Journal articles on the topic 'Textbook-bound'

High-quality education is one of the main goals of Russia today. To reach it, the educational authorities, textbook and study guides authors and teachers should cooperate to identify the main problems and find their solution. One of the serious challenges of the Russian students is poor knowledge of foreign languages that reduces their chances to continue their education abroad. One of the ways to improve knowledge of a foreign language is to provide motivational and up-to-date educational resources including textbooks and visual aids. This research analyzes ESL textbooks from the point of view of Russia’s image presentation. Several cognitive strategies of the country’s image presentation have been singled out, among the most frequent are inclusion of phenomena of Russian culture along with culture-bound information of other countries; stereotypical representation of Russian culture without modern socio-cultural context; emphasis on Russian scientific achievements; presentation of traditional and historic facts; and emphasis on Russian politics. Students’ attitudes to culture bound materials are revealed in a survey. Recommendations to textbook authors and teachers are provided.

In 2014, the state of Georgia’s budget supported a University System of Georgia (USG) initiative: Affordable Learning Georgia (ALG). The initiative was implemented via Textbook Transformation Grants, which provided grants to USG faculty, libraries and librarians, and institutions to “transform their use of textbooks and other learning materials into using lower cost options”, in other words to use open educational resources (OER) in lieu of a traditional bound textbook. The Round One Textbook Transformation Grants have already shown to be successful in that they saved students approximately $760,000. What is not known, is the collective impact on student learning. This study examines the learning gains or losses pre- and post-transformation in ALG Round One courses where traditional resources were replaced with OER. It estimates differences between pre- and post- textbook transformation across the following outcomes: 1) Drop Fail Withdraw (DFW) rates, 2) rates of completion, 3) numbers of students receiving a final grade of A or B, C and D, 4) numerical final grades as a percent, 5) final exam grades as a percent, and, 6) course-specific assessment grades measured in percent. Twenty-four data sets were analyzed for DFW rate, eight data sets for completion rate, fourteen data sets for grade distribution, three data sets for final exam grades, three data sets for course specific assessment and one data set for final grades. The null hypothesis that there would be no differences between pre- and post-transformation rates in these learning outcomes was supported. Thus, this study demonstrates that the USG’s ALG initiative helped students save money without negatively impacting learning outcomes. In addition, it is the first of its kind to measure some of these learning outcomes (e.g. final exam grade, assessment grade, and distribution of letter grades) at this scale.

This article reflects on rising interest in Keynesian macroeconomics in the aftermath of the Great Recession. I identify aspects of Keynesian thinking that never were completely banished from the mainstream as well as threads of Keynesian macroeconomics that have become more influential since the crisis. However, the way most mainstream analysis continues to invoke the zero lower bound for short-term interest rates and the concept of the ‘natural’ rate of interest implies that any Keynesian resurrection outside of heterodoxy remains incomplete. The future may bring broader recognition of how demand leads economic growth and of ways in which the demand side leads the supply side beyond the typical textbook ‘short run.’

AbstractSomatic mutations in the RAS genes are frequent in human tumors, especially in pancreatic, colorectal, and non-small-cell lung cancers. Such mutations generally decrease the ability of Ras to hydrolyze GTP, maintaining the protein in a constitutively active GTP-bound form that drives uncontrolled cell proliferation. Efforts to develop drugs that target Ras oncoproteins have been unsuccessful. Recent emerging data suggest that Ras regulation is more complex than the scientific community has believed for decades. In this review, we summarize advances in the “textbook” view of Ras activation. We also discuss a novel type of Ras regulation that involves direct phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of Ras tyrosine residues. The discovery that pharmacological inhibition of the tyrosine phosphoprotein phosphatase SHP2 maintains mutant Ras in an inactive state suggests that SHP2 could be a novel drug target for the treatment of Ras-driven human cancers.

