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Journal articles on the topic 'Syria – Agriculture'
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1
Müller, Marc François, Jim Yoon, Steven M. Gorelick, Nicolas Avisse, and Amaury Tilmant. "Impact of the Syrian refugee crisis on land use and transboundary freshwater resources." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113, no. 52 (December 5, 2016): 14932–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1614342113.
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Since 2013, hundreds of thousands of refugees have migrated southward to Jordan to escape the Syrian civil war that began in mid-2011. Evaluating impacts of conflict and migration on land use and transboundary water resources in an active war zone remains a challenge. However, spatial and statistical analyses of satellite imagery for the recent period of Syrian refugee mass migration provide evidence of rapid changes in land use, water use, and water management in the Yarmouk–Jordan river watershed shared by Syria, Jordan, and Israel. Conflict and consequent migration caused ∼50% decreases in both irrigated agriculture in Syria and retention of winter rainfall in Syrian dams, which gave rise to unexpected additional stream flow to downstream Jordan during the refugee migration period. Comparing premigration and postmigration periods, Syrian abandonment of irrigated agriculture accounts for half of the stream flow increase, with the other half attributable to recovery from a severe drought. Despite this increase, the Yarmouk River flow into Jordan is still substantially below the volume that was expected by Jordan under the 1953, 1987, and 2001 bilateral agreements with Syria.
2
Bichara, Adel F. "Potential of Irrigated Agriculture in Syria." Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management 115, no. 3 (May 1989): 358–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/(asce)0733-9496(1989)115:3(358).
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Ahmad, M., A. Rodríguez, and A. Braslavskaya. "Food and water insecurity: re-assessing the value of rainfed agriculture." Water Supply 5, no. 1 (March 1, 2005): 109–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2005.0014.
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Rainfed agriculture has potential to produce needed cereals for the growing populations of West and Central Asia even though rainfed agriculture is perceived as risky. The value of rainfed agriculture to produce competitively should be re-assessed. This requires the concerted efforts of farmers, researchers, and policy makers to work on the technical factors that determine agricultural production as well as to address the economic policy environment. Syria is a small country with a diversified rainfed and irrigated agriculture. Rainfed and supplemental irrigation technology has improved Syria's food self-reliance, however, the policy environment is not conducive to the sustainable use of natural resources. Supplemental irrigation technology to produce wheat is used to illustrate the need to address both the technical issues as well as the economic incentives to make agricultural production competitive. Kazakhstan is a large country with a predominantly rainfed agriculture. Farmers could benefit from rainfall probabilities to use fertilizer and improved wheat varieties under rainfed agriculture as Syria did during the eighties and nineties. Implicit taxation of farmers needs to be removed and access to markets must be ensured for farmers in Kazakhstan to benefit from international wheat prices. While it is important to improve production technology, the economic policy environment needs to be addressed first to create incentives for farmers to produce commodities competitively in water-scarce regions.
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Williams, Elizabeth. "Contesting the Colonial Narrative’s Claims to Progress: A Nationalist’s Proposal for Agrarian Reform." Review of Middle East Studies 44, no. 2 (2010): 187–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s2151348100001506.
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In the years immediately following the imposition of mandatory rule in Syria in July 1920, French administrators declared their intention to develop the region in accordance with the ideals of progress and scientific rationality. Among the areas targeted for special attention and improvement was the field of agriculture. The first French agricultural counselor for the mandate, E. Achard, emphasized that attention to the mise en valeur (enhancement and development) of this sector could not only serve France’s need for specific commodities but would also make French mandatory rule a vehicle through which progress and scientific rationality would be imparted to what he depicted as an underdeveloped Syria. However, fifteen years later, it seems, little had changed. In 1935, Mohammed Sarrage, a Syrian student at Toulouse University, wrote a dissertation that soundly criticized the mandate government for its failure to institute the reforms necessary to advance or significantly increase Syria’s agricultural production. A closer examination of Sarrage’s critique and his proposed program for reform not only reveals the incoherence between French official discourse and actual policy, but suggests an alternative narrative to that of French officials regarding the sources of progress and modernity.
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Withagen, Cees. "The climate change, migration and conflict nexus." Environment and Development Economics 19, no. 3 (June 2014): 324–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1355770x14000321.
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Early this year, Thomas Friedman (2014) reported on a (Wikileaks) cable sent in 2008 from the US Embassy in Damascus concerning the drought Syria had been suffering from since 2006 (and which was going to last for another couple of years). The Syrian UN food and agriculture representative was seeking assistance for among others 15,000 small-holding farmers, who might otherwise seek jobs in Syrian cities (leaving many women and children behind in poverty) and who could arguably add to already existing social and economic tensions in those cities.
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Savah, Luzhayn. "Identifying Promising Industries in Syria to Attract FDI." Scientific Research and Development. Economics 9, no. 2 (April 22, 2021): 38–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.12737/2587-9111-2021-9-2-38-42.
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The paper is devoted to identifying promising sectors of the Syrian economy in order to attract foreign direct investment. In order to determine the attractive sectors of the Syrian economy, the statistical indicators of the state's exports were studied: in the pre-war and modern period of time. As a result of the analysis, it was concluded which sectors of the economy were the most resistant to the effects of negative factors. According to the results of the study, a conclusion is made about the prospects for the development of agriculture and the food industry in Syria (including statistics of foreign investors ' investments in these areas). The assessment of the state of the leading sectors of the Syrian economy (mining, tourism) is carried out, the advantages and disadvantages of investments in these areas are described. Based on the results of comparing the prospects of the industries, recommendations were made for foreign investors to choose the direction of investment.
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Hinnebusch, R. A. "Bureaucracy and Development in Syria: The Case of Agriculture." Journal of Asian and African Studies 24, no. 1-2 (January 1, 1989): 79–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/002190968902400106.
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Perthes, Volker. "The Syrian Private Industrial and Commercial Sectors and the State." International Journal of Middle East Studies 24, no. 2 (May 1992): 207–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s002074380002153x.
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According to its constitution and the ideology of the ruling Ba?th party, Syria is a socialist people's republic with a planned socialist economy. This does not mean, however, that there is no place for a private economic sector: agriculture is almost entirely private,1 as is small-scale industry, almost 90 percent of internal trade, most road transport, tourism, construction, and up to one-third of Syria's foreign trade. There is also a Syrian bourgeoisie apparently flourishing under the auspices of Syrian socialism. Since independence, however, the specific development of Syria's private sector has to a large extent been determined by political decisions, i.e., by decisions of those running state affairs.
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Ryan, John, Hayriye Ibrikci, Abdul Rashid, and Rolf Sommer. "Phosphorus in Low-Input Dryland Agriculture: The Perspective from Syria." Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis 44, no. 16 (September 8, 2013): 2378–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00103624.2013.794825.
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Houmsi, Mohammad Rajab, Mohammed Sanusi Shiru, Mohamed Salem Nashwan, Kamal Ahmed, Ghaith Falah Ziarh, Shamsuddin Shahid, Eun-Sung Chung, and Sungkon Kim. "Spatial Shift of Aridity and Its Impact on Land Use of Syria." Sustainability 11, no. 24 (December 10, 2019): 7047. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su11247047.
