Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Sustainable development – Ethiopia'

Ethiopia is a nation endowed with huge amount of water, wind, solar and geothermal energy potentials.However, regardless of its enormous potentials the energy system is highly dependent on traditional fossilfuels and biomass and only about 32% of the nation‟s population has access to electricity. Given this fact,the country has engaged itself in unprecedented multimillion dollar energy projects in recent years.However, some of the projects and the construction of huge dams have raised controversy oversustainability issues. In this thesis work, the potentials and opportunities of the Ethiopian energy systemsand the sustainability of the ongoing and planned energy projects are discussed. Their social,environmental and economic implications are also addressed based on an in depth literature review. Asurvey was also conducted through questionnaire to research people‟s opinion on the current projects andtheir implications and results were interpreted using Web HIPRE software. It is concluded that thesurveyed group, selected and contacted randomly, believe that the economy is the most important aspectfor the country to consider giving it a weight of 43% over the social (29%) and environmental (28%)aspects. The Web HIPRE analysis also showed that respondents support the current hydropower projectson the Gibe River. Different important stakeholder such as farmers, fishermen and other inhabitants of thearea who are directly affected (positively or negatively) by the projects and also people from EEPCo andother concerned bodies such as policy makers are not included in this survey due to communicationproblems to gather data. The inclusion of data from such key stakeholder could have potentially changedthe outcome of the survey. It is also concluded that while there are lots of rooms for improvements on theprojects (prior and post construction), some of the criticisms encircling the project seem to lack allrounded understanding of the social and economic needs of the country as well as the long term ecosystemimplications of the projects. It is also concluded that Ethiopia, if it uses its energy potentials properly,could not only meet its energy demands but also be a giant energy supplier to east African nations in a few years.

For least developing countries with large rural population living in severe poverty such as Ethiopia, access to modern and sustainable energy services is a real challenge. Dealing with the lack of modern energy services at local level and the needs for economic development at national level is a major challenge in the policy and decision making process. This particular study takes the case of Ethiopia to investigate the existing challenges and future prospects of mainstreaming sustainable energy access into the country’s development planning process, and the consequences for international development financiers, national policy makers, private actors and local energy planners and experts. The roles and approaches of various developmental agencies are reviewed based on the effectiveness and sustainability of cooperation models with governmental institutions. To this end, this study establishes an understanding of institutional, financial and policy elements related to both state and non-state actors. Accordingly, readiness of the rural energy sector to adopt sector–perspective and national development approaches to mainstream sustainable energy access is investigated. The thesis emphasizes the need for all stakeholders to cooperate and take advantage of local potentials and external opportunities in light of the new momentum for sustainable energy access in the global agenda.

The aim of the study is to analyse the learning process of the Dorze weaving in Ethiopia and its implications on Education for Sustainable Development, ESD. My two main questions are: 1. How do the Dorze understand their learning process in weaving? 2. What conclusions concerning education for sustainable development applied on textile handicraft can be drawn from the findings of my case study?   In order to answer these questions I have made a field study on the Dorze (the weavers) in Addis Ababa in Ethiopia for 10 weeks. The study has a socio-cultural and narrative approach and the method used are interviews, observations and review of documents. The result is presented in a “metastory” where I retell the stories and introduce the results of the study and that gives answers to question 1. UNESCO’s recommendations on ESD are used to analyse the findings and give the answer to question 2. The result shows that the learning process depends on the environment with its people, who have gathered knowledge of raw material and techniques for generations but the latter also needs to develop to meet new challenges. “Shiro Meda” is the centre of learning. To grow up in “Shiro Meda” it becomes natural to work with textile production, accept a special lifestyle with clear gender differences and a hierarchical structure. The educational model of spinning and twisting are “learning by doing”, whereas young boys start practising weaving under the leadership of an older teacher step by step.   From an ESD perspective the Dorze education is holistic, practical, individualized, and contains some problem solving even if the students are not participating in decisions on how they learn. The education is highly integrated in the daily life of the weaving community and is also relevant to the surrounding local community. Moreover the education transfers a historical legacy of cultural continuity, and has shown itself to be dynamic and adaptable to change. A weakness in this traditional knowledge system is the low profit the weavers are making and the set hierarchical and gender rules which need to be developed in order to be sustainable for future challenges. The final discussion highlights the relevance of my findings for a Swedish learning context.
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Despite some gains in economic reforms and international commitments, Ethiopia still maintains the position of one of the poorest countries in the world in the 21st century with very little power to influence the allocation of reources in the world market. The development problems in many of the sub-saharan regions are confined within the countyry including the difficulty to keep up with rapid increase in the number of primary school enrollments, which has led to a situation of compromised quality
high child mortality and HIV/AIDS, which poses additional challenges to the poor health facilities, gender and regional inequalities and sustainable debt burden. Making matters worse, Ethiopia's political instability, civil war, recurring of drought, and economic mismanagement ties the country to a severe poverty cycle.. Ethiopia has made important economic, social and political reforms with the support of the World bank and other multilateral institutions, to pave the way for the country to face the challenges posed by globalization. However, these reforms have not been sustained by effective implementation. The response to overcome the problemshas also been slow to see rapid growth. In this research paper, the writer explores the challenges regarding Ethiopia's poverty from perspective of the World Bank. The research examines the theoretical and conceptual underpinning of the World Bank's general mandate and objectives on poverty reduction, using Ethiopia as acase study.

This study assesses the applicability of the Making Markets Work for the Poor approach, as described by Sida, to meet sustainability challenges in the textiles- and clothing industry in Ethiopia. While Sweden has been ranked one of the most sustainable countries in the world, exported emissions and impacts have stained this reputation. As Swedish corporations look to Ethiopia as a new potential sourcing market for textile and clothing products, this interview study uses systems- and scenario analysis to assess the applicability of the market system approach Making Markets Work for the Poor, M4P, to answer to the sustainability challenges in the market system of the textile industry in Ethiopia. The results reveal that while sustainability challenges are numerous in regards to economy, environment and society, governance is the central leverage point when addressing systemic change for sustainability. The study concludes that while M4P can address specific sustainability challenges within the system, such as market access for poor and workers’ health issues, the approach does not answer to the fundamental systemic problems. Instead, it builds on a focus on GDP growth, which this study shows to be part of the problem of neglecting environmental and social aspects.

Energy is a crucial factor when it comes to development. Among other electricity is important when advancing the living standards of a society as it facilitates various actions and mechanisms. Through the past years social trends such as increased population have put energy and electricity systems under stress as they have often been based on limited and unsustainable fossil fuels. A need for a shift from the conventional fuels to renewable sources becomes more prominent and development needs to be performed in a sustainable way. Ethiopia is one of the countries who have expressed a desire to reach sustainable development by adapting United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals. This project focuses and analyzes more specifically Ethiopia’s relation to, and possibility of reaching Goal 7 - sustainable energy for all. It attempts to find a future configuration of energy sources which will create an electricity system which will benefit the economy, the social aspect and the environment. The aim is to have a cost-efficient energy mix which supplies all of Ethiopia’s inhabitants with electricity without having to contribute with any carbon dioxide emissions. A literature review is performed to obtain country specific information such as geographical predispositions, and a field trip to Addis Ababa is conducted where data regarding the electricity system is collected. Modelling is then carried through by usage of tools MoManI and OnSSET and the obtained results show a continuous trend in all scenarios where solar and wind compromise the biggest part of electricity production in 2030 and after. Every scenario also allows all inhabitants access to electricity by year 2030. Further, four out of five scenarios ensures elimination of carbon dioxide emissions by 2022, and all five by 2030.