Economic historians usually have to explain to their economist colleagues the difference between economic history, which focuses on facts, and history of economic thought, which focuses on ideas. Our colleagues in finance departments, typically fascinated by episodes in financial history treated by economic historians, are bound to be disappointed in the lack of attention given to the development of ideas in finance by historians of economic thought. Geoffrey Poitras, a professor of finance at Simon Fraser University, makes a valiant effort to remedy these oversights in his collection of vignettes that highlight the sophistication of financial instruments and analysts of financial markets well before the time of Adam Smith. Starting in 1478 with the publication of the Treviso Arithmetic, a typical textbook of commercial arithmetic for Italian merchants, and ending with brief snippets from the Wealth of Nations, Poitras treats the reader to a fascinating potpourri of excerpts from various manuals, brief biographies of pioneers in financial analysis, and historical discursions on foreign-exchange and stock markets.

The aim of this note is to advance the refining of the Erdős-Kelly result on graphical inducing regularization. The operation of inducing regulation (on graphs or multigraphs) with prescribed maximum vertex degree is originated by D. König in 1916. As is shown by Chartrand and Lesniak in their textbook Graphs & Digraphs (1996), an iterated construction for graphs can result in a regularization with many new vertices. Erdős and Kelly have presented (1963, 1967) a simple and elegant numerical method of determining for any simple \(n\)-vertex graph \(G\) with maximum vertex degree \(\Delta\), the exact minimum number, say \(\theta =\theta(G)\), of new vertices in a \(\Delta\)-regular graph \(H\) which includes \(G\) as an induced subgraph. The number \(\theta(G)\), which we call the cost of regulation of \(G\), has been upper-bounded by the order of \(G\), the bound being attained for each \(n\ge4\), e.g. then the edge-deleted complete graph \(K_n-e\) has \(\theta=n\). For \(n\ge 4\), we present all factors of \(K_n\) with \(\theta=n\) and next \(\theta=n-1\). Therein in case \(\theta=n-1\) and \(n\) odd only, we show that a specific extra structure, non-matching, is required.

Abstract A 5′,7-methylguanosine cap is a quintessential feature of RNA polymerase II-transcribed RNAs, and a textbook aspect of co-transcriptional RNA processing. The cap is bound by the cap-binding complex (CBC), canonically consisting of nuclear cap-binding proteins 1 and 2 (NCBP1/2). Interest in the CBC has recently renewed due to its participation in RNA-fate decisions via interactions with RNA productive factors as well as with adapters of the degradative RNA exosome. A novel cap-binding protein, NCBP3, was recently proposed to form an alternative CBC together with NCBP1, and to interact with the canonical CBC along with the protein SRRT. The theme of post-transcriptional RNA fate, and how it relates to co-transcriptional ribonucleoprotein assembly, is abundant with complicated, ambiguous, and likely incomplete models. In an effort to clarify the compositions of NCBP1-, 2- and 3-related macromolecular assemblies, we have applied an affinity capture-based interactome screen where the experimental design and data processing have been modified to quantitatively identify interactome differences between targets under a range of experimental conditions. This study generated a comprehensive view of NCBP-protein interactions in the ribonucleoprotein context and demonstrates the potential of our approach to benefit the interpretation of complex biological pathways.

- Reflects on how political changes that have taken place in the People's Republic of China (Prc) during the era of economic reform, together with changes that have taken place in the world at large since 1989, especially those following the collapse of Communism in Europe, have shaped the way in which historians inside and outside the Prc have written the history of the Mao era (1949 to 1976). The article examines both Chinese and western historiography of four key issues relating to the Mao era: the idea of the 1950s as a "golden age"; the Great Leap Forward (1958-61); the Cultural Revolution (1966-76) and the view of Mao himself. The more negative representation of these issues derives, in part, from the fact that scholars now have much greater access to sources than was true prior to the 1980s. At the same time, the more negative representation it is bound up with political changes that have occurred inside and outside the Prc. For that reason, the historiography of the Mao may be said to represent an almost textbook example of the way in which historical writing is implicated in the politics of the present. Keywords: China, Communism, Mao, Economy, Historiography, History. Parole chiave: Cina, Comunismo, Mao, Economia, Storiografia, Storia.