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Expansion of arid lands due to climate change, particularly in water stressed regions of the world can have severe implications on the economy and people’s livelihoods. The spatiotemporal trends in aridity, the shift of land from lower to higher arid classes and the effect of this shift on different land uses in Syria have been evaluated in this study for the period 1951–2010 using high-resolution monthly climate data of the Terrestrial Hydrology Research Group of Princeton University. The trends in rainfall, temperature and potential evapotranspiration were also evaluated to understand the causes of aridity shifts. The results revealed an expansion of aridity in Syria during 1951–1980 compared to 1981–2010. About 6.21% of semi-arid land was observed to shift to arid class and 5.91% dry-subhumid land to semi-arid land between the two periods. Analysis of results revealed that the decrease in rainfall is the major cause of increasing aridity in Syria. About 28.3% of agriculture land located in the north and the northwest was found to shift from humid to dry-subhumid or dry-subhumid to semi-arid. Analysis of results revealed that the shifting of drylands mostly occurred in the northern agricultural areas of Syria. The land productivity and irrigation needs can be severely affected by increasing aridity which may affect food security and the economy of the country.
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Yakovleva, Svetlana I., and Mohammad I. Alsuleyman. "PROBLEMS OF SETTLING FORMATION IN POSTWAR SYRIA." Географический вестник = Geographical bulletin, no. 3(54) (2020): 68–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.17072/2079-7877-2020-3-68-80.
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The identification of settlement problems and mechanisms for their solution in the post-war period is a topical issue of scientific and applied significance. The purpose of the article is to show the essence of settlement problems in postwar Syria and the creation of institutional conditions for their solution. The main element of scientific novelty is the idea of the post-war settlement formation as a planned (controlled) process of restoring the main settlement axes, cities with redevelopment and creation of suburban settlements (instead of informal ones), rural settlements with the expansion of their functional types (agriculture and new activities).
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Orešić, Danijel, and Georgos Bahnan. "Vodni resursi u poljodjelstvu u sjeveroistočnoj Siriji (namjesništvo Hasaka)." Hrvatski geografski glasnik/Croatian Geographical Bulletin 68, no. 01 (June 2006): 73–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.21861/hgg.2006.68.01.04.
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Salame, Emile J. "Sources of Agricultural Productivity Differences between Israel, Jordan, Lebanon and Syria using DEA." International Journal of Productivity Management and Assessment Technologies 2, no. 2 (July 2014): 47–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/ijpmat.2014040104.
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In the present chapter agricultural productivity in four countries Israel, Jordan, Lebanon and Syria is examined. A thorough look at previous studies that considered those countries is provided. The data used is drawn from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and adjusted, covering the period of 1972 through 2006. The study utilizes Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) to calculate Malmquist productivity indices. The study looks at the tendencies in agricultural productivity for the four countries throughout the 35 years, in which wars and conflicts took place. The estimates of efficiency change, technical change, and total factor productivity change obtained for the four countries are calculated. Moreover, a model for technical inefficiency effects in a stochastic frontier production function is suggested to provide a possible explanation of the sources of inefficiencies and the effect of each inefficiency variable.
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Lee, Joan. "Reviewer Acknowledgements for Sustainable Agriculture Research, Vol. 9, No. 3." Sustainable Agriculture Research 9, no. 3 (July 30, 2020): 114. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/sar.v9n3p114.
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Sustainable Agriculture Research wishes to acknowledge the following individuals for their assistance with peer review of manuscripts for this issue. Their help and contributions in maintaining the quality of the journal are greatly appreciated.
Sustainable Agriculture Research is recruiting reviewers for the journal. If you are interested in becoming a reviewer, we welcome you to join us. Please contact us for the application form at: sar@ccsenet.org
Reviewers for Volume 9, Number 3
Bed Mani Dahal, Kathmandu University, Nepal
Cristina Bianca Pocol, Univ. of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj Napoca, Romania
Daniel L. Mutisya, Kenya Agricultural & Livestock Research Organization, Kenya
Entessar Mohammad Al JBawi, General Commission for Scientific Agricultural Research, Syria
Gunnar Bengtsson, Sweden
Inder Pal Singh, Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Science University (GADVASU), India
Manuel Teles Oliveira, University Tras os Montes Alto Douro (UTAD), Portugal
Mirela Kopjar, University of Osijek, Croatia
Ram Niwas, Swami Keshwanand Rajasthan Agricultural University, India
Samuel Obae, University of Connecticut, United States
Vishwambhar Prasad Sati, Government KRG Post Graduate College, India
15
Rocchi, Benedetto, Donato Romano, and Raid Hamza. "Agriculture reform and food crisis in Syria: Impacts on poverty and inequality." Food Policy 43 (December 2013): 190–203. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2013.09.009.
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Frija, Aymen, and Roberto Telleria. "Country-Level Bio-Economic Modeling of Agricultural Technologies to Enhance Wheat-Based Systems Productivity in the Dry Areas." Sustainable Agriculture Research 5, no. 3 (June 29, 2016): 113. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/sar.v5n3p113.
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<p>Conservation Agriculture (CA) have a large potential for enhancing cereal yields in the semi-arid areas through better management of soil moisture. The objective of the current paper is to quantify, at national level, the impact of CA adoption in wheat-based agricultural systems in Syria. A country-level bio-economic approach was used for this purpose. Different CA technical packages (TPs) were first developed and simulated through APSIM crop modeling software, in order to estimate the long-term yields of wheat under different CA TPs for the period 2015-2039. The considered CA packages are a combination of zero-tillage, mulching, raised bed, fertilizer doses, and planting dates. The simulated yields are then introduced into IMPACT model while assuming that TPs will be adopted on 35% of the wheat areas in the countries. Results show that the comparative advantages of CA TPs on overcoming the effect of climate change will only be significant after 2030. In 2039, the effect of different TPs on average wheat yields in Syria will be 4% to 12% (depending on the TP) higher than the average yields under climate change and no CA technology adoption. These yield enhancements may reduce the wheat trade deficit with 30 up to 140%, also depending on the technical package. The combination of mulching techniques, together with average nitrogen dose of 30kg/ha, and late planting date of wheat provides the best prospective for the wheat sector in Syria.</p>
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Lee, Joan. "Reviewer Acknowledgements for Sustainable Agriculture Research, Vol. 8, No. 3." Sustainable Agriculture Research 8, no. 3 (July 31, 2019): 73. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/sar.v8n3p73.
Full textAbstract:
Sustainable Agriculture Research wishes to acknowledge the following individuals for their assistance with peer review of manuscripts for this issue. Their help and contributions in maintaining the quality of the journal are greatly appreciated.
Sustainable Agriculture Research is recruiting reviewers for the journal. If you are interested in becoming a reviewer, we welcome you to join us. Please find the application form and details at http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/sar/editor/recruitment and e-mail the completed application form to sar@ccsenet.org.
