium Development Goal extreme poverty target despite enjoying more than two decades of growth resurgence. Second, growth in Africa is primarily driven by large extractive industries and with the population of the continent expected to double in about 30 years, scholarship on entrepreneurship for inclusive development is very welcome. This is essentially because studies have shown that the increase in unemployment (resulting from the underlying demographic change) would be accommodated by the private sector, not the public sector.
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Gupta, Vipin, Nancy Levenburg, Lynda Moore, Jaideep Motwani, and Thomas V. Schwarz. "Family Business in Sub-Saharan Africa Versus the Middle East." Journal of African Business 11, no. 2 (September 22, 2010): 146–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15228916.2010.508992.
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Vanadzina, Evgenia, Antti Pinomaa, Samuli Honkapuro, and Gonçalo Mendes. "An innovative business model for rural sub-Saharan Africa electrification." Energy Procedia 159 (February 2019): 364–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2019.01.001.
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Cummings, Matthew J., Barnabas Bakamutumaho, and Max R. O’Donnell. "Unfinished business: severe acute respiratory infection in sub-Saharan Africa." Intensive Care Medicine 42, no. 9 (May 12, 2016): 1515–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00134-016-4383-7.
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Okpala, Amon O., O. Felix Ayadi, and Pender Gbenedio. "Poverty And Childhood Survival Rates In Sub-Saharan Africa." Journal of Applied Business Research (JABR) 13, no. 1 (September 7, 2011): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.19030/jabr.v13i1.5767.
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Life-expectancy at birth is an important indicator of well-being. Most of the nations with very high life expectancy rates are among the economically advanced nations of the world. This fact leads one to infer that mortality differences exist partly due to economic status. The poverty of women and children remain a major developing challenge for all societies, especially the developing nations. Women in Sub-Saharan Africa play a very important role in food production, bearing and raising children, the prevention/treatment of childhood diseases and malnutrition. As such, the education of mothers and household income could help improve family health, and sanitation. The findings here do show that childhood mortality is significantly influenced by female education, household income, and the feeding practices of mothers.
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Sumberg, James. "‘Good Farmers’ in Sub-Saharan Africa: Evolving Narratives." Outlook on Agriculture 40, no. 4 (December 2011): 293–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.5367/oa.2011.0067.
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In this paper, the example of cocoa production in Ghana is used to explore how the narratives portraying African farmers have changed over the last 70 years. These evolving narratives are explored through the notion of a ‘good farmer’. The argument is that, as the image of African farmers has been progressively rehabilitated (from ignorant and tradition-bound to skilled and research-minded), the image of formal research and extension has suffered. This reversal was associated with the progressive disempowering of formal agricultural research. With the recent renewed interest in agricultural development, narratives about African farmers are again evolving: ‘good farmers’ are now increasingly being defined as those who approach their farming as a proper business.
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Murithi, William, Natalia Vershinina, and Peter Rodgers. "Where less is more: institutional voids and business families in Sub-Saharan Africa." International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research 26, no. 1 (February 7, 2019): 158–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ijebr-07-2017-0239.
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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to offer a conceptual interpretation of the role business families play in the institutional context of sub-Saharan Africa, characterised by voids within the formal institutional setting. Responding to calls to take a holistic perspective of the institutional environment, we develop a conceptual model, showcasing the emergence of relational familial logics within business families that enable these enterprising organisations to navigate the political, economic and socio-cultural terrain of this institutional context. Design/methodology/approach The authors undertake a review of extant literature on institutional theory, institutional voids, family business and business families and examine the relevance of these theoretical constructs in relation to the institutional environment of Sub-Saharan Africa. The authors offer tentative propositions within our conceptualisation, which the authors discuss in an inductive fashion. Findings The review underlines the relevance of informal political, economic and socio-cultural institutions within the sub-Saharan context, within which the family as an institution drives business families engagement in institutional entrepreneurship. In doing so, the authors argue business families are best positioned to navigate the existing Sub-Saharan African institutional context. The authors underline the critical relevance of the embeddedness of social relationships that underpin relational familial logic within the sub-Saharan African collectivist socio-cultural system. Originality/value By challenging the assumptions that institutional voids are empty spaces devoid of institutions, the authors offer an alternative view that institutional voids are spaces where there exists a misalignment of formal and informal institutions. The authors argue that in such contexts within Sub-Saharan Africa, business families are best placed to harness their embeddedness within extended family and community for entrepreneurial activity. The authors argue that family and business logics may complement each other rather than compete. The discussions and propositions have implications for future research on business families and more inclusive forms of family organisations.
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Amankwah-Amoah, Joseph, Nathaniel Boso, and Yaw A. Debrah. "Africa rising in an emerging world: an international marketing perspective." International Marketing Review 35, no. 4 (July 9, 2018): 550–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/imr-02-2017-0030.
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PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to highlight important contemporary themes in international marketing strategy from the perspective of Sub-Saharan African firms.Design/methodology/approachThe approach adopted is a review and synopsis of the existing body of research on international marketing research in Sub-Saharan Africa, and a discussion of the manuscripts included in the special issue.FindingsInternational marketing in Sub-Sahara Africa is growing steadily, driven largely by rapid changes in socio-economic and demographic characteristics of consumers in this market. The growing appetite of multinational enterprises to explore new growth opportunities on this continent and the increasing intra-Africa cross-border transactions is driving unique approaches to international marketing that are predicated on using non-traditional means to produce, communicate and distribute products and services.Research limitations/implicationsWhile the international marketing opportunities and challenges discussed in this paper are not exhaustive, the paper highlights important research themes that need consideration regarding international marketing research in Sub-Saharan Africa.Originality/valueThis introductory paper emphasizes the unique international business landscape in Sub-Saharan Africa and discusses its international marketing strategy implications. The paper further draws attention to a number of unanswered research questions that require additional research, and thus bring Sub-Saharan Africa to international marketing scholarly enquiry.
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Button, Kenneth, Gianmaria Martini, Davide Scotti, and Nicola Volta. "Airline regulation and common markets in Sub-Saharan Africa." Transportation Research Part E: Logistics and Transportation Review 129 (September 2019): 81–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tre.2019.07.007.
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Kiggundu, Moses N. "The Challenges of Management Development in Sub‐Saharan Africa." Journal of Management Development 10, no. 6 (June 1991): 32–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/02621719110004411.
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Bataka, Hodabalo. "Globalization and Gender Inequalities in Sub-Saharan Africa." International Trade Journal 34, no. 6 (June 16, 2020): 516–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08853908.2020.1774448.
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De Gobbi, Maria Sabrina. "Making Youth Entrepreneurship Work in Sub-Saharan Africa: Some Factors of Success." Open Journal of Business and Management 02, no. 04 (2014): 305–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2014.24036.
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