Journal articles: 'Sumerian language – Texts'

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Osterman, Jasmina. "From ki-en-gi to Šumerum: how Sumer was Created?" Radovi Zavoda za hrvatsku povijest Filozofskoga fakulteta Sveučilišta u Zagrebu 54, no. 3 (December 15, 2022): 39–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.17234/radovizhp.54.20.

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This paper deals with the gradual formation of the Sumerian tradition, about which most information came from Old Babylonian sources (first quarter of the second millennium BC). In these sources, the territory, people, language and tradition are named šumerum, and according to bilingual texts (Babylonian-Sumerian), the Sumerian compound that corresponds to that name is ki-en-gi. I analyzed the texts in which the Sumerian name appears, from the Early Dynastic I-II period (around 2700 BC) until the end of third third millennium BC. My intention was to see how the meaning of ki-en-gi transformed over the course of 700 years until it was eventually equated with šumerum. Along with the change in the meaning and orthography of that Sumerian name, I also investigate the socio-political changes in Southern Mesopotamian society that influenced the creation of a special Sumerian tradition. Within the Babylonian culture, Sumerian became a unique culture that is understood as the origin of urban life in the Mesopotamian kingdoms, and Sumerian acquired the status of the language of culture and education.

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Samsonia, Nino. "Enguri basin toponyms in cuneiform texts." Pro Georgia 33, no. 1 (August 10, 2023): 147–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.61097/12301604/pg33/2023/147-160.

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In studying the semantic and phonetic coincidences of Abzu-Engur, we focused on the Sumerian word Laḫama, which is also related to the Svan toponyms Laḫamula and the river Enguri. 50 Laḫama of Engur, as well as Abzu-Engur is found in many Sumerian and Babylonian texts from the third millennium BC and is usually associated with the Engur, Abzu waters, or the abode of wisdom. The article presents and discusses the Sumerian cuneiform texts from III millenium BC., including the ancient Babylonian period, where the Sumerian word Lahama and the Akkadian equivalent Laḫmu are recorded. Analysis of the cuneiform texts shows that the Laḫama / Laḫmu are the guardians and inseparable beings of Engur. The Sumerian word Engur (Sum. Engur), which in Sumerian means underground river, is the abode of Enki (Akk.Ea), the god of wisdom, in all cuneiform texts, guarded by the Laḫama deities. Laḫama is also found in Sumerian texts to refer to a figure of a guardian statue standing at the gates of large temples. Such as E-KUR in Nippur and E-ninu in Girsu. They are also called “Abzu -Laḫama”. (Ancient Akkadian laḫmu, probably meaning “hairy” shaggy). Laḫmu – the guardian deity associated with Enki (Akk. Ea). The Akkadian tradition was associated with Marduk. Appeared with long hair and a beard, sometimes with 4 or 6 curls. In art he is called a naked hero. Was associated with the human-bull figure. In the Babylonian creation myth, “Enuma Eliš” Laḫmu and Laḫamu are a female and a male couple, and are mentioned among the original creatures together with Anšar-Kišar. They derive from a common root (muddy). In the myth of the Babylonian creation – Enuma Eliš, Tiamat gives birth to 11 monsters. Among them is Laḫamu – a long-haired “hero”. As it is known from Ancient Mesopotamoan iconography, glower bowl with trickling water is an attribute of Enki, the god of wisdom, which is occupied by Enki in Akkadian (XXIV-XXII BC) and New Sumerian (XXI-XX BC). ) In the iconography of the period is, who is sometimes replaced by Laḫmu. Laḫama – deities are associated with Abzu-Engur and the city of Eridu. La-ḫa-ma (Sum.). According to the interpretation of the Sumerian cuneiform signs,he appears as a noble mythical creature – a creature of gratitude, merciful essential water creature. Our paper presents the Sumerian word Laḫama phonetic study, search for different meanings of cuneiform signs, which should be interesting for the study of the Kartvelian, in particular the Svan toponym Laḫamula. The article substantiates the coincidence of the Svan toponym with Laḫamula, which is directly related to the Enguri River, and which is confirmed by the Engur- Laḫama semantic and phonetic coincidences in the cuneiform texts. The root of the Svan toponym Lahamula is based on a basic study of the Sumerian lexical units: Engur and la-ḫa-ma. In the Sumerian language, the Engur is the abode of the god of wisdom, Enki (Akk. Ea). The word Apsu’s root in Georgian is also related to the flow of water (eg the river Supsa, Psou, etc.). The study presented by us is based on a general analysis of Sumerian texts and iconography and combines chronologically with the completely ancient period (IIII mill. BC), which gives us a basis for the etymology of the Svan toponyms – Enguri and Laḫamula as a matter of Mesopotamian civilization. It is also another clear proof of the cultural relations between the Ancient Near East and the Caucasus.