Reviewers for Volume 8, Number 3
Anchal Dass, Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), India
Baoubadi Atozou, Laval University, Canada
Darwin Pangaribuan, Lampung University, Indonesia
Entessar Mohammad Al JBawi, General Commission for Scientific Agricultural Research, Syria
Kassim Adekunle Akanni, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Nigeria
Katarzyna Panasiewicz, Poznan University of Life Sciences, Poland
Manuel Teles Oliveira, University Tras os Montes Alto Douro (UTAD), Portugal
Maren Langhof, Julius Kühn-Institut, Germany
Murtazain Raza, Subsidiary of Habib Bank AG Zurich, Pakistan
Nehemie Tchinda Donfagsiteli, Institute of Medical Research and Medicinal Plants Studies, Cameroon
Stefano Marino, University of Molise, Italy
Tenaw Workayehu, Hawassa Research Center, Southern Agricultural Research Institute, Ethiopia
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Merali, Amaan. "Fear and Violence in Late Ottoman Syria: The Ismaʿilis and the School of Agriculture." DIYÂR 1, no. 1 (2020): 58–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.5771/2625-9842-2020-1-58.
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This article explores the changing relations between state officials and the Shiʿi Nizari Ismaʿilis in early 20th-century Ottoman Syria. It examines the history surrounding the founding of the School of Agriculture in the majority Ismaʿili town of Salamiyya. Ottoman authorities had only recently discovered that the Ismaʿilis were followers of an imam in Bombay, the Aga Khan III. Once the community was associated with a British Empire loyalist like the Aga Khan, officials suspected collusion. Subsequent criminal investigations sanctioned legal and political persecution against the Ismaʿilis. Arresting and imprisoning the Ismaʿilis, however, could only do so much. Officials decided on a policy to correct their beliefs through state schooling and turn the Ismaʿilis into loyal Ottomans. Provincial authorities, meanwhile, took advantage of Istanbul’s doubts over the Ismaʿilis’ loyalty to the Empire. They proceeded to arrest the Ismaʿilis and confiscate tens of thousands of gold liras in cash and jewellery from the community. The cash and valuables were buried in a fund which ultimately paid for the School of Agriculture. This article concludes that violence was mandated by all levels of government and prefigured any educational policy for the Ismaʿilis in Syria because of fears the community was a fifth column.
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Lee, Joan. "Reviewer Acknowledgements for Sustainable Agriculture Research, Vol. 8, No. 1." Sustainable Agriculture Research 8, no. 1 (January 31, 2019): 116. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/sar.v8n1p116.
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Sustainable Agriculture Research wishes to acknowledge the following individuals for their assistance with peer review of manuscripts for this issue. Their help and contributions in maintaining the quality of the journal are greatly appreciated.
Sustainable Agriculture Research is recruiting reviewers for the journal. If you are interested in becoming a reviewer, we welcome you to join us. Please find the application form and details at http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/sar/editor/recruitment and e-mail the completed application form to sar@ccsenet.org.
Reviewers for Volume 8, Number 1
Anchal Dass, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, India
Bed Mani Dahal, Kathmandu University, Nepal
Beye Amadou Moustapha, Rice Research Center, Cote d'Ivoire
Cristina Bianca Pocol, Univ. of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj Napoca, Romania
Dietrich Darr, Hochschule Rhein-Waal, Germany
Entessar Mohammad Al JBawi, General Commission for Scientific Agricultural Research, Syria
Giuseppina Migliore, University of Palermo, Italy
Inder Pal Singh, Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Science University, India
Junjie Xu, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, United States
Kassim Adekunle Akanni, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Nigeria
Kaveh Ostad Ali Askari, Islamic Azad University, Iran
Manuel Teles Oliveira, University Tras os Montes Alto Douro (UTAD), Portugal
Mirela Kopjar, University of Osijek, Croatia
Murtazain Raza, Subsidiary of Habib Bank AG Zurich, Pakistan
Nasim Ahmad Yasin, University of the Punjab Lahore Pakistan, Pakistan
Nehemie Tchinda Donfagsiteli, Institute of Medical Research and Medicinal Plants Studies, Cameroon
Nicusor-Flavius Sima, University of Agricultural Studies and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Sait Engindeniz, Ege University Faculty of Agriculture, Turkey
Tenaw Workayehu, Hawassa Research Center, Southern Agricultural Research Institute, Ethiopia
20
& et al., Othman. "ROLE OF CONSERVATION AGRICULTURE IN IMPROVING PRODUCTION WATER AND NITROGEN EFFICIENCY OF WHEAT UNDER RAINFED CONDITIONS." IRAQI JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES 51, no. 4 (August 26, 2020): 1139–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.36103/ijas.v51i4.1093.
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The research work was conducted in Izra’a Research station, which affiliated to the General Commission for Scientific Agricultural Research (GCSAR), during the growing seasons (2016 – 2017; 2017 – 2018), in order to evaluate the response of two durum wheat verities (Douma3 and Cham5) and two bread wheat varieties (Douma4 and Cham6) to Conservation Agriculture (CA) as a full package compared with Conventional Tillage system (CT) under rainfed condition using lentils (Variety Edleb3) in the applied crop rotation. The experiment was laid according to split-split RCBD with three replications. The average of biological yield, grain yield, rainwater use efficiency and nitrogen use efficiency was significantly higher during the first growing season, under conservation agriculture in the presence of crop rotation, in the variety Douma3 (7466 kg. ha-1, and 4162kg. ha-1, 19.006 kg ha-1 mm-1, 39.62 kg N m-2respectively). The two varieties Douma3 and Cham6 are considered more responsive to conservation agriculture system in the southern region of Syria, because they recorded the highest grain yields (2561, 2385 kg ha-1 respectively) compared with the other studied varieties (Cham5 and Douma4) (1951 and 1724 kg ha-1 respectively). They also exhibited the highest values of both rainwater and nitrogen use efficiency.
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Kavak, Sinem. "Syrian refugees in seasonal agricultural work: a case of adverse incorporation in Turkey." New Perspectives on Turkey 54 (May 2016): 33–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/npt.2016.7.
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AbstractThis article examines how the labor market in seasonal migrant work in agriculture in Turkey has changed with the influx of refugees from Syria. Based on both qualitative and quantitative fieldwork in ten provinces of Turkey, the article discusses precarity in seasonal migrant work in agriculture and the impact of the entry of refugees on this labor market. The analysis of precariousness of both Turkish-citizen migrant workers and refugees suggests that precarity is a relational phenomenon. The multifaceted vulnerabilities of groups in the lower echelons of the labor market resonate with one another and the adverse incorporation of vulnerable groups into the labor market pushes the market in a more insecure and informal direction.
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Lee, Joan. "Reviewer Acknowledgements for Sustainable Agriculture Research, Vol. 7, No. 4." Sustainable Agriculture Research 7, no. 4 (October 30, 2018): 134. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/sar.v7n4p134.
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Sustainable Agriculture Research wishes to acknowledge the following individuals for their assistance with peer review of manuscripts for this issue. Their help and contributions in maintaining the quality of the journal are greatly appreciated.
Sustainable Agriculture Research is recruiting reviewers for the journal. If you are interested in becoming a reviewer, we welcome you to join us. Please find the application form and details at http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/sar/editor/recruitment and e-mail the completed application form to sar@ccsenet.org.