ABSTRACT To sustain growth, the catabolic formation of the redox equivalent NADPH must be balanced with the anabolic demand. The mechanisms that ensure such network-wide balancing, however, are presently not understood. Based on 13C-detected intracellular fluxes, metabolite concentrations, and cofactor specificities for all relevant central metabolic enzymes, we have quantified catabolic NADPH production in Agrobacterium tumefaciens, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Paracoccus versutus, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Rhodobacter sphaeroides, Sinorhizobium meliloti, and Zymomonas mobilis. For six species, the estimated NADPH production from glucose catabolism exceeded the requirements for biomass synthesis. Exceptions were P. fluorescens, with balanced rates, and E. coli, with insufficient catabolic production, in which about one-third of the NADPH is supplied via the membrane-bound transhydrogenase PntAB. P. versutus and B. subtilis were the only species that appear to rely on transhydrogenases for balancing NADPH overproduction during growth on glucose. In the other four species, the main but not exclusive redox-balancing mechanism appears to be the dual cofactor specificities of several catabolic enzymes and/or the existence of isoenzymes with distinct cofactor specificities, in particular glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase. An unexpected key finding for all species, except E. coli and B. subtilis, was the lack of cofactor specificity in the oxidative pentose phosphate pathway, which contrasts with the textbook view of the pentose phosphate pathway dehydrogenases as being NADP+ dependent.

ABSTRACTWhat defines central carbon metabolism? The classic textbook scheme of central metabolism includes the Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas (EMP) pathway of glycolysis, the pentose phosphate pathway, and the citric acid cycle. The prevalence of this definition of central metabolism is, however, equivocal without experimental validation. We address this issue using a general experimental approach that combines the monitoring of transcriptional and metabolic flux changes between steady states on alternative carbon sources. This approach is investigated by using the model bacteriumPseudomonas putidawith glucose, fructose, and benzoate as carbon sources. The catabolic reactions involved in the initial uptake and metabolism of these substrates are expected to show a correlated change in gene expressions and metabolic fluxes. However, there was no correlation for the reactions linking the 12 biomass precursor molecules, indicating a regulation mechanism other than mRNA synthesis for central metabolism. This result substantiates evidence for a (re)definition of central carbon metabolism including all reactions that are bound to tight regulation and transcriptional invariance. Contrary to expectations, the canonical Entner-Doudoroff and EMP pathwayssensu strictoare not a part of central carbon metabolism inP. putida, as they are not regulated differently from the aromatic degradation pathway. The regulatory analyses presented here provide leads on a qualitative basis to address the use of alternative carbon sources by deregulation and overexpression at the transcriptional level, while rate improvements in central carbon metabolism require careful adjustment of metabolite concentrations, as regulation resides to a large extent in posttranslational and/or metabolic regulation.

Cooperativity in human glucokinase (GCK), the body’s primary glucose sensor and a major determinant of glucose homeostatic diseases, is fundamentally different from textbook models of allostery because GCK is monomeric and contains only one glucose-binding site. Prior work has demonstrated that millisecond timescale order-disorder transitions within the enzyme’s small domain govern cooperativity. Here, using limited proteolysis, we map the site of disorder in unliganded GCK to a 30-residue active-site loop that closes upon glucose binding. Positional randomization of the loop, coupled with genetic selection in a glucokinase-deficient bacterium, uncovers a hyperactive GCK variant with substantially reduced cooperativity. Biochemical and structural analysis of this loop variant and GCK variants associated with hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia reveal two distinct mechanisms of enzyme activation. In α-type activation, glucose affinity is increased, the proteolytic susceptibility of the active site loop is suppressed and the 1H-13C heteronuclear multiple quantum coherence (HMQC) spectrum of 13C-Ile–labeled enzyme resembles the glucose-bound state. In β-type activation, glucose affinity is largely unchanged, proteolytic susceptibility of the loop is enhanced, and the 1H-13C HMQC spectrum reveals no perturbation in ensemble structure. Leveraging both activation mechanisms, we engineer a fully noncooperative GCK variant, whose functional properties are indistinguishable from other hexokinase isozymes, and which displays a 100-fold increase in catalytic efficiency over wild-type GCK. This work elucidates specific structural features responsible for generating allostery in a monomeric enzyme and suggests a general strategy for engineering cooperativity into proteins that lack the structural framework typical of traditional allosteric systems.