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Chiarcos, Christian, Ilya Khait, Émilie Pagé-Perron, Niko Schenk, Jayanth, Christian Fäth, Julius Steuer, William Mcgrath, and Jinyan Wang. "Annotating a Low-Resource Language with LLOD Technology: Sumerian Morphology and Syntax." Information 9, no. 11 (November 19, 2018): 290. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/info9110290.

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This paper describes work on the morphological and syntactic annotation of Sumerian cuneiform as a model for low resource languages in general. Cuneiform texts are invaluable sources for the study of history, languages, economy, and cultures of Ancient Mesopotamia and its surrounding regions. Assyriology, the discipline dedicated to their study, has vast research potential, but lacks the modern means for computational processing and analysis. Our project, Machine Translation and Automated Analysis of Cuneiform Languages, aims to fill this gap by bringing together corpus data, lexical data, linguistic annotations and object metadata. The project’s main goal is to build a pipeline for machine translation and annotation of Sumerian Ur III administrative texts. The rich and structured data is then to be made accessible in the form of (Linguistic) Linked Open Data (LLOD), which should open them to a larger research community. Our contribution is two-fold: in terms of language technology, our work represents the first attempt to develop an integrative infrastructure for the annotation of morphology and syntax on the basis of RDF technologies and LLOD resources. With respect to Assyriology, we work towards producing the first syntactically annotated corpus of Sumerian.

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Baranowski, Krzysztof J. "New Light on Peripheral Akkadian from Qaṭna: Texts between Language and Writing System." Altorientalische Forschungen 45, no. 1 (June 1, 2018): 22–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/aofo-2018-0002.

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AbstractThe linguistic status of Peripheral Akkadian is a complex question. The texts from Qaṭna help to elucidate it. The texts, which underlie these documents, were uttered in Hurrian, while Sumerian, Akkadian and Hurrian constituted complementary writing platforms to record it. Seen in this light, the question of defining the language of these texts is malapropos. Instead, it is necessary to differentiate the status of individual languages. Such an inquiry is historically feasible by adopting second language acquisition as a theoretical framework.

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Talib, Moahaimen, and Jamila Harbi S. "Sumerian Character Extraction by Using Discrete Wavelet Transform and Split Region Methods." Kurdistan Journal of Applied Research 2, no. 3 (August 27, 2017): 62–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.24017/science.2017.3.20.

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this paper proposed a new method to extract characters from Sumerian Texts in Sumerian cuneiform tablets from the Ur III period. The work was confronted by the challenges posed by the fact that Sumerian is not a well understood language and it is not similar to any other ancient or modern language, so we offered a new method for extracting characters from Sumerian tablets,it has an accurate results and better time consuming than other methods, taking many tablet images and applying preprocessing methods to enhance and segment the image and then discrete wavelet transformation and we extract characters for each tablet image by split region algorithm, this work will be very helpful to Cuneiforms and scholars in their field.

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Kerbelytė, Bronislava. "Translations of the Sumerian and Akkadian Texts." Tautosakos darbai 48 (December 10, 2014): 229–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.51554/td.2014.29104.

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Jordan, Delila, and Sebastian Fink. "Scribal Identities, Renaissances, and Dead Languages: From Barber Sumerian to Kitchen Latin." Studia Orientalia Electronica 11, no. 2 (May 16, 2023): 30–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.23993/store.129805.

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This article is an investigation of the role of the knowledge of dead languages, namely Latin and Sumerian, for scribal or scholarly identities. While at first glance there is no obvious reason why a “dead language” should be part of the curriculum of people who were about to become the foremost administrators of their time, knowledge of one or more dead languages seems to be a pillar of scholarly self-consciousness in many periods. The three groups under study are Mesopotamian scribes in general, especially those of the Old Babylonian schools; the galas/kalûs, professional lamentation singers that became scribes over the course of time; and Renaissance scholars, for whom a perfect grasp of Latin was of utmost importance. Those who did not meet the expectations of their colleagues were accused of speaking “Barber Sumerian” or “Kitchen Latin” and thereby excluded from the exclusive scholarly circles—or, as the Sumerian school texts put it, from becoming a true member of humanity.

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ESPAK, Peeter. "Genesis 11, 1–9 and its Sumerian Predecessors in Comparative Perspective: Early Views on “National Culture” and its Nature." STUDIA ANTIQUA ET ARCHAEOLOGICA 27, no. 2 (2021): 255–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.47743/saa-2021-27-2-2.