Identifying pathways of agricultural development that enable substantial productivity improvements is of prime importance for food security and human development across Sub-Saharan Africa. To ensure long-term welfare for its people and landscapes, it is imperative that such agricultural transformations are environmentally sustainable. This study explores the case of Ethiopia and aims to assess constraints and opportunities for a sustainable agricultural transformation, by analysing a) the governance context, b) narratives of agricultural development, and c) strategies employed by “green” non-state actors in the agricultural sector to lever change in the direction they perceive as desirable. By assessing the governance structure, the study finds that many non-state actors face significant legal and practical barriers to action, and that the strong government domination and rigid structures provide limited opportunities for influence. Further, the study finds that agricultural policy is dominated by a “Green Revolution”-inspired narrative focused on production and productivity, although food security and environmental rehabilitation narratives exist alongside. Issues of agricultural production and natural resource management are found to be largely decoupled in policy, which constitutes another barrier for green non-state actors working across the divide. Given these challenging conditions, green non-state actors in Ethiopia choose a strategy of close collaboration with government institutions, which, while offering the possibility of large-scale impact, may also reduce the prospects for more radical change. Applying current theories of sustainability transformations to a new type of system, the study concludes with a call for new conceptualisations of endogenous and exogenous change in future research to ensure that the theory fits a broader range of social-ecological realities.

There is a lack of academic knowledge concerning mechanisms through which sustainable transitions are promoted. Sustainable transitions in the infrastructure system are key to achieve multiple other SDGs, and the infrastructure development gap is particularly critical in developing countries. Agenda 2030 clearly states the importance of joint action. It is, therefore, relevant to investigate how sustainable transitions can be promoted through collaborations between public and private actors. Specifically, how sustainable transitions in the infrastructure system in low-income countries can be promoted. The notion of public-private partnerships (PPPs) was used to describe collaboration, and sociotechnical system (STS) transitions were used to describe transitions. To examine how PPPs can promote transitions in STS, an Ethiopian case study was conducted. The case used was a technical and vocational school called HDECOVA located in Addis Ababa. A collaborative project between public and private actors. The empirical data was obtained from key actors in the partnership surrounding HDECOVA, both in the form of interviews and documents. To analyze the empirical data, a theoretical and conceptual framework was synthesized borrowing from theories on STS, PPPs, the holistic transition framework Multi-Level Perspective (MLP) and Principal-Agent Theory. The result showed HDECOVA has affected sustainable transitions in the infrastructure system, mainly through effects on the labor market and the education system. The results showed that the mechanisms, through which HDECOVA has promoted shifts in systems, are mainly scaling up and decreasing skill gaps. The results suggest that HDECOVA has successfully promoted sustainable transitions by being aligned with identified development challenges in the infrastructure system. On this basis, it can be suggested that PPPs can promote sustainable transitions by affecting regime- and niche levels of the system.

Ethiopia is one of the sub-Saharan Africa countries whose energy depends on traditional use of biomass such as wood, charcoal, agricultural residues and animal dung. The traditional use of biomass mainly wood and charcoal leads the country to massive deforestation and forest degradation. Negative environmental impacts from poorly managed municipal solid waste are also serious problems in the country. Moreover, there is a wide range of fossil fuels demand in the country fully covered by importing which results to a significant expenditure from the country’s budget. This study investigates the long-term shifts in bioenergy use of the country and evaluates the expected social, environmental and economical implications. For this purpose, three scenarios are formulated within a timeframe that goes from 2013 to 2030. The baseline scenario assumes the existing energy practices of the country would undergo no significant change in the future while the moderate shift and high shift scenarios consider the long-term shifts in bioenergy use with and without considering constraints respectively. In this context, long-term shifts means: transition from traditional use of biomass to efficient and modern in the household sector, biofuels deployment in the transport sector, introduction of agricultural residues as a fuel for cement production, and electricity generation from bagasse and municipal solid waste. To model and analyze the scenarios, the long-range energy alternatives planning system (LEAP) software tool is used. Taking the results of high shift scenario by 2030, the use of improved wood stoves and fuel switch stoves could save 65 million tons of wood. The foreign currency saving from using biofuels and agricultural residues as fossil fuels substitute would reach to 674 million USD. The greenhouse gas emissions reduction is equivalent to 46 million tons of CO2e which is about 18.4% of the CO2e abatement target of the country for 2030. The corresponding revenue from carbon trading schemes would reach to 231 million USD. Electricity generation from bagasse and municipal solid waste would be 3,672 GWh that is around 3.7% of the total electricity generation target for 2030.

Ethiopia is rapidly urbanising. Similar to other urban areas in developing countries, major issues in Ethiopia include a high level of income inequality, lack of formal employment opportunities and deeply rooted poverty, tenure insecurity, poor infrastructure, and limited access to electricity and energy. Frequently settlers end up in impoverished urban squatters and slums which do not offer them even the most basic infrastructure and hence lack to provide them with the perspectives they came for. Onward migration to farer off destinations such as the EU member states thus often remains as sole option for those caught in such urban poverty traps. Although the issue of informal urban settlements is not new to the context of Ethiopian cities, the current rapid urban growth rates are exposing urban rental markets as well as infrastructure and energy supply to considerable pressure. The paper investigates the respective situation in Ethiopia and demonstrates some best practice examples. In the context of Ethiopian cities, energy production and distribution have been highly centralised under state entities and the scope for exploring local/business driven and decentralised systems has been limited. Transitions can be implemented towards sustainability and the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals if collective identification and structuring of issues along with collective envisioning of future is provoked or facilitated.

Ethiopia has been challenged by multidimensional poverty. However, it has the potential to minimize the threat through an integrated multipurpose development process. In this regard, hydropower has a significant role to reduce energy poverty and enhance the multipurpose use of natural resources efficiency. Hydropower is a source of clean, sustainable and renewable energy. It has a contribution to reducing carbon emission and maintaining environmental sustainability. In Ethiopia, it is the major source of electricity. The country is rich in natural resources, including water to produce energy, however, electricity supply is still uncertain. The data shows that the country has the potential to produce 50,000 MW energy from water resources. Yet, it exploited 3,822 MW in 2018, approximately 7.6 % of its potential. Moreover, the country faces issues with energy security. Additionally, water and food supply also face an uncertain future. In this case, the country has planned the growth and transformation plan I and II for 2015 and 2020 to increase the energy production to 10,000 MW and 17,000 MW energy respectively. Consequently, the government launched different multipurpose hydropower plant projects. This project focuses on the multipurpose use of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam, particularly for the sustainable energy-water-food-ecosystem service nexus at the national level. I applied the combination of methods such as the energy-water-food-ecosystem nexus, the SWOT analysis and the sustainability assessment as they are suitable for the complexity of such a project. Indeed, the GERD has benefits for the country in producing renewable and clean energy, generating income and increasing the water storage capacity at the national level. However, the project neglected the values of ecosystem services integration with the dam and its sectors. As a result, the dam affected the existed terrestrial biodiversity and ecosystem. Therefore, the GERD had not been the well-prepared plan that considers institutional cooperation and sectoral integration to use for multipurpose function and its sustainability. In these regards, unless the dam to take proper management of the project and natural resources, the hydropower plant would not have been generating sustainable energy production.