Reviewers for Volume 7, Number 4
Aftab Alam, Edenworks Inc. New York, United States
Benedict Jonathan Kayombo, Botswana College of Agriculture, Botswana
Beye Amadou Moustapha, Rice Research Center, Cote d'Ivoire
Daniel L Mutisya, Kenya Agricultural & Livestock Research Organization, Kenya
Dietrich Darr, Hochschule Rhein-Waal, Germany
Entessar Mohammad Al JBawi, General Commission for Scientific Agricultural Research, Syria
Esther Shekinah Durairaj, Michael Fields Agricultural Institute, USA
Giuseppina Migliore, University of Palermo, Italy
Inder Pal Singh, Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Science University, India
Katarzyna Panasiewicz, Poznan University of Life Sciences, Poland
Manuel Teles Oliveira, University Tras os Montes Alto Douro (UTAD), Portugal
Mehmet Yagmur, Ahi Evran University, Turkey
Mirela Kopjar, University of Osijek, Croatia
Mirza Hasanuzzaman, Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh
Murtazain Raza, Subsidiary of Habib Bank AG Zurich, Pakistan
Nehemie Tchinda Donfagsiteli, Institute of Medical Research and Medicinal Plants Studies, Cameroon
Raghuveer Sripathi, Advanta US, Inc., USA
Ram Niwas, District Institute of Rural Development, India
Roberto José Zoppolo, Instituto Nacional de Investigación Agropecuaria, Uruguay
Samuel Obae, University of Connecticut, United States
Samuel Pare, University of Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
Stefano Marino, University of Molise, Italy
Tenaw Workayehu, Hawassa Research Center, Southern Agricultural Research Institute, Ethiopia
23
Gleick, Peter H. "Water, Drought, Climate Change, and Conflict in Syria." Weather, Climate, and Society 6, no. 3 (July 1, 2014): 331–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/wcas-d-13-00059.1.
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Abstract The devastating civil war that began in Syria in March 2011 is the result of complex interrelated factors. The focus of the conflict is regime change, but the triggers include a broad set of religious and sociopolitical factors, the erosion of the economic health of the country, a wave of political reform sweeping over the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) and Levant region, and challenges associated with climate variability and change and the availability and use of freshwater. As described here, water and climatic conditions have played a direct role in the deterioration of Syria’s economic conditions. There is a long history of conflicts over water in these regions because of the natural water scarcity, the early development of irrigated agriculture, and complex religious and ethnic diversity. In recent years, there has been an increase in incidences of water-related violence around the world at the subnational level attributable to the role that water plays in development disputes and economic activities. Because conflicts are rarely, if ever, attributable to single causes, conflict analysis and concomitant efforts at reducing the risks of conflict must consider a multitude of complex relationships and contributing factors. This paper assesses the complicated connections between water and conflict in Syria, looks more broadly at future climate-related risks for water systems, and offers some water management strategies for reducing those risks.
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Faroqhi, Suraiya. "Agriculture and Rural Life in the Ottoman Empire (ca 1500-1878)." New Perspectives on Turkey 1 (1987): 3–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.15184/s0896634600000042.
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When introducing this survey, it is necessary to say a word of justification about the time limits adopted. The year 1500 has been selected as an approximate starting point, because only during the reign of Sultan Bayezid II (1481-1512) do Ottoman tax registers become frequent enough to allow even approximate conclusions with respect to agricultural production. However when dealing with certain regions of the Empire, we need to adopt an even later starting point. After all, part of this paper deals with ‘Syria’ in the broad sense of the word, that is, the region bordering the eastern Mediterranean between Anatolia and Egypt; and this area was only conquered by the Ottomans in 1516. As to Tunisia, to which the present paper will also refer, this country only became part of the Ottoman Empire in 1533 or 1570.
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Lee, Joan. "Reviewer Acknowledgements for Sustainable Agriculture Research, Vol. 9, No. 2." Sustainable Agriculture Research 9, no. 2 (April 26, 2020): 129. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/sar.v9n2p129.
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Sustainable Agriculture Research wishes to acknowledge the following individuals for their assistance with peer review of manuscripts for this issue. Their help and contributions in maintaining the quality of the journal are greatly appreciated.
Sustainable Agriculture Research is recruiting reviewers for the journal. If you are interested in becoming a reviewer, we welcome you to join us. Please contact us for the application form at: sar@ccsenet.org
Reviewers for Volume 9, Number 2
Adel Khashaveh, Islamic Azad University, Iran
Darwin Pangaribuan, Lampung University, Indonesia
Dietrich Darr, Hochschule Rhein-Waal, Germany
Entessar Mohammad Al JBawi, General Commission for Scientific Agricultural Research, Syria
Francesco Sunseri, Università Mediterranea di Reggio Calabria, Italy
Gema Parra, Universidad de Jaén, Spain
Giuseppina Migliore, University of Palermo, Italy
Gunnar Bengtsson, Sweden
Inder Pal Singh, Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Science University (GADVASU), India
Isaac Danso, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research-Oil Palm Research Institute, Ghana
Kassim Adekunle Akanni, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Nigeria
Katarzyna Panasiewicz, Poznan University of Life Sciences, Poland
Manuel Teles Oliveira, University Tras os Montes Alto Douro (UTAD), Portugal
Maren Langhof, Julius Kühn-Institut, Germany
Murtazain Raza, Subsidiary of Habib Bank AG Zurich, Pakistan
Nehemie T. Donfagsiteli, Institute of Medical Research and Medicinal Plants Studies, Cameroon
Nicusor-Flavius Sima, University of Agricultural Studies and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Sait Engindeniz, Ege University Faculty of Agriculture, Turkey
Stefano Marino, University of Molise, Italy
Subhash Chand, Central Agricultural Research Institute CARI Port Blair, India
Suheb Mohammed, University of Virginia, United States
Tenaw Workayehu, Hawassa Research Center, Southern Agricultural Research Institute, Ethiopia
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Alazzy, A. A., H. Lü, and Y. Zhu. "Impact of climate change on evaluation of future water demand in the Euphrates and Aleppo basin, Syria." Proceedings of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences 364 (September 16, 2014): 307–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/piahs-364-307-2014.
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Abstract. Syria is one of the Middle Eastern countries that suffer from scarcity in water resources availability, which affects the growth and development of economic activities. In this research, the Water Evaluation and Planning (WEAP) model is applied to evaluate future water demand in the Euphrates and Aleppo basin (EAB), Syria, by taking into account the climate change that may affect water demand in the domestic, industrial, and agricultural sectors until 2050. The climate change projections of temperature and precipitation were assessed using a new version of the MAGICC/SCENGEN tool with two greenhouse gas emissions scenarios (A2 and B2) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Based on the results of IPCC (A2, B2) scenarios projections, the EAB basin is likely to face a decrease in precipitation amount by 21 % according to A2 and by 12 % according to B2, while temperature would increase by about 2.5 °C according to A2 and by 2 °C according to B2. Within the three scenarios adopted in this research: (1) available technology development; (2) increasing treated wastewater in agriculture and industry sectors; (3) and two combined scenarios, the results of the simulation demonstrated that the proposed scenarios are effective for reducing stressors on EAB’s water resources, but are not sustainable to bridge the gap between demand-supply by the year 2050, which leads to the deterioration of the available water resources.