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The paper discusses some key texts from Ancient Mesopotamian and also Hebrew mythologies which may have had several indications and contained many ancient understandings about the early views on the modern notions of a nation, national culture and the role of language on these beliefs. The possible connection of the Sumerian epic tale Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta is discussed in context with the Enuma Eliš myth in context with Hebrew Genesis’ the Tower of Babel story and the character of these text and the nature of their evolution is analysed. Based on some Sumerian royal correspondence, hymns, and epic literature and the worldview presented in Sumerian literature it is concluded that that certainly and especially a sort of a language based cultural and also ethnical understanding about a “distinct nation” culturally separate from “other” nations already existed more than 4000 years ago; reflected in many ways similarly also in the stories of Hebrew Genesis.

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9

Michalowski, Piotr. "Sumerian Literary Texts. Bendt Alster , Markham J. Geller." Journal of Near Eastern Studies 54, no. 1 (January 1995): 49–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/373720.

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Kudrinski, Maksim. "Hittite heterographic writings and their interpretation." Indogermanische Forschungen 121, no. 1 (November 1, 2016): 159–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/if-2016-0009.

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Abstract All attested texts in the Hittite language along with the phonetic writings of Hittite lexemes make broad use of Sumerian and Akkadian morphemes, words and word combinations conveying the meaning of corresponding Hittite elements. This article questions the common assumption that all foreign elements were read and dictated in proper Hittite and presents evidence suggesting that in some cases word combinations underlying Sumerian and Akkadian writings cannot be interpreted as grammatical Hittite strings because of their different syntactic properties. The phenomena discussed in the article are most likely due to the features of the scribal jargon heavily influenced by the Sumero-Akkadian scribal tradition.

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Zólyomi, Gábor. "Native-speaker Intuitions about Genitive Constructions in Sumerian." Altorientalische Forschungen 46, no. 2 (November 6, 2019): 301–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/aofo-2019-0019.

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Abstract This paper examines a remarkable variation in the new manuscript of En-metena 1 (RIME 1.9.5.1) kept in the Sulaymaniyah Museum in Iraq: a left-dislocated genitive construction is replaced by a simple genitive construction. Also, the manuscript shortens the text in a number of places. The paper reviews other known examples of text abridgements in royal inscriptions of the 3rd millennium BC and suggests that the composers of these inscriptions used similar techniques to manipulate the texts according to their function and use as the scribes who wrote the Assyrian royal inscriptions of the 1st millennium. The new manuscript provides a rare opportunity to observe a scribe who adapts an already existing text using his linguistic competence.

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Watson Todd, Richard. "How Has Business Communication Changed in the Last 4,000 Years?" rEFLections 27, no. 2 (July 1, 2020): 124–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.61508/refl.v27i2.244269.

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Understanding how language is used in specific contexts and the reasons for this can be helped by examining historical change in genres. In this study focusing on business communication, texts serving the same purpose of demanding payment for a debt but separated by 4,000 years are analysed. The ancient text is a Sumerian cuneiform tablet which is compared to two modern model business letters. The texts are investigated through a genre analysis focusing on functions and linguistic features and a multidimensional register analysis. Both analyses produce similar results with the main exception being the sequencing of functions. The lack of much meaningful change in business communication in the last 4,000 years is likely to be due to the dominant influence of communicative purposes in guiding how language is used.

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Noegel, Scott B. "Job iii 5 in the Light of Mesopotamian Demons of Time." Vetus Testamentum 57, no. 4 (2007): 556–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156853307x204592.

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AbstractThis brief communication examines two cruces in Job iii (μ/yî yrEyrIèm]Kiâ in iii 5 and μ/y=AyrEr"ao in iii 8) in the light of Sumerian, Akkadian, and later Mandaic performative texts which identify elements of time as cosmic, and potentially demonic, entities. After establishing the shared contexts and features of the texts (i.e., affliction by the Satan/a demon, an illocutionary pronouncement against personified elements of time, and an association between demons and warfare), I argue that the rendering of μ/yî yrEyrIèm]K in Job iii 5 as “day-demons”, proposed already by Rashi and Ibn Ezra, is to be preferred, and that one should understand μ/y=AyrEr"ao as “those who curse a day”.

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Steinkeller, Piotr. "Old Sumerian and Old Akkadian Texts in Philadelphia, Part 2: The 'Akkadian' Texts, the Enlilemaba Texts, and the Onion Archive. Aage Westenholz." Journal of Near Eastern Studies 52, no. 2 (April 1993): 141–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/373614.