The paper shows that how to use the reservoir hydropower plant for multipurpose, such as for energy, water, food, ecosystem services integration at local level

The 2015 global adoption of the United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development places the achievement of health equity as a global priority for health and development. Due to the normative nature of the concept of health equity and the multi-level, multi-sectoral approaches required to advance it, interdisciplinary investigations are warranted to demonstrate how health equity as a policy objective is understood and operationalized. This dissertation is a case study of health equity in maternal, newborn and child health (MNCH) in Ethiopia, using qualitative methods to explore how health equity is conceptualized and pursued by stakeholders across levels of the health system. Ethiopia, a low-income country in East Africa, reported improvements in MNCH during the Millennium Development Goal period (1990-2015), largely attributed to the expansion of health services into rural areas; however, achievements were not realized across all geographies and population groups. Health equity is a stated policy objective for the country. Through a series of four articles, this dissertation addresses: community members’ perceptions and experiences related to health inequity and MNCH; barriers and enablers encountered by community-level health workers in implementing an equity-oriented MNCH intervention; subnational health managers’ understandings of health equity, and their roles in promoting it; and the characterization of health equity as a policy problem in national-level health discourses. This work deconstructs health equity into three components (health, distribution of health and characterization of the distribution of health) and compares how stakeholders across levels of the health system attribute meaning to each component and imply responsibility and accountability for health equity. The findings detail how diverse experiences related to health equity in MNCH across community, subnational and national contexts are driven by high-level technocratic framings of health equity, which tend to emphasize the delivery of a narrow package of health services to under-served geographical areas. Providing support and recognition for the role of subnational stakeholders in mediating the adaption of national health equity policies to local contexts, and making prominent the social justice underpinnings of health equity in the implementation of national policies are opportunities to strengthen the advancement of health equity in Ethiopia.

Water is one of the most precious but least valued common property resource. Efficient ways of water resources management are vital to socio-economic development and the overall feat of societal stability. However, water conflicts have further exacerbated the access to water especially in low-income developing countries. Most notably, little attention has been given to studying water conflicts at the local level when compared to international water conflicts. As a result, there is insufficient information and theory on the exponentially increasing number of local water conflicts. In the Middle East, water was a tool for military purposes; in Asia disputes over water occur due to development-related activities, whilst in Africa, control over water resources has been the root cause of many conflicts affecting millions of vulnerable communities. This research investigates the nature, causes and dimensions of local water conflicts in the context of low-income developing countries based on the Afar region, which is located in the Awash Trans-regional River Basin of Ethiopia. The research suggests a new multidimensional approach for pre-identification, early warning services and local water conflict neutralization. This approach also introduces preparedness techniques, which play a significant role in reducing potential risks and tensions that trigger local water conflicts between communities sharing the same water resources. The study further proposes a policy guideline matrix that would serve as a technique for reducing local water conflicts by providing new ways of thinking about the links between sustainable developments, local water conflict management and strategic partnerships. The research is implemented through the process of designing a framework based on essential theoretical and practical findings supported by survey data of 134 household representatives of local communities and 26 institutions, together with 22 interviews. The introduced multipurpose framework is based on five fundamental parameters, namely: contribution to Sustainable Development, Information, Preparedness, Tolerance Capacity and Interaction (DIPTI). The research proposes the Sparkling Effects of Conflict , a new approach in understanding and predicting the coverage of the effects of conflicts other than the primary conflicting parties and conflict location. In addition, two pillars of the conceptual frameworks emerged from the findings. First, the WEC (Water, Early Warning and Conflict) information pyramid, a framework designed to indicate the core components of local WEC-related information identification and management. Second, the Pillars of Conflict Pyramid, the simplest conceptual framework, easily helps to pre-identify the effects of local water conflicts with certain limitations. Besides, the study addressed six additional conflict neutralization and resolution inputs that incorporate the significance of the participation of women and other vulnerable members of communities. These findings also highlight the advantage of co-existence between useful traditional and modern practices in neutralizing conflicts. Overall, the study will assist local people, policy and decision makers and institutions in low-income developing countries with a similar context to that of the study area.

Many Low and Middle Income Countries (LAMICs) still lack sufficient health research capacity to build a local evidence-base with which to inform policy and improve population health. Recognising this, The 2013 World Health Report called for all nations to be producers of health research. To achieve this, new strategies that can develop sustainable locally-led capacity are required. Among the health research capacities needed, ability to conduct clinical trials is important. However, there is no evidence-informed guidance on the best ways to develop locally-led trial capacity. This thesis aims to fill this gap. Three cases-studies using qualitative methods to explore the barriers and enablers to locally-led trial conduct were conducted in Ethiopia, Cameroon and Sri Lanka. Current and potential local trial researchers and health research system stakeholders were recruited. A synthesis of the health research capacity development literature was conducted to compare the case-studies’ findings with wider published perspectives. These data permit an examination of the key issues facing the development of locally-led trial capacity in LAMICs. Barriers and enablers to locally-led trial conduct were found at macro, institutional and individual levels. Although different country research systems, and institutions and individuals within them, were variably successful at conducting trials, the key issues and mechanisms influencing successful trial undertaking were largely similar. Agreement among the case-studies and with the diverse literature suggests that many of the findings will be transferable to other LAMICs, and are also of relevance to other health research methods. A conceptual framework explaining the antecedents and consequences of locally-led trial undertaking in LAMICS is presented. This identifies the following factors as important for supporting locally-led trial undertaking: awareness and appreciation for health research and clinical trials; motivation to conduct clinical trials; availability of human resources with trial knowledge and technical skills; research leadership capabilities; ability to form collaborations, effective teams and acquire resources; trial management dedicated to sustainable capacity development and producing useful research; and system-wide prioritisation of health research. The theories of change presented within this framework are used to develop practical recommendations for development of locally-led trial capacity in LAMICs. These recommendations have four inter-related goals: fostering pro-research cultures in stakeholder institutions; developing trial leaders and staff; providing a facilitative operational environment for trials; and ensuring trial research has an impact. However, to create the will to enact change, advocacy from research champions and conducting trials in a way that benefits local institutions and population health is needed.

Published Article
The economic value of tourism makes it an attractive sector for commerce. Ethiopia has experienced rapid changes during the last decade and can be regarded the leading economic stimulator of the Horn of Africa. The challenge is therefore not only to develop tourism in a sustainable way so that a growing population can be fed, but simultaneously to create better livelihoods for millions of people. The primary objective is to develop an overall education, training and multi-disciplinary research plan for Ethiopian universities with an integrated gender perspective in the field of (eco) tourism, taking into account the professional and/or educational needs of the labour market and the demand-driven research needs of relevant external stakeholders in Ethiopia. Specific plans for universities with regard to training courses, study programmes and demand-driven research programmes will be developed, while explicitly avoiding overlap and overprovision of the afore-mentioned courses and programmes at national level.

The Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) is a large hydropower project currently under construction in Ethiopia. Supposedly it will benefit the people of Ethiopia through an increased access to electricity, but it is also associated with complex political relations between Ethiopia and the neighbouring countries Egypt and Sudan. The aim of this thesis is to analyse the GERD project with regard to the United Nations’ 17 Sustainable Development Goals and their 169 related targets, and to show what actions should be taken to improve the contribution of the GERD to sustainable development. A method developed for mapping synergies and trade-offs between targets in the SDGs was used. To identify how the GERD contributes to and/or hinders the fulfillment of the goals, published evidence was systematically searched. 83 synergies, 45 trade-offs and 16 instances when cooperation in the Nile River basin is needed were identified. By radically increasing the electricity access in Ethiopia and because of the dam itself, the GERD both potentially contributes to and hinders sustainable development in relation to environment, society and economy. Identified key actions to reinforce the synergies and minimise the trade-offs are to establish a secure and including cooperation between Ethiopia, Egypt and Sudan; to ensure increased transparency, public access to information and participatory processes; to investigate and carry out measures that benefit the ecology in the area; and to strengthen the positive outcomes of electrification through supplementary measures.
Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) är ett stort vattenkraftprojekt som är under uppbyggnad i Etiopien. Genom att radikalt öka tillgången till elektricitet förväntas GERD bidra positivt till det etiopiska samhället, men dammen är också associerad med komplicerade politiska relationer mellan Etiopien och grannländerna Egypten och Sudan. Målet med rapporten är att analysera GERD-projektet i förhållande till FN:s 17 Globala mål och dess 169 tillhörande delmål, samt att visa vilka åtgärder som bör vidtas för att GERD i större utsträckning ska bidra till en hållbar utveckling. En metod som utvecklats för att kartlägga synergier och målkonflikter mellan olika delmål av de Globala målen användes. För att undersöka hur GERD bidrar till och/eller förhindrar uppfyllandet av delmålen gjordes en systematisk sökning av publicerad litteratur. 83 synergier, 45 målkonflikter och 16 fall där dessa hänger ihop med att samarbete krävs i regionen identifierades. Genom att öka tillgången till elektricitet, och på grund av dammen i sig, potentiellt både bidrar till och förhindrar GERD hållbar utveckling i förhållande till miljö, samhälle och ekonomi. Identifierade nyckelåtgärder för att förstärka synergierna och minimera målkonflikterna är att etablera ett bestående samarbete mellan Etiopien, Egypten och Sudan; att säkerställa ökad transparens, deltagandeprocesser och allmän tillgång till information; att utreda och utföra åtgärder som är till nytta för områdets ekologi; och att förstärka de positiva resultaten av elektrifiering genom kompletterande åtgärder.

The daunting tasks of responding to climate change and ensuring sustainable development (SD) are high on the political agenda among world leaders. From the onset, the clean development mechanisms (CDM) outlined in Article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol (KP), state that CDM activities should contribute to SD in the host country while reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emission. Nevertheless, many scholars have criticized CDM for failing to deliver on its twin objectives. In Ethiopia in particular, there was lack of afforestation/reforestation (A/R) CDM research specific to the nation; specifically, research as to whether A/R-CDM met the stipulated twin objectives of SD and mitigation (reducing GHG). This study was conducted in the Humbo district of Wolyaita Zone, Southern Nations - Nationality and People Regional (SNNPR) state of Ethiopia, where A/R-CDM was implemented in pursuit of these twin objectives. Humbo is located between 6°46’48.47 and 6°41’04.28N; and between 37°48’35.44 and 37° 55’14.51E, between altitudinal gradients 1200 and 1900 m.a.s.l. The climate of the study area is characterized by annual temperatures between 25°C and 28°C, and by total annual rainfall between 800 to 1000 mm. The objectives of the study were to quantify the change of above ground and below ground carbon pools of native tree species; to assess the attractiveness of FMNR forestry practices; to examine A/R-CDM contributions to community level SD; and to assess the effectiveness of climate change mitigation policy founded on native tree species-based A/R-CDM. Data regarding above ground biomass (AGB) and below ground biomass (BGB) carbon pools of native tree species was collected through non-destructive techniques to quantify the change in carbon sequestration and associated carbon trading. A multi-stage random cluster household (HH) sampling approach was used to assess the attractiveness of farmer managed natural regeneration (FMNR) forestry practice. To examine the contribution of A/R-CDM to community level SD, three dimensions of SD were evaluated, namely; (local) environmental, social, and economic. Two indicators were considered per each dimension. With regard to local environmental SD, community access to natural resources, as well as changes to the local climate were considered. With regard to the social dimension, job creation and changes to social support structures were considered. With regard to the economic dimension, economic activities of the area and local skill development were considered. Focus group discussions and key informant interviews were used to triangulate the survey as well as to assess policy perspectives. Results revealed that the Humbo native tree species based A/R-CDM, which employed FMNR forestry practices, sequestered a net total of 73,138; 84,848; 103,769 and 111,657 tCO2e along 2011, 2014, 2015 and 2016 years, respectively, across 2,728 ha. In terms of carbon leakage due to fuel wood collection activity displacement, a net zero was found since the average volume of fuelwood collected from the project area, after the area was closed off, was found to be 5.1 - 6.1 M3, while before the area was closed off, that number was 4.3 M3. This was due to the project employing FMNR forestry practices. Similarly, the leakage due to livestock grazing activity displacement also was found to be a net zero, since the number of animals grazing on land adjacent to the project area after four years of the area’s being closed off reached 11,383 cattle, 429 donkeys and 4,108 goats, unlike 8,684 cattle and 2,288 goats before the project. In other words, the number of livestock owned by farmers on the land adjacent to the project site was not adversely affected by the closing off of the site, which prevented grazing on the area allocated to A/R-CDM. The livestock management training provided by project developer improved the farmers’ rearing efficiency. Another expected leakage due to soil pitting for A/R was also found to be nil since soil disturbance did not take place because of FMNR practices. These results indicated that systematic regeneration of native tree species through FMNR forestry practices is an effective method to develop carbon sinks. From the point of view of FMNR attractiveness, the results revealed that the practice improved land cover change. The use of FMNR avoided the projected eight years reforestation investment cost of US$ 2,751,312.00 which could have been used if plantation forestry was undertaken. This showed that Humbo A/R-CDM might not have happened if FMNR is had not been introduced, as CDM has no pre-finance mechanism. With regard to community level SD contributions, the establishment of forest protection and development farmers’ cooperatives, as well as the granting of communal land-user rights certification, resulted in legal ownership of the land to the community, whereas before, the land was considered “no man’s land,” and subject to open access. The land-user rights and carbon ownership in turn empowered the community to sign a contract with an international carbon credit buyer. In terms of the local microclimate, the regeneration of native tree species was correlated with increased rainfall in the area in June, July, August and September (JJAS) and March, April and May (MAM). This suggested that the native tree species based A/R-CDM project played a role in improving the local microclimate. In terms of sociological SD, the study showed that new employment opportunities were created including tree pruning, thinning, forest guarding, and jobs at the community warehouse and community flourmill. The availability of employment opportunities was significantly higher for those who participated in the Humbo A/R-CDM, when compared to those who didn’t. In terms of social support structures, in less than ten years, seven Humbo A/R-CDM project owner farmers’ cooperatives, initially established as owners of the project, evolved into one forest protection and development Union. This enabled the institutionalization of grassroots organizations towards a common communal and international agenda of care for the environment. In terms of economic effects, the project enabled a carbon credit contract worth a total of US$ 3,873,298.00, signed at the sell rate of US$ 4.4 per tCO2e, for a total of 880,295 tCO2e across a 30 year crediting period. This is a new business model for the community, the country, and global businesses, all doing their part in climate change mitigation - CDM. As of the first A/R-CDM verification, the community received a total of US$ 321,807.2 in 2011. Consequently, the community received 373,331.2 in 2014, 456,583.6 in 2015 and 491,290.8 in 2016. In terms of revenue from logging, selective harvesting is planned to take place in years 12, 24 and 36. The community is projected to earn at least US$ 15,150.00 per ha1 (a total of US$ 3.9 million) from the first forest harvest in year 12 alone. These benefits in emission reduction (ER) and SD suggest that massive cross-dimensional benefits were foregone due to the country’s refusal to welcome A/R-CDM in its first commitment period, despite having 36,434,400 ha of land eligible for A/R. The research results in the area of policy perspectives indicated that the Humbo A/R-CDM project, the only one of its kind in Ethiopia, was made possible by environment related constitutional provisions, especially those pertaining to land-user rights, and the existence of a nationally standardized definition of forest that complies with international range. Additionally, the timely ratification of the Kyoto Protocol (KP), the establishment of a designated national authority (DNA) and a letter of approval by the DNA to the project developer were found to be enablers. Yet, defining land use, clarifying carbon ownership rights and bringing an inclusive benefit sharing mechanism for forest carbon are among the key instruments the country has yet to put in place to prove local readiness for such development opportunities. The Humbo A/R-CDM also undertook voluntary assessments to obtain additional certification in the form of the Climate Community Biodiversity (CCB) certification, and was certified to be of gold standard for its premium. However, there were no benefits to the host community and project developer from the CCB gold standard certification. Such ambiguity could have been cleared from the onset. This implied whenever going for market and/or result based climate change mitigation, it is necessary to understand the provisions. This study revealed that the Humbo native tree species-based A/R-CDM via FMNR forestry practices met the CDM twin objectives as specified in Article 12 of the KP in 1997, namely the double aims of achieving mitigations of GHG emissions and assisting developing countries inSD. Yet, more research is needed to understand all eligible A/R carbon pools sequestered at Humbo A/R-CDM site.
Environmental Sciences
Ph. D. (Environmental Management)