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Gervase Clarence-Smith, William. "Middle Eastern Migrants in the Philippines: Entrepreneurs and Cultural Brokers." Asian Journal of Social Science 32, no. 3 (2004): 425–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1568531043584827.
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AbstractThe Philippines deviated from the usual Southeast Asian pattern of Hadhrami Arab dominance among Middle Easterners. Despite the influence of Muslim Arabs in the Islamic southwest, the predominant community initially consisted of Armenians, and then of immigrants from Ottoman Syria from the 1880s. Coming via Latin America, the United States, or Asian entrepôts, most of these "Syrians" were Christians from modern Lebanon. They, however, included substantial Muslim Druze and Oriental Jewish minorities, and some came from Syria proper, Palestine, and even further a field. They formed the largest twentieth-century Syro-Lebanese community in Monsoon Asia. Some Middle Easterners became Filipino citizens, speaking either Spanish or English, others emigrated to the USA or Australia, and yet others went home. Their main contribution to the Philippines was economic. Initially peddlers and small shopkeepers, they moved into real estate, agriculture, mining, the leisure industry, the professions, the import-export trade, embroidery for export to the USA and, after independence, manufacturing for the local market.
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Linke, Andrew M., and Brett Ruether. "Weather, wheat, and war: Security implications of climate variability for conflict in Syria." Journal of Peace Research 58, no. 1 (January 2021): 114–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022343320973070.
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We examine how Syria’s local growing seasons and precipitation variability affected patterns of violence during the country’s civil war (2011–19). Among Syria’s 272 subdistricts ( nahiyah), we study conflict events initiated by the Assad regime or its allies, and, separately, by other armed non-government groups (‘rebels’). Throughout the war, violence to capture agriculture has been used regularly to control valuable cropland and harvests. Combatants also seek to deny their adversaries access to these resources by deploying violence to destroy agriculture. We test the hypothesis that conflict was most likely during local growing seasons due to both of these motivations. Additionally, we examine whether unusually dry conditions further elevated the risk of conflict during growing season months. A theory for why higher levels of conflict would occur during unusually dry conditions is that livelihood losses elevate incentives to control scarce crops and also facilitate recruitment of militants or their sympathizers. We find that violent events initiated by the government and rebel groups are both more likely during the growing season than other times of the year. There is also evidence that dry conditions during the growing season led to an increase in government-initiated attacks over the duration of the war. We find the strongest relationship between precipitation deficits and both government- and rebel-initiated violence in later years of the war. Compared with our growing season results, the rainfall deviation estimates are less consistent across models.
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Lalani, Baqir, Bassil Aleter, Shinan Kassam, Amyn Bapoo, and Amir Kassam. "Potential for Conservation Agriculture in the Dry Marginal Zone of Central Syria: A Preliminary Assessment." Sustainability 10, no. 2 (February 14, 2018): 518. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su10020518.
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Moore, A. M. T., J. A. J. Gowlett, R. E. M. Hedges, G. C. Hillman, A. J. Legge, and P. A. Rowley-Conwy. "Radiocarbon Accelerator (AMS) Dates for the Epipaleolithic Settlement At Abu Hureyra, Syria." Radiocarbon 28, no. 3 (1986): 1068–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0033822200020130.
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The prehistoric settlement of Abu Hureyra in Syria was occupied in both the Epipaleolithic and Neolithic periods. It has provided significant evidence for changes in economy at the time of the inception of agriculture in southwest Asia. Twenty accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) dates have been obtained to determine the duration of occupation of the Epipaleolithic settlement there and the precise age of samples of cereal grains and animal bones found within it. The results have demonstrated that the AMS technique can answer such questions because it dates exceedingly small samples with high precision. The dates indicate that the Epipaleolithic settlement was inhabited for about a millennium, from before 11,000 to nearly 10,000 bp, significantly longer than had been anticipated from study of the artifacts.
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Willcox, George, and Danielle Stordeur. "Large-scale cereal processing before domestication during the tenth millennium cal BC in northern Syria." Antiquity 86, no. 331 (February 22, 2012): 99–114. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0003598x00062487.
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At Jerf el Ahmar in northern Syria the authors have excavated a settlement where the occupants were harvesting and processing barley 1000 years in advance of its domestication. Rows of querns installed in square stone and daub buildings leave no doubt that this was a community dedicated to the systematic production of food from wild cereals. Given the plausible suggestion that barley was being cultivated, the site opens a window onto a long period of pre-domestic agriculture. Rye was also harvested, its chaff used to temper mud walls.
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Ibrahim, Mazen. "Response of Seeds Quality of Sunflower to Inoculation with Single and Mixed Species of Indigenous Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi." Open Agriculture Journal 12, no. 1 (July 31, 2018): 123–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1874331501812010123.
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Background: The sunflower seeds which are popular in Syria and Mediterranean countries as a roasted or salted snack, supply a large number of nutritious components including protein and minerals. A pot experiment was conducted to determine the impact of indigenous Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) on phosphorus (P), nitrogen (N), and protein content in seeds of confection-type hybrid sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.). The indigenous AMF including Glomus intraradices, Glomus mosseae, and Glomus viscosum, were isolated from an agricultural field in Syria. The most abundant species (G. viscosum) was multiplied in monospecific culture. Method: Sunflower plants were inoculated with the mixture of three AMF species or with G. viscosum. The plants were harvested at full physiological maturity stage. Total N was determined using the Kjeldhal method and the detection of phosphorus was based on the colorimetric method. The rate of AMF-root colonization was determined microscopically by the gridline intersect method. Result: Seeds N and P content were enhanced by the inoculation of sunflower with single and mixture of AMF compared with non-AM plants. Higher content of N and P was observed in AMF mixture inoculation compared to individual inoculation with G. viscosum. The maximum protein concentration was found in the treatment of mixture AMF followed by individual inoculation with G. viscosum. The results indicated that mixed species of AMF were more species, and could be considered as a good inoculum for improving the seeds quality of sunflower grown under sustainable agriculture conditions.
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Mohammed Yousef Al-Haql, Hoda Yasein Habbal, Wafaa Asaad Yak, Mohammed Yousef Al-Haql, Hoda Yasein Habbal, Wafaa Asaad Yak. "Comparison of antioxidant activity and some bioactive compounds between Anise and citrus Syrian honey: مقارنة النشاط المضاد للأكسدة وبعض المركبات الفعالة حيوياً بين عسلي اليانسون والحمضيات السوري." Journal of agricultural, environmental and veterinary sciences 5, no. 2 (June 29, 2021): 14–1. http://dx.doi.org/10.26389/ajsrp.g250421.