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Ceccarelli, Manuel. "Der Umgang mit streitenden Schülern im Edubba’a nach den sumerischen Schulstreitgesprächen Enkiḫeĝal und Enkitalu und Ĝirinisa und Enkimanšum." Altorientalische Forschungen 45, no. 2 (November 28, 2018): 133–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/aofo-2018-0012.

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Abstract The Old Babylonian schoolmasters used the literary form of the dialogue to compose texts that were conceived as didactic material to improve the Sumerian speaking skills of their pupils and to teach them specific moral values. Some of these compositions can be labeled as school-disputes based on to their content and were probably performed at school. The ends of the school-disputes Enkiḫeĝal and Enkitalu and Ĝirinisa and Enkimanšum are particularly interesting because they provide some insight into how the schoolmasters dealt with quarreling students. In this respect Enkiḫeĝal und Enkitalu stands out for its challenge of corporal punishment. In Ĝirinisa and Enkimanšum one can note that school discipline implies a fraternal attitude between students. This fraternal attitude presupposed and reinforced the scribe’s self-confidence to form a cohesive cultural community.

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Cartlidge, Ben. "Herodicus in Babylon." Mnemosyne 73, no. 6 (March 18, 2020): 949–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1568525x-12342750.

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Abstract This paper deals with the epigram of Herodicus (apud Ath. 5.222a). First it is examined as a piece of Greek literature—with a history, a number of imitators, a Greek intellectual and scholarly context, and the expressive resources of the Greek language. Several cruces are discussed, but the meaning of the final two words of the poem—θεόπαις Βαβυλών—is of particular importance. The internal syntactic structure of the compound adjective θεό-παις is analysed using comparative evidence from Greek. But the actual comparandum that is argued to be crucial for establishing its meaning is an epithet of Babylon found in Akkadian and Sumerian. The basis for the relevance of this is the existence of Akkadian texts in Greek script (the ‘Graeco-Babyloniaca’), which are reviewed in full as part of the evidence for cultural contact in Hellenistic Babylon.

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Biggs, Robert D. "Catalogue of Cuneiform Tablets in Birmingham City Museum. Vol. 1. Neo-Sumerian Texts from Drehem. P. J. Watson." Journal of Near Eastern Studies 47, no. 4 (October 1988): 310–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/373339.

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Goldwasser, Orly, and Susana Soler. "Semantic classifiers (determinatives) and categorization in the ancient Egyptian writing system: Rules, list of classifiers, and studies by iClassifier on the Story of Sinuhe." Journal of Chinese Writing Systems 8, no. 1 (March 2024): 34–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/25138502241226983.

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In the last two decades, we have extensively explored the semantic classifiers in ancient Egyptian scripts, showing how they encode the world from two complementary perspectives: universal cognitive tendencies of classification along with Egyptian society's categorization of the world. Our central hypothesis is that each graphemic classifier in the Egyptian writing system heads a conceptual category. The assemblage of words classified by a particular classifier presents us with a dynamic map of an emic category in the mind of a culture. Classifiers in the Egyptian script allow us to trace central and marginal members of conceptual categories, spot interrelations and overlaps between categories, observe diachronic developments and changes, and discover incompatibility of categories. The number of classifier occurrences in complex script systems amounts to millions (i.e., big data). In the last decade, we developed in the ArchaeoMind Lab the digital tool iClassifier 1 (© Goldwasser, Harel, and Nikolaev) designed to check our hypothesis on a large scope of texts from different periods and different scripts. We mark classifiers in imported digitalized corpora—in ancient Chinese, ancient Egyptian, and Sumerian cuneiform. This contribution introduces the reader to the rules of the classifier system in the Egyptian script and presents new results from a pilot project on a genuine Egyptian corpus (variants of the Story of Sinuhe).

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Michalowski, Piotr. "Neo-Sumerian Archival Texts Primarily from Nippur in the University Museum, the Oriental Institute and the Iraq Museum. David I. Owen." Journal of Near Eastern Studies 45, no. 4 (October 1986): 326–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/373207.

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Yaacob, Solehah, and Ismail Haron. "The Contradictory Views on Ancient Literary Works as a Foundation of World Historical Development." International Letters of Social and Humanistic Sciences 86 (March 2019): 42–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.18052/www.scipress.com/ilshs.86.42.