Recent theoretical advances in the welfare state literature have outlined the differences between labour market- and life course-related schemes as centre-right parties have difficulties in enacting retrenchment on life course-related schemes because these concern every voter. In contrast, the textbook risk profile of centre-right parties’ electorates allows them to cutback on labour market-related schemes as these parties get negligible support from workers and low-income voters. Conducting a comparative case study of recent Danish and Swedish centre-right governments, this article analyses the stylized assumptions on the party level by comparing two similar centre-right governments, which differed in their voter coalitions’ risk profile. I first argue that centre-right governments are generally constrained by the popular entrenchment of the universal welfare state when it comes to life course-related welfare schemes. Second, I argue that the leeway on labour market-related schemes is contingent on the actual risk profile of the centre-right’s electorate, and thereby move beyond the stylized assumptions from recent literature. In this respect, the Danish centre-right did, in contrast to its Swedish counterpart, gain power with an unusual high support among working-class voters which constrained its latitude on labour market-related schemes. I find that the Danish centre-right governments after 2001 acted with bound hands thanks to its high working-class backing, and refrained from outright cutbacks on both labour market- and life course-related schemes until 2010 except for labour market outsiders. In contrast, the Swedish centre-right had a much lower working-class backing and therefore engaged in some outright cutbacks of labour market-related schemes such as unemployment benefits directly after taking office 2006. The centre-right’s actual voter coalition’s risk profile is thus an important determinant for its public policies and its leeway for policy-seeking.

This study was intended to describe the category of inflectional and derivational morphemes found in Reading Texts of 2013 Curriculum English Textbook for the X Grade of Senior High Schools Published by Ministry of Education and Culture. Morpheme is used to refer to the smallest unit that has meaning or serves a grammatical function in a language. The morphemes which can meaningfully stand alone are called free morphemes while the morphemes such as –er and –s, which cannot meaningfully stand alone are called bound morphemes. The design of this study was descriptive qualitative. The results of this study show that Derivational prefixes consist of inter-, eco-, un-, ar-, pre-, re-, pro-, be-, de-, in-, dis-, a-, ex-, auto-, mis-, agri-, em-, ap-, im- and al-. While, Derivational suffixes consist of four categories. Thus are nominal, verbal, adjectival, and adverbial suffixes. First, nominal suffixes, namely –ism, -ation, -al, -ing, -ist, -or, -ity, -er, -ance, -ment, -ion, -ess, -ium, -ature, -ry, -ant, -ce, -ive, -cy, -y, -r, -ge, and -ness. Second, Verbal suffixes, namely –n and –ize. Third, Adjectival suffixes, namely –al, -ly, -ous, -ing, -able, -ic, -ish, -ive, -ian, -ny, -less, -ed, -ary, -nese, -y, and –ful and the last is adverbial suffix –ly. Otherwise, the categories of inflectional morphemes that found in texts consist of Noun suffixes (plural) such as; –s, -ies, and –es, Noun suffixes (possessive) e.g; –s’ and -’s, Verb suffixes (3rd person singular) are –s and –es, Verb suffixes (past tense) are –ed and –d, Verb suffixes (past participle) such as; –n, -d, and -ed, Adjective suffixes (comparative) are –er, - r, and –ier and Adjective suffixes (superlative) are –st and –est. Therefore, based on the result of finding verb suffixes are not found.