Resettlement as a development discourse has become a worldwide phenomenon. This phenomenon is mainly caused by population pressure, war or prolonged hostilities between countries or groups within the country, irreversible environmental degradation and development projects. While there are diverse causes of resettlement situations, this study focused on state sponsored resettlement programmes caused by socio-economic, political and environmental problems in Amhara and the southern regions of Ethiopia. The main objective of this empirical study was to analyse the effects of planned government intra-regional resettlement programme on the sustainable livelihoods of resettled households in Ethiopia. The central research question was: Does a planned intra-regional resettlement programme provide sustainable livelihoods for settler households in the two selected regions of Ethiopia? If it does, what chain of factors explains the livelihood security and sustainability? If it does not, what are the interacting variables and how have they generated a process of livelihood insecurity? To this end, the combination of Sustainable Livelihood Framework (SLF) and Impoverishment Risks and Reconstruction (IRR) models were used as the pillars of the theoretical and conceptual framework of the study. Mixed method design that combines both quantitative and qualitative data from primary and secondary sources were used in this study. Primary data were collected through a household survey, key informants interview, focus group discussion and field observation. A total of 250 households were surveyed and a total of 28 interviewees were contacted from the two regions. A total of 6 focus group discussions were also conducted with purposively selected participants. This study concludes that the effects of planned resettlement on the sustainable livelihoods of resettlers were mixed and challenged the generic representation of the scheme as a success or a failure. The adverse effects were mainly due to policy gaps, the mismatch between policy and practice, poor inter-sectoral and inter-regional integration and inadequate capacity building efforts. Recommendations were provided in line with these gaps. In addition, the knowledge documented through the application of SLF and IRR in mixed method design contributed to the methodological and theoretical advancement of resettlement and livelihood studies.
Development Studies
D. Litt. et Phil. (Development Studies)

The thesis presented the results of an investigation into livelihood strategies of rural households in the Hararghe Highlands in the context of population pressure. The human welfare and resource outcomes of rural livelihood strategies were assessed, accounting for the “mediating” factors. The study enriches the current policy debate on how to create an enabling environment to strengthen sustainable rural livelihoods and mitigate adverse welfare and resource consequences of unsustainable rural livelihood strategies. The sustainable livelihood framework for analysing rural livelihoods in the context of population pressure was modified in the thesis to guide the analyses. Primary data was obtained from 197 randomly selected households from three representative sites in the Hararghe Highlands. Whilst verbal description, interpretation and appreciation of facts, and case studies were used for the qualitative data analysis, multivariate techniques and logistic regression were employed to analyse the quantitative data. The study showed that subdivision and fragmentation of agricultural land and re-emergence of landlessness have accompanied the unprecedented population growth in the Hararghe Highlands. The pace of demographic change of the area is so fast that it has caused failure of indigenous countervailing and adaptations. Sufficient effective demand for sustainable intensification of smallholder farms has, however, not been created due to uncertain right to the land and inadequate market incentives. Furthermore, the technology generation and dissemination systems have failed to build the capacity of smallholder farmers to respond to the demographic pressure in a sustainable way. This has generally resulted in negative welfare and resource outcomes. Nonetheless, rural households pursue heterogeneous livelihood strategies due to differential access to livelihood assets, and heterogeneous constraints and incentives. The nature and the extent of welfare and resource outcomes of rural livelihood strategies are different across sites and among different households. A livelihood strategy that integrates cash crop production with high external input-based staple crops production and trade was found to be more successful. Overall, the findings challenge the current untargeted and uniform intervention that implicitly assumes that only farming and the intensification of staple crop production for food self-sufficiency is important to all households. Furthermore, the findings challenge the over simplified generalisations regarding the human welfare and resource effects of rural population growth in Ethiopia as if the interactions between them were taking place in a political, an institutional and an agro-climatic vacuum and as if rural households in a district, a sub-district or a village were a “homogeneous” group. What is thus needed is decentralisation of rural development planning and building of the capacity of local institutions so that they may be able to understand rural livelihoods and design innovative and locally specific integrated interventions to support sustainable rural livelihoods. The specific recommendations include ensuring land tenure security, improving farmers’ access to the market and appropriate technologies, creating conducive environment for commercialisation and livelihood diversification, institutionalised safety net, resettlement and family planning.
Thesis (PhD (Rural Development Planning))--University of Pretoria, 2006.
Agricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Development
unrestricted