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Contradictory views on ancient literary works provide a panorama of historical development. However, the validity of the texts was considered as issue of prime importance. The critics on its literary authenticity would reveal whether it was real or just a fabrication. The Epic Gilgamesh was ascertained by Said Ghanimi to be unauthentic. The contentions by S. N. Kramer and Taha Baqir were with regard to the differences of language usage in the Epic Gilgamesh either Sumerian or Akkadian as well. The acknowledgment of the West on Iliad and Odyssey by Homer as the first document written in world history was unfounded although this was highlighted by B. Lansberger in 7thconference in Paris on 1958. The Code Hamurabbi is a well preserved Babylonian Code of laws, unfortunately, it was considered as a fabrication of Old Testament which came 800 years later, especially on the narration of Big Flood Story as mentioned in the Book of Genesis. It is regrettable that the paucity of materials on the ancient history of the ancient people available from the Muslim sources poses as constrain on this study. The research is compelled to refer almost entirely to Western and Jews sources. Thus, the approach used in this study is based primarily on historical and linguistic analysis of ancient literary works.

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Biggs, Robert D. "Neo‐Sumerian Administrative Texts in the British Museum. By M. Molina and M. Such‐Gutiérrez. Nisaba, vol. 9. Messina: Di.Sc.A.M., 2005. Pp. 312." Journal of Near Eastern Studies 68, no. 1 (January 2009): 35–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/598062.

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Biggs, Robert D. "Neo‐Sumerian Administrative Texts from Umma Kept in the British Museum: NATU I. By F. Ar‐Rawi and F. D’Agostino. Nisaba, vol. 6. Messina: Di.Sc.A.M., 2005. Pp. 264." Journal of Near Eastern Studies 68, no. 3 (July 2009): 213. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/613995.

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Biggs, Robert D. "Neo‐Sumerian Texts from Ur in the British Museum: Epigraphical and Archaeological Catalogue of an Unpublished Corpus of Texts and Fragments. By F. D’Agostino, F. Pomponio, and R. Laurito. Nisaba 5. Messina: Di.Sc.A.M., 2004. Pp. 221 + 7 pls. € 40." Journal of Near Eastern Studies 66, no. 2 (April 2007): 145. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/519044.

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Derakhshani, Iahanshah. "Some Earliest Traces of the Aryan." Iran and the Caucasus 5, no. 1 (2001): 7–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/157338401x00026.

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AbstractThe early presence of the Aryans in the Near East is the topic of the research I have undertaken using the positive material and linguistic evidence, part of which has already been published, while the other, the main body of the work (Main Work) will be published as an extensive version.1 In these works, and based on linguistic evidences, such as Aryan loanwords, ethnonyms and toponyms extant in the archaic Near Eastern texts as well as due to the absolute lack of loanwords from the so-called pre-Iranian native languages in the Old Iranian dialects, the conventional theory of the late migration of Aryans into the Iranian Highland has been refuted as "strongly disproved". Based on the same evidence, a pre-Sumerian presence of the Aryans in Mesopotamia has been substantiated (see Aryans 5.4.1.10; 6.1.10). The present article is dealing with some earliest linguistic traces of the Aryan in the archaic Near Eastern languages such as in Sumerian, Akkadian, Elamite and Egytian.

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Alstola, Tero, Paola Corò, Rocio Da Riva, Sebastian Fink, Michael Jursa, Ingo Kottsieper, Martin Lang, et al. "Sources at the end of the cuneiform era." Studia Orientalia Electronica 11, no. 2 (May 16, 2023): 5–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.23993/store.129801.

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The aim of this article is to discuss several groups of sources which are of special interest regarding the question of Mesopotamian identities after 539 bce, towards the end of the use of cuneiform writing. In this late period, several languages and scripts were in use in Mesopotamia; therefore, groups of Akkadian, Aramaic, Greek, and Sumerian texts are discussed. The scripts used are Aramaic letters, cuneiform, and the Greek alphabet. A scholar who is interested in late Mesopotamian identities needs to take all these documents into account. This article aims at giving a brief overview on available textual material and where to find it. The topics of these texts vary from administrative documents to highly literary texts. The authors discuss Aramaic inscriptions, legal and administrative cuneiform texts, the astronomical diaries, the Seleucid Uruk scholarly texts, the late Babylonian priestly literature, Emesal cult-songs from the Hellenistic period, the Graeco-Babyloniaca (clay tablets containing cuneiform and Greek), and finally Greek inscriptions from Mesopotamia.

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Каиржанов, Абай, Айман Азмуханова, and Бибихадиша Абжаппарова. "СИНКРЕТИЗМ ОБЩЕСТВЕННОГО МИФОЛОГИЧЕСКОГО СОЗНАНИЯ ДРЕВНЕЙШЕЙ ПОРЫ." LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE: THEORY AND PRACTICE 110, LANGUAGE, LITERATURE (March 2, 2024): 23–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.52301/2957-5567-2024-1-23-33.