Abstract In today’s age of 24/7/365 news cycles, the pace, outlets and breadth of news is faster and more comprehensive than ever before. Every citizen with a cell phone is a reporter, social media is beginning to dominate traditional news sources, and time has become an even more critical factor. There is an old maxim that you don’t want to be exchanging business cards in the middle of a crisis—and in today’s world of instant communications that is valuable time lost. We have also seen the impact of poor media communications when both the Exxon Valdez and Deepwater Horizon are featured in public relations classrooms as textbook cases of poor management (notwithstanding that the Deepwater Horizon was the largest marine spill in US history by a factor of 20 times, was politically charged, and had a continuous release with related imagery for 60+ days). The Exxon Corporation’s reputation was bound to suffer after the Exxon Valdez ran aground off Alaska and dumped 250,000 barrels of oil into Prince William Sound. But experts in public relations say that Exxon seriously worsened the damage to its public standing by failing to seize control of developments after the spill and establish itself as a company concerned about the problems it had caused (1). In the case of the Deepwater Horizon, people familiar with the inside of BP’s crisis control effort and outside experts say early on, BP didn’t have a public relations strategy. It failed to communicate the three key messages the public needed to hear: That BP was accountable for the disaster, was deeply concerned about the harm it caused and had a plan for what to do. Experts also agree that Hayward’s propensity to say the wrong thing made him the wrong choice to be the face of the crisis, and BP’s board took too long to figure that out. (2) In a world that is increasingly “wired”, it is imperative to address the public in a responsible, prepared, professional and comprehensive fashion. Every posting is a permanent record of the narrative, if not the events themselves. It is critical to be in control of the narrative to take advantage of positive community engagement, and avoid community backlash, which could lead to interference, or at least a distraction, from the mission at hand, which is to manage an effective response and minimize the impact on lives, the environment, and property. One of the most important, and lingering, aspects of a successful spill response is managing the public and the press. In the Deepwater Horizon, these aspects proved to be an enormous distraction to the responders, sucking valuable time and energy away from the response itself. This paper covers the importance of addressing the public, fundamentals of the maritime industry, tools for addressing crisis media management in advance of an event, as well as community building activities that companies can deploy on a regional basis which will bolster a company’s reputation in the region, as well as build a sense of trust with communities that may be affected by an incident.

The representation of cultural values in textbooks is crucial to be examined because learning a foreign language is bound with the culture. Although previous research has quite extensively investigated this issue, much is yet to be explored in the context of Korean as a foreign language learning. This study aims to address the gap by investigating how cultural values are represented in the Korean as a foreign language (KFL) textbook, published by The Korea Foundation for Indonesians. A critical discourse analysis (CDA) approach was employed to analyze the data. The findings exhibited the representation of cultural values in four language skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. The introduction to the Korean language could be given through cultural recognition. Among the identified cultural values in the textbook, the representation of showing respect to creative products or the results of local culture was more evident than the other categories, followed by showing respect to cultural differences from various ethnic or religious groups and merging with nature and life. However, the representation category of showing respect to indigenous people’s culture was not seen in the textbook. This suggests that the textbook is intended to foster the students’ multicultural awareness in learning Korean as a foreign language.

A few recent innovations of the applicability of standard textbook Quantum Theory are reviewed. The three-Hilbert-space formulation of the theory (known from the interacting boson models in nuclear physics) is discussed in its slightly broadened four-Hilbert-space update. Among applications involving several new scattering and bound-state problems the central role is played by models using apparently non-Hermitian (often called “crypto-Hermitian”) Hamiltonians with real spectra. The formalism (originally inspired by the topical need for a mathematically consistent description of tobogganic quantum models) is shown to admit even certain unusual nonlocal and/or “moving-frame” representations H(S) of the standard physical Hilbert space of wave functions.

It was with great enthusiasm that I read this comprehensive textbook comprising analysis and comparisons of concepts across theories of four decades of neo-piagetian research and perspectives. This book, which is a joint effort of Italian and Canadian authors and scientists, is the first of its kind, taking the reader through a myriad of cognitive developmental theories where the light is cast on information processing and the capacity of human working memory as it gradually develops from infancy on. For an experienced developmental psychologist – implementing intelligence testing as contemporary custom prescribes, as well as teaching undergraduate students – most of whom are becoming teachers and psychologists – the contents of developmental psychology, this analysis on cognitive growth of the human mind, and a comprehensive overview of neo-piagetian research is bound to fall into fertile soil.