The past decades witnessed that neither the private sector nor the government could provide an adequate socio-economic safety net for the poorest of the poor in the Third World. The community-based self-help approaches were hence widely used as alternative means to help the poor and marginalised to cope with livelihood shocks. This study examined the extent to which indigenous iddirs (local neighbourhood associations) and the externally-funded self-help groups (SHGs) could transform social capital into entrepreneurship thereby enhancing sustainable livelihoods. The study was conducted in three Southern Nation and Nationalities and People’s Region (SNNPR) rural districts, namely, Shebedeno, Wonago and Humbo. Mixed (quantitative and qualitative) methods were used to collect field data. Accordingly, closed and openended questionnaires and interview schedules were developed in English and then translated into Amharic (the national language). Instruments were field tested for validity and thereafter adjusted. A total of 220 (166 male and 54 female) people participated in the study. Data were entered into an Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) database, and analysed by using basic descriptive statistics. Qualitative data were transcribed and analysed using Microsoft Office tools. The findings indicate that the SHGs’ members were relatively better educated than the rest of the population and some of them used this opportunity to pursue employment in government and the private sector. With regard to poverty status, iddirs members were poorer than those of SHGs (15.5% of the iddirs members reported that they are destitute compared to others in the community, as opposed to 3.3% of SHGs members). The study reveals that the livelihoods of some members of iddirs and SHG (particularly the latter) improved as a result of their involvement in these institutions although, at this point, the impact is insignificant. With regard to socio-economic decision making, more SHG members were involved in participatory decision making. However, iddirs leaders were still the dominant decision makers. The SHG level of participatory decision making could be the result of capacity building efforts by the promoting organisation, particularly, the Ethiopian Kale Heywet Church (EKHC). The study also shows that some of the iddirs and SHGs members were involved in informal rural entrepreneurial activities. However, their involvement did not indicate the utilisation of micro loan taken from the iddirs and SHGs for business purposes (97% of the iddirs and SHGs respondents utilised microcredit loans for consumption and other related purposes). On the other hand, the empirical evidence reveals that the amount of loan that iddirs and SHGs respondents received was very small. The general practice is giving small loans particularly to SHG members with repayments expected to begin as quickly and frequently as possible. Transforming social capital into entrepreneurship requires a cooperative approach, i.e. the involvement of development actors so as to enhance communities’ endeavour to achieve their livelihood objectives. Despite the wide prevalence of social capital in Ethiopia, this study indicates that its effective utilisation in community empowerment and sustainable livelihoods remains a challenge. Social capital is found to have a limited role in social entrepreneurship development and promotion not because it does not have potential, but because of the limited role of promoting organisations. The study shows lack of strong linkage between iddirs and promoting organisation (NGOs and Government). The study thus underlines the need for improving network and links with iddirs and SHGs and promoting organisations so as to create an enabling environment for sustainable livelihoods in the three rural districts under scrutiny.
Development Studies
D. Litt. et Phil. (Development Studies)

This study was carried out to examine the significance of Coffee-based agriculture in the socio-economic development of rural livelihoods in Ethiopia, with particular emphasis on households in the Borecha District of the Illubabor Zone, Oromia Regional State. In this dissertation, three randomly selected study kebeles2 were considered. The primary data were collected using household questionnaires, observation and key informant interviews. The secondary data were acquired from a review of the diverse and extensive literature contained in journals, textbooks and published and unpublished documents. The target population encompasses 1,600 coffee-growing households in the Borecha District, although the sample included only 120 coffee-growing farmers. Sample selection was performed using a stratified sampling technique to select three kebeles. The data analysis was both qualitative and quantitative, which involved descriptive statistics and general linear model (UNIANOVA, MANOVA). The data are presented as tables, bar charts, and line graphs accompanied by correlations and multiple comparisons that help to interpret the findings and to generate conclusions that support solutions to the identified problems. The findings show that coffee growing has increased the income generated from direct sales and associated employment opportunities. The social contributions realised include that over the past two years, households trend in spending on education increased. Moreover, sampled households access to health facilities changed after they started growing coffee.
Development Studies
M.A. (Development Studies)

The study was conducted in the Bilate River Watershed. Bilate River is one of the inland rivers of Ethiopia that drains in to the northern watershed of the Lake Abaya-Chamo Drainage Basin which forms part of the Main Ethiopian Rift and in turn is part of an active rift system of the Great Rift Valley in Africa. This study examined the extent and nature of rainfall variability from recorded data while estimation of evapotranspiration was derived from recorded weather data. Future climate scenarios of precipitation and temperature for the Bilate Watershed were also generated. Analysis of rainfall variability was made by the rainfall anomaly index, coefficient of variance and Precipitation Concentration Index. The FAO-56 reference ET (ETo) approach was used to determine the amount of evapotranspiration. Estimation of the onset and the end of the growing season, and the length of the growing period was done using Instat software. The results show that mean annual rainfall of the upper (2307 m.a.s.l), middle (1772 m.a.s.l) and lower (1361 m.a.s.l) altitude zones of the watershed are in the order of 1100 mm, 1070 mm and 785 mm with CV of 12%, 15% and 17% respectively. Based on the rainfall data record of the latest 30 years, there was a high temporal anomaly in rainfall between 1980 and 2013. The wettest years recorded a Rainfall Anomaly Index of +5, +6 and +8 for stations in the upper, middle and lower altitude zones respectively, where the driest year recorded value is -5 in all the stations. The average onset date of rainfall for the upper zone is April 3+ 8 days, for the middle zone April 10 + 10 days and for the lower zone April 11+ 11 days with CV of 23%, 26% and 29% respectively. The average end dates of the rainy season in the upper and middle zones are October 3+ 5 days and September 25+ 7 days with CV 5% and 7%. The main rainy season ends earlier in the lower zone; it is on July 12 + 10 days with CV of 14%. Climate change scenarios were generated for two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs): RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5 using 20 GCMs from CMIP5 bias-corrected under three future time slices, near-term (2010-2039), mid-century (2040-2069) and end-century (2071-2099). Rainfall is projected to increase in total amount under all-time slices and emissions pathways but with pronounced inter and intra-variability. Minimum temperature will significantly increase during mid-century by 1.810C (RCP 4.5) and xiii 2.550C (RCP 8.5) and by 2.10C (RCP 4.5) and 4.270C (RCP8.5) during end-century. The projected increase in maximum temperature during mid-century is 1.430C under RCP 4.5 and 1.99 0C under RCP 8.5 and during end-century by 1.650C under RCP 4.5 and 3.50C under RCP8.5 during end-century. The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model was selected to simulate stream flow of the watershed. The Alaba Kulito gauging station monthly stream flows from 1990 to 1996 and 1997 to 2002 were used for stream flow calibration and validation respectively. The respective statistical results of the coefficient of determination (R2), Nash–Sutcliffe coefficient (NSE) and percent bias (PB) are 0.79, 0.78 and 0.56 for the calibration period and 0.64, 0.60 and -21.7 for the validation period which show that the model predicted the stream flow at the Alaba Kulito gauging station reasonably. The annual stream flow increased progressively throughout the century for all time periods under both RCP scenarios. The increases under RCP 8.5 scenario are the larger compared to RCP 4.5 scenarios, approximately 42.42% during the 2080s period. The six GCMs selected to see the uncertainties related to GCMs suggest that the river flow will change by small amounts of −6.18 to 7.83% change compared with the baseline. The simulated runoff in the Bilate River depends on the projected amount of rainfall embedded in the GCM structures selected to simulate the future climate and is less dependent on the local temperature increment. The study also assessed the farmers‘ perceptions of the changes on climatic variables and their adaptation options to the impacts of climate variability and change. The determinant factors that influence the choice of farmers to climate change adaptation were also investigated. Above 92% of the surveyed farm households perceived variability and change in climatic variables but 59% of the households participated in one or other of the six major adaptation strategies which most prevailed inside farmers of the watershed. Changing crop variety, using water harvesting scheme, intensifying irrigation, using cover crop or/and mulching, reducing the number of livestock owned and getting offfarm jobs are the main adaptation strategies used by the farming households. The results from the binary logistic model further showed that age and educational level of the household head, farm size and the income level of the household are household characteristics that significantly affect the choice of adaptation options, while access to climate information in the form of seasonal forecasts and local agro ecology are other factors that determined the selection of adaptation methods by the farming households in the study area. The main constraints to adaptation to climate change in the study area were seen to be the knowledge gap in the form of lack of information, shortage of labour and minimal land size. These were the three most explained constraints to climate change as explained by responding household heads.
Environmental Sciences
D. Litt. et Phil. (Environmental Sciences)