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This article examines the syncretism of the public mythological consciousness of the ancient era. The main features of this phenomenon include essential anthropomorphism, syncretism, syncretism. The texts of the Old Testament are analyzed, which show that the Old Testament syncrets are creative borrowings from the Sumerian written culture. The transition from the appropriating type of management to the producing type gives rise to reflection and criticality of human thinking. This contributes to the destruction of mythological consciousness and the emergence of initial scientific forms. Methods and techniques of diachronic linguistics and techniques of cognitive description of ancient and medieval texts make it possible to establish the semantics of linguistic units - syncrets that have turned into “frozen metaphors”. Syncrets are a consequence of anthropomorphism and syncretism of mythological consciousness; they were preserved in the vocabulary of modern languages after the annihilation of ancient mythological consciousness.

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Simonova, S. A. "Evolution of the Role of the Library in the Context of Preservating National Languages." Язык и текст 11, no. 1 (April 8, 2024): 86–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.17759/langt.2024110108.

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<p>The article is devoted to the analysis of the role of the library institution in the preservation, dissemination and development of national languages. The author attempted a retrospective, comparative, axiological analysis of changes in the image of the library in accordance with the cultural characteristics of different eras. The main attention was aimed at identifying the linguistic and cultural features of library texts. It has been revealed and substantiated that in the ancient East the library served as a sacralized archive of texts mainly in the ancient Sumerian and Assyrian languages. Linguistic texts of ancient Eastern libraries connected sacred meanings and everyday life. In antiquity, lively dialogue and the dialectical development of thought came to the fore, so the library became a place for debate. The libraries of Alexandria, Pergamon, and private collections contained scrolls in different languages, but many of them were professionally translated into Greek. In medieval culture, the library became a library of one book, the Bible, which was copied in Greek and Latin. In the late Middle Ages, books in vernacular languages appeared in libraries, which contributed to the development of the latter. In modern times, the library becomes a way of education and mass dissemination of national literary languages. In the information age, the library acquires the global features of a «universal library»; the boundaries of the virtual and real space of the library are erased. A modern library acquires many functions: it provides information to users, is a place for holding various educational events, and educational games. In modern Russia, the library institution plays a huge role in preserving the languages of the small peoples of our country. Thus, libraries in all eras play an important role in the formation, preservation, dissemination and development of national languages.</p>

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Seri, Andrea. "Interconexiones literarias: Textos babilónicos en el Mediterráneo oriental y regiones adyacentes (ca. 1500-1200 a.C)." Diacrítica 37, no. 2 (December 13, 2023): 31–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.21814/diacritica.4792.

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Las interacciones entre los grandes poderes del Cercano Oriente antiguo —incluidos Babilonia, Asiria, Mitanni, el reino Hitita y Egipto— con otros estados de Siria y el Levante durante el Bronce Tardío (ca. 1500-1200 a.C.) pueden reconstruirse gracias a la profusa variedad de restos arqueológicos y de fuentes escritas. Parte de esa evidencia da cuenta de los contactos entre diversos grupos etnolingüísticos que utilizaban la escritura cuneiforme y el acadio como lingua franca. Tanto en Turquía como en Siria, el Levante y Egipto se han encontrado ejercicios escolares que atestiguan el aprendizaje del cuneiforme, del sumerio y del acadio. Entre esos materiales figuran (fragmentos de) obras literarias tales como “Gilgameš”, la “Historia babilónica del diluvio”, el “Poema de los primeros gobernantes” y “Nergal y Ereškigal”. En este trabajo examinaré ciertos textos literarios babilónicos hallados en la periferia occidental de Babilonia que muestran las interconexiones literarias acaecidas durante el Bronce Tardío.

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Lidov, Andrei A. "Коллекция месопотамских древностей в Йенском университете им. Фридриха Шиллера: история и характеристика собрания." Бюллетень Калмыцкого научного центра Российской академии наук, no. 2 (December 23, 2023): 8–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.22162/2587-6503-2023-2-26-8-26.