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The aim of this research was to estimate and compare the antioxidant activity, total phenolic content, total flavonoids, amino acid proline, diastase activity and Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) in both Anise and citrus Syrian honey. 24 honey samples were collected directly from beekeepers during the harvest season of 2019. There were 12 samples of anise honey from Hama, Aleppo and Damascus countryside governorates. Moreover, another 12 citrus honey samples from Lattakia and Tartous governorates. Chemical tests were performed on samples directly after the collection. The analysis achieved in the laboratories of the Department of Food Sciences - Faculty of Agriculture - Damascus University, Damascus, Syria. The results demonstrate that the means of anti-oxidant activity were (45.58 & 24.05), total phenolic content (98.28 & 37.14 mg GAE/100g), total flavonoids (23.77 & 24.66 mg QE/100g), proline (876.74 & 396.38mg/kg), diastase activity (32.38 & 12.51 Gothe), and HMF contents (10.11&2.06 mg/kg) in both anise and citrus honey, respectively. The statistical study showed that there were significant differences (P <0.05) in all the studied Parameters between one type of honey samples as well as between the two types of honey. Anise Syrian honey shows better antioxidant activity, total phenolic content, total flavonoids, proline and diastase activity than citrus honey. However, citrus honey is distinguished by its low content of HMF and its high content of total flavonoids.
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Proctor, Edward M. "Agriculture and Reform in Syria - By Raymond Hinnebusch, Atieh El Hindi, Mounzer Khaddam, and Myriam Ababsa." Digest of Middle East Studies 20, no. 2 (September 2011): 326–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1949-3606.2011.00102.x.
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Zuntz, Ann-Christin. "Refugees’ Transnational Livelihoods and Remittances: Syrian Mobilities in the Middle East Before and After 2011." Journal of Refugee Studies 34, no. 2 (June 1, 2021): 1400–1422. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jrs/feab016.
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Abstract Pursuing an ethnographic approach, this article explores how Syrians’ pre-war kinship-based networks have oriented livelihoods strategies for refugees in Jordan after 2011. Drawing on long-term fieldwork (2015–2017) in northern Jordan, I argue that seasonal migration was a livelihoods strategy for Syria’s rural poor long before 2011, serving as their old-age provision and contributing to rural development. Since 2011, conflict-induced displacement and border closures have reshaped Syrians’ transnational kinship-based networks: geographically, but also with regard to the diversification of sources of income and gendered responsibilities. In Jordan, Syrian refugees mobilize pre-war transnational ties to access jobs in agriculture and the humanitarian sector, and distribute their income through kinship-based cross-border networks. These ethnographic findings challenge a localized understanding of refugee livelihoods, demonstrating that the household economies of refugees, migrants, and those left behind, in Syria, Jordan, the Gulf countries, and now Europe, are intertwined. In closing, I provide recommendations about how a networked understanding of refugee livelihoods can inform the COVID-19 emergency response, and help create decent jobs for displaced people in the Global South.
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Smart, Michael. "Remarks by Michael Smart." Proceedings of the ASIL Annual Meeting 111 (2017): 168–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/amp.2017.108.
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More than enough. That's the silver lining, of course. But, you know, I think the answer to your question, Gary, at least as it relates to trade negotiations, is emphatically yes, we are in a slower period than the administration anticipated. I don't think the explanation is that different from healthcare or taxes or Syria. I mean, it's just a lot more complicated, I think, than the administration realized. I was told that when they returned from one of their first Hill briefings on trade, one of the briefers remarked, “Who knew Congress cared so much about agriculture?” a point that Warren made. And that's really just the tip of the iceberg, because there's many things on the agenda.
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Bashour, I., A. AL-Ouda, A. Kassam, R. Bachour, K. Jouni, B. Hansmann, and C. Estephan. "An overview of Conservation Agriculture in the dry Mediterranean environments with a special focus on Syria and Lebanon." AIMS Agriculture and Food 1, no. 1 (2016): 67–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.3934/agrfood.2016.1.67.
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Grigoriev, Sergey A., and Bashar Ali Mohammad. "DYNAMICS OF CHANGES IN THE LAND FUND IN THE SYRIAN ARAB REPUBLIC." Vestnik SSUGT (Siberian State University of Geosystems and Technologies) 26, no. 3 (2021): 128–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.33764/2411-1759-2021-26-3-128-137.
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This article shows the structure of land in the Syrian Arab Republic (SAR). A system for docu-menting archival data on the state and use of land has been developed. For the first time, the analysis of the Syrian lands condition by categories was performed in the period from 1982 to 2018. Changes in agricultural and non-agricultural land over the previous period were detected. Changes in cultivated agricultural land since 1990 were shown. The distribution of the land fund of Syria by regions was presented. Information was provided about the main legislative acts in the field of land use in Syria. The role of land monitoring in maintaining the real estate cadastre (REC) in Syria was defined. The tasks of information support of the REC were defined. A package of documents for information support of the REC in Syria was proposed. The main infor-mation blocks of databases and banks of land and cadastral data in Syria have been identified. In con-clusion, the importance of using monitoring information in maintaining and updating the real estate cadastre in Syria was marked.
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Hammad, Muhannad, László Mucsi, and Boudewijn van Leeuwen. "Land Cover Change Investigation in the Southern Syrian Coastal Basins During the Past 30-Years Using Landsat Remote Sensing Data." Journal of Environmental Geography 11, no. 1-2 (April 1, 2018): 45–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/jengeo-2018-0006.
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Abstract Land cover change and deforestation are important global ecosystem hazards. As for Syria, the current conflict and the subsequent absence of the forest preservation are main reasons for land cover change. This study aims to investigate the temporal and spatial aspects and trends of the land cover alterations in the southern Syrian coastal basins. In this study, land cover maps were made from surface reflectance images of Landsat-5(TM), Landsat-7(ETM+) and Landsat-8(OLI) during May (period of maximum vegetation cover) in 1987, 2002 and 2017. The images were classified into four different thematic classes using the maximum likelihood supervised classification method. The classification results were validated using 160 validation points in 2017, where overall accuracy was 83.75%. Spatial analysis was applied to investigate the land cover change during the period of 30 years for each basin and the whole study area. The results show 262.40 km2 reduction of forest and natural vegetation area during (1987-2017) period, and 72.5% of this reduction occurred during (2002-2017) period due to over-cutting of forest trees as a source of heating by local people, especially during the conflict period. This reduction was particularly high in the Alabrash and Hseen basins with 76.13 and 79.49 km2 respectively, and was accompanied by major increase of agriculture lands area which is attributed to dam construction in these basins which allowed people to cultivate rural lands for subsistence or to enhance their economic situation. The results of this study must draw the relevant authorities’ attention to preserve the remaining forest area.
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Karnieli, Arnon, Alexandra Shtein, Natalya Panov, Noam Weisbrod, and Alon Tal. "Was Drought Really the Trigger Behind the Syrian Civil War in 2011?" Water 11, no. 8 (July 29, 2019): 1564. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w11081564.