In response to recent decentralization in Ethiopia, we investigated the status of and pressure exerted on Awash National Park (ANP), vis-a- vis Park resources, observed land use and land cover changes, causes of park-related conflicts, use and management role of stakeholders at federal, regional and local level and the impact of policy on sustainable resources conservation through a comparative framework of before (pre-1995) and after decentralization (post-1995). We used a combination of two black and white aerial photographs of 1975 and 1986, a satellite image of 2006, field observation, information from local communities and Geographic Information System (GIS) to generate the land use and land cover profile. We selected a total of 210 respondents by stratified random sampling, and group discussion participants and key informants using the purposive sampling technique. Direct observed participation of stakeholders, household questionnaire, and interview with key informants and focus group discussions were used to collect data. Our results showed a declining scattered bushland by a rate of 20.61km2 per year between 1972 and 1986. On the other hand, Shrub encroachment increased by 32.2 % between 1972 and 1986 and by 10.3 % (77.4 km2) during the entire study period. Grassland was the largest cover type in the area between 1986 and 2006 and expanded by 14.2 % (106.4 km2) between 1972 and 1986. The majority of respondents highlighted that the most important drivers of the observed LULC changes pre-1995 were the combined effects of the land reform policy and changes in Park boundary (size of the Park). Population growth was reported to be the main driving factor for LULC change pre-and post-1995. The continuing existence of the area as a national Park receives unreserved support from most pastoral and agro-pastoral communities. From the data we conclude that overall, decentralization in Ethiopia was not effective in terms of improving the status of Awash National Park. We recommend action should be taken in terms of reducing human and livestock pressure and to prevent and solve interest-based conflicts between stakeholder
Environmental Sciences
Ph. D. (Environmental Sciences)

A contradiction between the Ethiopian law of investment and environmental law is prevalent since law of investment promotes development while environmental law protects the environment. The thesis investigates the general legal issue: How do the investment and environmental laws of Ethiopia promote large-scale agricultural development without adversely affecting the environment? In the research, comparative legal research methodology is employed: comparison is made between the internationally accepted principles of large-scale agricultural investment and Ethiopian laws; the laws and experiences of Brazil and South Africa are showed that law of sustainable large-scale agricultural investment is vital to promote agricultural development and protect the environment. International law on investment and environment are also considered. International legal principles of solving the contradiction between environmental law and investment law are analysed. Legal and document analysis of Ethiopian laws, policies and government documents have been made. Interviews have been made, data through questionnaires have been collected and analysed, and 12 large-scale agricultural investment farms have been observed and critically analysed. The thesis identified that law of large-scale agricultural investment promotes development while Ethiopian environmental law protects the environment. The law has a role in promoting large-scale agricultural development by recognising the right to development and providing incentives and creating conducive environment. Thus, the law should be used to promote both the right to development and environmental protection. The nexus between investment law and environmental law should be strengthening. It is identified that the law of sustainable large-scale agricultural development could protect the environment while promoting large-scale agricultural development. The thesis identified the Ethiopian law and the practices do not promote sustainable large-scale agricultural development. Thus, it is recommended that precautionary principle, like EIA should be made a requirement for large-scale agricultural investment, implementing efficiently and effectively the large-scale agricultural law principles, and laws to achieve sustainable large-scale agriculture.
Public, Constitutional and International Law
LL. D.

This research explores the perception and practice of participatory communication for development. To this end, the study focuses on a leading local Non-Governmental Organisation (NGO) named Organisation for Rehabilitation and Development in Amhara (ORDA), Ethiopia. This qualitative case study was based on the participatory development communication model which has been assumed to bring about sustainable socio-economic change of a country (Melkote & Steeves, 2001; Mefalopulos, 2008; Servaes, 2008). The data were collected using in-depth interviews, Focus Group Discussion (FGD), document analysis and field observation. The collected data were organised and analysed in the form of content and thematic analysis. The results revealed economic oriented and top down approach to development communication as the dominant conceptions, and majority of the research participants perceived the concept ‘participation’ as mere contributions of labour and materials which are not real participation, but co-option. Only a few of the management members of ORDA conceptualized the idea of ‘participation’ as an empowerment process in which the organisation’s official document is also stated. Besides, the results showed no genuine participation of the local community in ORDA’s development process. Generally, these results could lead us to conclude that participatory communication was the missing link in the development process. That is, communication was perceived as a transmission of development information and an image building activity, not a process of empowerment. The major communications practices of ORDA were also best described as one-way top down which could reveal the legacy of modernisation and dependency theories of the development literature. The study further indicated pressing factors such as individual, organisational and environmental related affecting the implementation of ORDA’s participatory development communication. The results of study further indicated that participatory development communication was not used a means of liberation from the chain of poverty, dependency syndrome and other underdevelopment problems which deeply persist in the region. Based on the findings, the study commends the mainstreaming of participatory development communication both at the perceptual and practical level for achieving sustainable development in rural Amhara region, Ethiopia.
D. Litt. et Phil. (Communication)
Communication