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The “Frau Professor Hilprecht Collection”, kept at the Institute of Languages and Cultures of the Middle East at Friedrich Schiller University in Jena, is the largest collection of Babylonian antiquities in Germany, rivaling in its cultural and historical significance the collections of the Museum of the Ancient Middle East in Berlin, the University of Pennsylvania Museum in Philadelphia, the Yale Babylonian Collection in New Haven, the Archaeological Museum in Istanbul, the British Museum in London, the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford and a number of other thematic museum collections. Standing out from their background due to the quality of objects, mainly discovered during the excavations of Nippur and dated from the Sumerian and Old Akkadian period (IV–III thousand BC) up to the early Islamic period, the Jena collection plays an important role in the study of culture, history, science and literature of the peoples of ancient Mesopotamia. The purpose of this article is an analytical review of this collection, highlighting the most significant and interesting artifacts, as well as considering the history of the origin, movement and study of this collection. Special attention is paid to the literary cuneiform tablets, some of which are unique and no longer found in any of the Mesopotamian collections, as well as the one-of-a-kind map of Nippur, dating from the middle of the II millennium BC and considered as the oldest map of the city in the world. The most important topic of the publication and translation of the texts of the tablets and the step-by-step digitization of all the objects of the collection is also touched upon.

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Geller, M. J. "John Alan Halloran Sumerian Lexicon: A Dictionary Guide to the Ancient Sumerian Language, Los Angeles: Logogram Publishing, 2006. xiv, 318 pp. ISBN 978 0 9786429 0 7. - Catherine Mittermayer Altbabylonische Zeichenliste der sumerisch-literarischen Texte, Fribourg: Academic Press, 2006. (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis.) xii, 292 pp. ISBN 978 3 7278 1551 5." Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 71, no. 3 (October 2008): 561–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0041977x08000918.

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Marrocchi Savoi, Andrea Rebecca. "Almost a Family, Practically Related: Questions on Sumerian Kinship Terminology." Special Issue: Ancient Lives, New Stories 2018 Conference Proceedings 33, no. 1 (May 1, 2022). http://dx.doi.org/10.14324/111.444.2041-9015.1380.

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The aim of this paper is to investigate some aspects of fictive kinship in ancient Sumer that we find out through administrative, legal and literary texts. From the Neo-Sumerian period several texts of different nature have survived, which constitutes a breeding ground for this kind of study. In anthropological studies the kinship terminology is considered fundamental to understand the structure and dynamics of human societies. It seems that, both in Sumerian and in Akkadian, the terms of kinship are reduced to the first kinship degree, and are not used to express different relationships, but they are unambiguous. Some scholars (Civil 1974; Götzelt 1995) tried to compare Sumerian terminology with other better-known systems, but the results are discordant due to the complexities of documentation and language. Considering that most attested terms express just the first degree of kinship, we can assume that in Sumerian the juxtaposition of primary terms is used to express the most distant relationships on the family tree. A lot of kinship’s terms appears in the texts, some of that, probably, used also outside familial context. Perhaps in the workplace the family structure and terminology were adopted symbolically practically, which makes it more difficult to interpret some legal texts, as the so called di-til-la, because the ambiguity of terms makes the interpretation unclear. It is necessary to use an interdisciplinary approach through philology and anthropology to enlighten as much information as possible from the texts. 

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Thompson, Shane M. "Childlike Goddess." JAOS 144, no. 2 (June 16, 2024). http://dx.doi.org/10.7817/jaos.144.2.2024.ar015.

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This article examines the derivation of toy and game imagery in “The Elevation of Ištar.” I argue that the presence of these metaphors in a first-millennium text represents a late stage in the development of Ištar’s characterization as a childlike goddess. Tracing this development from Sumerian mythological and lexical texts into the Sumero-Akkadian and Akkadian traditions reveals Inanna/Ištar’s well-known attribute of violent rage in a different manner. This suggests that the characterization of the goddess as childlike existed over a significant period of Mesopotamian history as shown by the inclusion of toy and game language in a variety of texts.

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Gutherz, Gai, Shai Gordin, Luis Sáenz, Omer Levy, and Jonathan Berant. "Translating Akkadian to English with neural machine translation." PNAS Nexus 2, no. 5 (May 1, 2023). http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad096.

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Abstract Cuneiform is one of the earliest writing systems in recorded human history (ca. 3,400 BCE–75 CE). Hundreds of thousands of such texts were found over the last two centuries, most of which are written in Sumerian and Akkadian. We show the high potential in assisting scholars and interested laypeople alike, by using natural language processing (NLP) methods such as convolutional neural networks (CNN), to automatically translate Akkadian from cuneiform Unicode glyphs directly to English (C2E) and from transliteration to English (T2E). We show that high-quality translations can be obtained when translating directly from cuneiform to English, as we get 36.52 and 37.47 Best Bilingual Evaluation Understudy 4 (BLEU4) scores for C2E and T2E, respectively. For C2E, our model is better than the translation memory baseline in 9.43, and for T2E, the difference is even higher and stands at 13.96. The model achieves best results in short- and medium-length sentences (c. 118 or less characters). As the number of digitized texts grows, the model can be improved by further training as part of a human-in-the-loop system which corrects the results.