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The role played by unsustainable resource management in initiating international conflicts is well documented. The Syrian Civil War, commencing in March 2011, presents such a case. The prevailing opinion links the unrest with sequential droughts occurring from 2007–2010. Our research, however, reveals that the winter-rainfed agricultural conditions before 2011, as detected by satellite-derived vegetation indices, were similar and even better for Syrian farmers than for those of their Turkish counterparts across the border. Concurrently, summer-irrigated crops, heavily dependent on Euphrates River water originating from Turkey, notably declined in Syria while flourishing in Turkey. These findings are firmly supported by other independent and validated datasets, including long-term cross-border discharge, the water level in Syrian and Turkish reservoirs, and transborder groundwater flow. We conclude that the Turkish policy of unilaterally diverting the Euphrates water was the main reason for the agricultural collapse and subsequent instability in Syria in 2011. The obvious inference is that while prolonged drought exacerbated conditions, unsustainable anthropogenic water management in Turkey was the proximate cause behind the Syrian uprising.
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Küçük, Merve, and Tulay Tikansak Karadayi. "An ecological settlement design for refugees in Kocaeli." Heritage and Sustainable Development 2, no. 2 (July 17, 2020): 69–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.37868/hsd.v2i2.40.
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After the civil war in Syria, many refugees sought refuge to Turkey. It brought along many environmental problems such as sudden population growth and resource shortage. It is thought to design an ecological settlement that can produce its own energy and be self-sufficient as a solution due to the limited natural resources, in order to meet the need for shelter quickly in emergency situations. With this in mind, in order to create an ecological settlement, a sample and literature search was conducted and sustainable ecological settlement criteria were determined. As a place operation, the position is preferred in Turkey and that provides employment and by day increasing the number of refugees residing Kocaeli been selected. In line with the ecological settlement criteria, a survey was conducted to understand the accommodation problems and environmental awareness of Syrian refugees living in Kocaeli. Ecological living units are designed in line with the environmental, climatic and sociological data obtained. The units are placed in accordance with the physical environmental conditions of the plot chosen for ecological settlement. In the conclusion part, the applicability of the designed project has been evaluated in line with economic, sociological and ecological criteria and its positive and negative aspects have been discussed.
In the sample area selected in this study, it is aimed to create an ecological residential area that provides energy, water and raw material conservation in accordance with environmental data, protects the ecosystem, and provides adequate comfort conditions for the users indoors. This study is intended to be a source for ecological settlement projects in order to create livelihoods for low-income groups and to stimulate agriculture, except in emergencies.
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Al-Jbawi, Entessar, Sameer Al Geddawi, and Gaidaa Alesha. "Quality changes in sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.) roots during storage period in piles." International Journal of Environment 4, no. 4 (December 11, 2015): 77–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/ije.v4i4.14101.
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Root transportation or remaining in fields or trucks for many days before manufacturing is considered one of the main problems that leads to the deterioration of root quality, and caused a great loss for the farmer and government. Because of the importance of this issue, a study was conducted during 2007 and 2008 seasons at winter time (15th of Jan) at Al Ghab Agriculture Research Center, General Commission for Scientific Agricultural Research (GCSAR), Syria, to determine the effect of some agricultural treatments (varieties), and environment conditions on the quality traits, water content of sugar beet during 1-10 days after harvest. Also to estimate correlation coefficient between post harvest period and the quality traits and water content. Four recommended sugar beet varieties were used, tow monogerm i.e. Rizor and Sherif, and tow multigerm i.e. Hospoly and Kronos. Randomized Completely Block Design (RCBD) was used with four replicates. The results showed that prolonging storage period of the harvested roots leads to high and gradual increment in the total soluble solids (brix %), from the first day to the last day of the studied storage period. The percent of increment for all varieties in brix% was 42.98%. Also the results clarified low sugar percent, and water content, which were 46 and 21.25 %, respectively. The reduction in juice purity % ranged from 76.08% in the first day to 67.23% in the last day for all varieties. The coefficient of correlation (r) exhibited a positive correlation between brix % and sucrose % , and a negative correlation between brix % and purity %, and also a negative correlation between water content and both brix and sucrose percentages.International Journal of Environment Vol.4(4) 2015: 77-85
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JOSEPH, SABRINA. "The Legal Status of Tenants and Sharecroppers in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century France and Ottoman Syria." Rural History 18, no. 1 (March 16, 2007): 23–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0956793306002007.
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By the middle of the sixteenth century, the role of the tenant farmer and sharecropper in both Syria and France witnessed important transformations which lent increasing relevance to the social and legal status enjoyed by these cultivators. In various regions of France after the sixteenth century, a rising class of bourgeois landholders increasingly appropriated agricultural lands from both peasant proprietors and nobles, leading to the spread of both sharecropping and leasing contracts. In Ottoman Syria, the appropriation of peasant lands and proliferation of tenancy arrangements was linked to an expanding state which sought to consolidate power and ensure the consistent flow of revenue. Thus, this paper will address how the socio-legal discourse on tenants and sharecroppers differed in a context where arable lands were appropriated by private rather than public forces. Issues that are examined include: perceptions of agricultural innovation; possession rights; and payment of rent and other dues.While Islamic legal scholars articulated a discourse which sought to incorporate tenants and sharecroppers, French legal and social thinkers of the day championed the rights of the landlord above all else. Unlike their Syrian counterparts, French thinkers linked agricultural development and efficient production to private ownership of land. In Syria, on the other hand, jurists advocated a land tenure system in which the possession rights of cultivators were supported while landlord interests were not jeopardised. Thus, agricultural development in the Syrian case was articulated within a framework which conceded multiple layers of ownership. These ideas would have an important impact on nineteenth-century developments in both regions.
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Arar, A. "Wastewater Reuse for Irrigation in the Near East Region." Water Science and Technology 23, no. 10-12 (May 1, 1991): 2127–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1991.0669.
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Limited water supplies available in many countries of the Near East has led to a growing interest in the rational use of this increasingly important resource. Because wastewater irrigation ensures the reuse of resources and achieves better treatment of wastewater, plans have recently been formulated for large-scale use of this non-conventional source of water. Consequently, in several countries of the Near East Region, wastewater reuse in agriculture is an accomplished and accepted fact, with a high degree of social and political commitment. Intensive and direct reuse is being practised in Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Libya, the United Arab Emirates and Tunisia. Direct, but unsupervised reuse is iking practised in Yemen Arab Republic, Morocco and Syria. All forms of wastewater reuse is practised in Egypt. Indirect and direct restricted reuse is practised in Jordan. However, given the health and environmental hazards associated with reuse of wastewater, the formalization of wastewater treatment and reuse in all countries is urgent. Furthermore, in most countries poor coordination amongst the different agencies concerned with water supply, wastewater treatment, irrigation, public health and the environment is a key constraint for further wastewater reuse.
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Bozorg-Haddad, Omid, Babak Zolghadr-Asli, Parisa Sarzaeim, Mahyar Aboutalebi, Xuefeng Chu, and Hugo A. Loáiciga. "Evaluation of water shortage crisis in the Middle East and possible remedies." Journal of Water Supply: Research and Technology-Aqua 69, no. 1 (October 21, 2019): 85–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/aqua.2019.049.