Access to electricity is a scarcity throughout sub-Saharan African countries. The region currently has the lowestrate of energy access in the world and a total of 13 countries have an electrification rate of 25%. Comprehensiveenergy security is regarded as essential to obtaining sustainable and economic development in which access toaffordable and clean energy is part of the Sustainable Development Goals of the United Nations Agenda 2030.A country in the region that has had some sporadic success with electrification and unique developments withrenewable energy, is Ethiopia. Despite the significant overall increase of access to electricity over the past twodecades, the country still has an electrification rate that barely covers half of the population. An aspect that isviewed to have an impact on increased electrification and successful transitioning of deploying renewableenergy, is the use and presence of strong policies. Several researchers and scholars have explored the effect thatpolicy has on increased electrification and how they are useful for promoting renewable energy. This researchaims to investigate the role of policy for electrification via renewables in Ethiopia. The objective of the thesisis to explore sustainable development in terms of energy development, how climate change and economicdevelopment is tackled, and what specific influences shape the energy outlook of Ethiopia. A case study wasconducted which combined two different methods; content analysis of policy documents and semi-structuredinterviews with experts from various fields in which the data was triangulated in order to gain valuableperspectives and insights. The findings showcase that policy developments do seem to have an influence onincreased electrification and sustainable energy transitioning to some extent, with other factors also playing arole. Thus, this research will contribute to how sustainable development can be understood from the context ofenergy policy of a global south nation and provide insights which can further be elaborated on how policies canbe utilized for successful energy developments in other countries in the region.

In Ethiopia people are highly dependent on natural resources which often lead to environmental degradation. The perception is that environmental degradation is partly due to lack of environmental awareness. The level of environmental awareness and the role of the media in creating awareness in Kembata Tembaro Administrative zone were investigated. Quantitative and qualitative methodologies were used to identify sources of environmental knowledge, content, spatial extent, volume and priority of media coverage, impact of media, and expectation of audiences and producers. Experience, rather than outside sources, such as provided by the media, is the main source of environmental information, but awareness is key to reduce further environmental degradation. Environmental media programs should be transmitted at suitable times and the experiences of successful farmers in natural resources conservation and development should be shared. Attention should also be given to identification of awareness obstacles and training and sensitizing of journalists on environment issues

This study examines rural household food security and its determinants in drought-prone Amhara Region of Ethiopia by focusing on Lay Gaint district as a case study site. A range of factors from physical environmental circumstances to policy and institutions-related issues determine households‟ vulnerability to food insecurity and livelihood outcomes. The survey results showed that the majority (74%) of the sampled households experienced food insecurity. The situation was worse among female-headed households such that 86% of them were food insecure. The study revealed that, despite the low level of productivity related to local environmental constraints, rural livelihoods remain undiversified with small scale rain-fed agriculture to provide the primary source of livelihood for the large majority of households (~93% of respondents). Only about 25% of the respondents participated in some form of non-farm or off-farm activities, but with only little contribution to their total annual incomes. Food insecurity is a chronic problem in that, on average, households in the study area consume from own production for only about six months. The study found out that the majority of households (about 80%) perceived annual rainfall to be inadequate to support the growing of crops and grazing of animals. The main adaptive strategies employed by the majority of households included diversifying livestock kept, planting trees and diversifying crops. The study revealed that incidence, depth and severity of food insecurity of the food insecure households showed that Woina-Dega and Kolla agro-ecologies are prone to vulnerability to food insecurity. This suggests that development interventions that are geographically differentiated; and build household assets will improve household food security in the study area, and in other similar environments in the country.
Geography
D.Phil.

Villagisation and large-scale agricultural investments in Gambella region has been a major concern of human right groups. The Ethiopian government argues that villagisation program is voluntary and part of Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP) which attempts to bring development to indigenous communities and nothing to do with large-scale agricultural investment. On the contrary, human right groups and local civil society organizations claim that the Ethiopian government is forcefully relocating indigenous people from their ancestral land under the disguise of development while the true motive of the government is to expand agricultural investment in the region at the expense of the livelihood of the local communities. This research is an attempt to investigate the controversial villagisation and large-scale agricultural investment in Gambella regional state by looking into the link between large-scale agricultural investment and villagisation. The main focus of the research is to examine the impacts of agricultural investment and villagisation in Gambella region the light of the Ethiopian government policy in the region and the alleged development induced human right violations. The research is based on a qualitative method to capture data from 32 villagisation sites using in-depth interviews, focus group discussions and field observations. For the purpose of this study, 241 participants were selected from the study sites to participate in the research. Out of the 241 participants 75 of them were participated in in-depth interviews and the rest were included in focus group discussions and informal discussions based on the participants’ knowledge, views, experience and feelings associated with villagisation and large-scale agricultural investment in the region. The findings of this study show no indication of involuntary villagisation, no significant relationship between villagisation and investment, or no evidence of previously occupied land being leased to investors. However, the study reveals that there has been serious lack of communication and misinformation from the government side in the process of planning and implementing the villagisation program. Owing to this, suspicion and lack of trust between government officials and the local communities characterized implementation of the villagisation project.
Geography

Executive summary: last page (unnumbered)
The Sustainable Livelihood framework approach is a comprehensive method for determination of food insecurity and poverty at household level. The objective of this study was to determine the livelihood strategies and the coping mechanisms used by rural households in Abela Lida PA, Shebedino district, Southern Ethiopia. This study used both qualitative and quantitative methods to estimate the contribution of different resources to total food access and cash income, detailing expenditure patterns, asset holdings and capacity to cope with shocks. Simple random sampling was used for selecting 72 households for the survey. The data was collected during the hunger season using the checklists designed for livelihood and coping strategies. The study showed only 30% households had all the adults as working members, due to poor work skill, low awareness and lack of job opportunities. The main sources of income are sale of cash crops mainly coffee (55.6%) followed by sale of cash crops plus livestock (18%), labour (12.5%), PSNP (8.3%). The average annual income for the households was found to be birr 4,727.92 (~$293.34) and agriculture is the main livelihood strategy. Awareness and access to basic social services has improved and escalated price of staple foods, has negatively affected poor households and safety net beneficiaries who rely on purchase. Seasonality has also affected agricultural activities, prices and employment opportunities. The increase in fuel price was found to be the main shock followed by coffee price fluctuations and failure in purchasing power of money. About (63%) households faced shortage of food or money to buy food, medical expenses, cooking fuel and school fees.
Agriculture, Animal Health and Human Ecology
M.A. (Human Ecology)

This interdisciplinary thesis studies the diverse multi-stakeholder networks that are constitutive of contemporary water governance. It examines collaborative governance networks from a relational perspective in two case study watersheds in Tanzania and Ethiopia. Collaborative and networked governance approaches are increasingly promoted to address complex water challenges, but relatively little is known about how the everyday collaborative relationships (i.e. collaboration practices) among the multiple actors involved in the development, management and use of water, shape contemporary water governance processes. In this thesis, I advance, based on intensive fieldwork data collection, a conceptual and methodological framework for studying collaboration networks pertaining to watershed management. I examine local collaborative governance networks in two watersheds, in Ethiopia and Tanzania, from a relational perspective, using complementary qualitative and quantitative social network research methods. The thesis explores the opportunities and limitations of such collaborative governance networks in their concrete functioning, thereby contributing to a more context-sensitive, and nuanced, understanding of the role of governance networks and collaborative governance approaches in the management of water and related resources.