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YALÇIN DITTGEN, Julide Begüm. "Music and Instruments of Mesopotamian and Anatolian Culture." Çukurova Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, March 26, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.35379/cusosbil.1241265.

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Abstract Music and instruments are inseparable concepts. At the same time, the instruments as high-ranking cultural assets are not only simple instruments in which sound, loudness, timbre, sound intensity are generated. They are the indispensable elements of rituals, conversation, communication, and more importantly art in Mesopotamia and Anatolia. The importance of instruments as high-ranking cultural assets in the Sumerian period (B.C.) is proven by the numerous classifications made. Cuneiform texts, instrument finds and illustrated descriptions play an important role in revealing music culture of the time. Cuneiform script originating from Mesopotamia has, in essence, been an important type of script spreading out from Asia Minor, used in the writing of various languages from different groups. Cuneiform texts give us instrument names rather than instrument types. The lexical (glossary) lists, which are available in two languages, Sumerian-Akkadian, which sometimes include descriptions of instruments, give us the Sumerian and Akkadian names of the instruments. In some cases, besides the instrument names, there are certain clues with occasional addendums regarding the material from which the instrument is made. Also, after the Sumerians, the Akkadians, Babylonian, Assyrian and Hittite States improved the musical and instrumental knowledge of their preceeding societies and left important works for the peoples who came after them in Anatolia. Keywords: Mesopotamia, Sumerian, Akkad, Babylon, Assyrian, Hittite, Asia Minor, Instrument, Cuneiform, Ritual

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"D. Schwemer, A. Süel. The Akkadian and Sumerian Texts from Ortaköy-Šapinuwa / Ortaköy-Šapinuwa’dan Akadca ve Sümerce Metinler. (Documenta Antiqua Asiae Minoris, 2). Wiesbaden, 2021." Vestnik drevnei istorii 82, no. 4 (2022). http://dx.doi.org/10.31857/s032103910017895-7.

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Muhamad Hamad, Kale, and Ari Kamil Khalil. "Pioneers of Domestic Trade in Late Sumer Thousand of the Third Century BC and Their Cuneiform Archives." Journal of Kurdistani for Strategic Studies, no. 6 (July 23, 2023). http://dx.doi.org/10.54809/jkss.vi6.271.

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The Sumer was politically known in the late third millennium BC during the Third Dynasty of Ur BC), considered one of the most prominent ruling dynasties of Sumerian civilization 2004 -2113 ( the family paid great attention to business and constantly they worked to further expand businesses of both types (foreign and domestic). Another major feature of the economy of this period was the emergence of independent entrepreneurs who worked for themselves and had the title of merchants they had inherited from their parents and they left behind archival records and documents that have become available to researchers. This study describes the business activities of three of the most prominent merchants of the time, who were the leaders of the group they recorded their business activities in their own cuneiform archives, the basis of the study according to the archives that have been read and analyzed by several researchers in the field of ancient languages in the past few years, there is no doubt that the cuneiform records of that time are considered the best source for understanding and expertise being in different areas of civilization, especially the economic aspects of the texts that so far, they have been found to be related to the economy %90 of the country because in general and trade in particular.

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Muhamed hamad, Kalle, and Ari Kamil xalil. "The pioneers of domestic trade in Sumer in the late third millennium BC and their cuneiform archives." Journal of Kurdistani for Strategic Studies, no. 6 (July 26, 2023). http://dx.doi.org/10.54809/jkss.vi6.288.

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The Sumer was politically known in the late third millennium BC during the Third Dynasty of Ur (2113-2004 BC), considered one of the most prominent ruling dynasties of Sumerian civilization the family paid great attention to business and constantly they worked to further expand businesses of both types (foreign and domestic). Another major feature of the economy of this period was the emergence of independent entrepreneurs who worked for themselves and had the title of merchants they had inherited from their parents and they left behind archival records and documents that have become available to researchers. This study describes the business activities of three of the most prominent merchants of the time, who were the leaders of the group they recorded their business activities in their own cuneiform archives, the basis of the study according to the archives that have been read and analyzed by several researchers in the field of ancient languages in the past few years, there is no doubt that the cuneiform records of that time are considered the best source for understanding and expertise being in different areas of civilization, especially the economic aspects of the country because 90% of the texts that so far, they have been found to be related to the economy in general and trade in particular.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Sumerian language – Texts'

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