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Abstract Water resources in the Middle East region are becoming scarce, while millions of people already do not have access to adequate water for drinking and sanitary purposes. Water resources depletion has become a significant problem in this region that is likely to worsen. Current research by remote sensing analysis indicates a descending trend of water storage in the Middle East region, where agriculture plays a crucial role in socio-economic life. This study introduces an approach quantifying water depletion in the Middle Eastern countries, which are being challenged in the management of their water resources. Furthermore, this paper presents results of a survey assessing the status of water use and supply in Middle Eastern countries and outlines some potential remedies. Specifically, Iran's water use is evaluated and compared with its neighbors'. The water equivalent anomaly (WEA) and total water storage (TWS) depletion are two indexes of water scarcity calculated for Middle Eastern countries surveyed herein. Our analysis reveals that Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, and Iran are countries with very negative water scarcity indexes. These estimates prove that international cooperation is needed to manage available regional water resources and reverse depletion of natural water sources. It is demonstrated herein that virtual water trade can help remediate regional water shortage in Middle Eastern countries.
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Kelley, Colin P., Shahrzad Mohtadi, Mark A. Cane, Richard Seager, and Yochanan Kushnir. "Climate change in the Fertile Crescent and implications of the recent Syrian drought." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112, no. 11 (March 2, 2015): 3241–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1421533112.
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Before the Syrian uprising that began in 2011, the greater Fertile Crescent experienced the most severe drought in the instrumental record. For Syria, a country marked by poor governance and unsustainable agricultural and environmental policies, the drought had a catalytic effect, contributing to political unrest. We show that the recent decrease in Syrian precipitation is a combination of natural variability and a long-term drying trend, and the unusual severity of the observed drought is here shown to be highly unlikely without this trend. Precipitation changes in Syria are linked to rising mean sea-level pressure in the Eastern Mediterranean, which also shows a long-term trend. There has been also a long-term warming trend in the Eastern Mediterranean, adding to the drawdown of soil moisture. No natural cause is apparent for these trends, whereas the observed drying and warming are consistent with model studies of the response to increases in greenhouse gases. Furthermore, model studies show an increasingly drier and hotter future mean climate for the Eastern Mediterranean. Analyses of observations and model simulations indicate that a drought of the severity and duration of the recent Syrian drought, which is implicated in the current conflict, has become more than twice as likely as a consequence of human interference in the climate system.
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Arranz-Otaegui, Amaia, José Antonio López-Sáez, José Luis Araus, Marta Portillo, Andrea Balbo, Eneko Iriarte, Lionel Gourichon, Frank Braemer, Lydia Zapata, and Juan José Ibáñez. "Landscape transformations at the dawn of agriculture in southern Syria (10.7–9.9 ka cal. BP): Plant-specific responses to the impact of human activities and climate change." Quaternary Science Reviews 158 (February 2017): 145–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2017.01.001.
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El-Shater, Tamer, Amin Mugera, and Yigezu Yigezu. "Implications of Adoption of Zero Tillage (ZT) on Productive Efficiency and Production Risk of Wheat Production." Sustainability 12, no. 9 (May 1, 2020): 3640. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su12093640.
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The impacts of zero tillage (ZT) on soil physical, biological, and chemical properties have been fairly documented in the literature. However, there is still an information gap in the developing world in general and in integrated crop–livestock production systems in dry areas of the world in particular. Using a sample of 621 farmers in Syria, this study assessed the implications of adoption of ZT technology on productive efficiency, input-specific resource use efficiency, and production risk. A stochastic production frontier model, which explicitly and simultaneously accounts for technical inefficiency and production risk, was used to estimate total factor and input-specific technical efficiencies and the risk of obtaining lower levels of yields for each of the sampled farms. Model results show that adoption of ZT proved to be an effective risk management strategy in this dryland production system, where it led to 95% and 33.3% reductions in the risk of obtaining wheat yield levels below 1000 kg/ha and 1500 kg/ha, respectively. Overall, the results have a clear indication that using ZT leads to improvements in productive efficiency as the adoption of ZT led to 93% reduction in the risk of obtaining efficiency levels below 40%. Future research will be needed to shed light on whether coupling ZT with the other components of conservation agriculture will reverse some of these effects.
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Abbas, Basel, and P. Procházka. "The effect of trade liberalisation on Syrian agriculture." Acta Universitatis Agriculturae et Silviculturae Mendelianae Brunensis 58, no. 6 (2010): 665–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.11118/actaun201058060665.
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Syrian agricultural policy should be characterized by a high level of government intervention, including fixed prices, government monopoly in strategic crop marketing, government distribution of industrial fertilizers, significant barriers on food and agricultural commodities import and so on. Although there were certain changes and liberalization in this area during several last years, the Syrian agriculture remains as the most regulated sector of national economy in Near east and northern Africa.On the other hand, we may state the fact that Syrian governmental agriculture policy was successful considering so called strategic crops most of all in achieving self-sufficiency in wheat production, also an essential increase of cotton production volume which represents most important export crop of this near east country, took a part. Besides this progress there was restriction of disparity development in countryside and municipal household’s incomes, which is partial reason for slowing down of Syrian countryside poverty. These positive outcomes were reached at the expense of increasing governmental expenses and worsening of resources efficiency usage both in agriculture production and energy sectors. Considering forecasted spend of oil sources, the Syrian government will be necessarily forced to search for alternative resources of economic growth and government budget incomes in near future.The last five year country plan presumes consequental delimitation of grants and implication of value added tax. There is to be a quite large liberalisation in agriculture sector, which should lead to consequential down of wheat production, sugar beet and cotton and increase of barley, lentil and chickpea production.
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Almeselmani, M., A. Al-Rzak Saud, K. Al-Zubi, S. Al-Ghazali, F. Hareri, M. Al-Nassan, M. A. Ammar, et al. "Evaluation of Physiological Traits, Yield and Yield Components at Two Growth Stages in 10 Durum Wheat Lines Grown under Rainfed Conditions in Southern Syria." Cercetari Agronomice in Moldova 48, no. 2 (June 1, 2015): 29–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/cerce-2015-0028.
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AbstractWater stress, which limits the distribution and productivity of durum wheat (Triticum durum Desf.) in the Mediterranean region, is also considered to be a major factor reducing yield in semiarid regions. Improving drought resistance is thus an important objective in plant breeding programs for rainfed agriculture. The current study was carried out to identify drought-tolerant durum wheat lines among 10 lines and one variety (Douma1, the control) in the first and second settlement zones in the Southern part of Syria and to recognize the most important physiological parameters associated with drought tolerance. Membrane stability index, chlorophyll (chl) content, relative water content and chl fluorescence were recorded at the vegetative and anthesis stages, as were yield and yield components. Data recorded at vegetative and anthesis stages in both zones showed that there were significant differences between all lines growing in the first and second settlement zones and that all characters in the second zone were significantly lower than those in the first zone. Line 1 was superior to Douma1 in terms of membrane stability index, relative water content, chl content and chl florescence, also showing better yield and higher total plant biomass, tiller number/m2, 1000 grain weight and grain number/ear than the control. The ability of wheat cultivars to perform reasonably well in variable rainfall and water-stressed environments is an important trait since it allows for stable production under drought stress. Moreover, prior to genetic manipulation, it is important to characterize the physiological parameters of known drought-tolerant or drought-sensitive wheat cultivars with the objective of better understanding their physiological responses under drought