The Internet of Things is an interrelated system of computer equipment, digital and mechanical machinery with unique identifiers, capable of transferring and relocating data over the Internet in the absence of human-to-computer involvement or without human-to-human interactions. The entire future of the global technology will swing around the Internet of Things, which is bound to connect a large quantity of SOs- Smart Objects, or articles or entities to transform the physical environment around us to a digital world. The application of IoT involves several domains like smart grids, smart farms, better healthcare, smart cities, smart homes, smart transportation system, smart parking and so on. The problem-solving and conceptual knowledge obtained in school is basically inert for several students. In certain situations, knowledge acquired remains surface bound features of problems, as learned from school classes and textbook presentations. The Cognitive computing process uses the available data to react to changes in order to make the right decisions based on specific learning processes from past experiences. In the case of cognitive apprenticeship process, there is a need to bring deliberately the thinking process and thoughts emerge, to produce them to be visible, whether in the case of writing, reading, or problem solving. The thoughts of the teacher must be completely visible to all the students, while the thinking of students must be clearly visible and readable to the teacher. The mental capabilities of students are developed through the cognitive skills that the students need to learn to be successful in school. To effectively understand, write, read, analyze, remember, think, and solve all the problems, the students of these cognitive skills should gather so as to function collectively and properly. If these skills become weak, the students will start to struggle, unable to face problems and solve them correctly. The new learning method makes the students observe, perform and practice the subjects from both the teachers and their peers. In view of this, this study of literature review investigates and explains the concept of IoT by conducting a systematic review and assessment of corporate and communal white papers, scholarly research articles, journals and papers, professional dialogues and discussions with researchers, academicians, scholars, educational experts along with online database available. Purpose and goal of this paper is to analytically categorize, and examine the prevailing research techniques and applications of IoT approaches on cognitive skills of students towards personalization in education. The limitation of the study is that it deals only with the subject matter's application components which leave physical components.

While the term “visual literacy” has grown in popularity in the last 50 years, its meaning remains nebulous. It is described variously as: a vehicle for aesthetic appreciation, a means of defence against visual manipulation, a sorting mechanism for an increasingly data-saturated age, and a prerequisite to civic inclusion (Fransecky 23; Messaris 181; McTigue and Flowers 580). Scholars have written extensively about the first three subjects but there has been less research on how visual literacy frames civic life and how it might help the public as a tool to address disadvantage and assist in removing social and cultural barriers. This article examines a forerunner to visual literacy in the push to create an international symbol language born out of popular education movements, a project that fell short of its goals but still left a considerable impression on graphic media. This article, then, presents an analysis of visual literacy campaigns in the early postwar era. These campaigns did not attempt to invent a symbolic language but posited that images themselves served as a universal language in which students could receive training. Of particular interest is how the concept of visual literacy has been mobilised as a pedagogical tool in design, digital humanities and in broader civic education initiatives promoted by Third Space institutions. Behind the creation of new visual literacy curricula is the idea that images can help anchor a world community, supplementing textual communication. Figure 1: Visual Literacy Yearbook. Montebello Unified School District, USA, 1973. Shedding Light: Origins of the Visual Literacy Frame The term “visual literacy” came to the fore in the early 1970s on the heels of mass literacy campaigns. The educators, creatives and media theorists who first advocated for visual learning linked this aim to literacy, an unassailable goal, to promote a more radical curricular overhaul. They challenged a system that had hitherto only acknowledged a very limited pathway towards academic success; pushing “language and mathematics”, courses “referred to as solids (something substantial) as contrasted with liquids or gases (courses with little or no substance)” (Eisner 92). This was deemed “a parochial view of both human ability and the possibilities of education” that did not acknowledge multiple forms of intelligence (Gardner). This change not only integrated elements of mass culture that had been rejected in education, notably film and graphic arts, but also encouraged the critique of images as a form of good citizenship, assuming that visually literate arbiters could call out media misrepresentations and manipulative political advertising (Messaris, “Visual Test”). This movement was, in many ways, reactive to new forms of mass media that began to replace newspapers as key forms of civic participation. Unlike simple literacy (being able to decipher letters as a mnemonic system), visual literacy involves imputing meanings to images where meanings are less fixed, yet still with embedded cultural signifiers. Visual literacy promised to extend enlightenment metaphors of sight (as in the German Aufklärung) and illumination (as in the French Lumières) to help citizens understand an increasingly complex marketplace of images. The move towards visual literacy was not so much a shift towards images (and away from books and oration) but an affirmation of the need to critically investigate the visual sphere. It introduced doubt to previously upheld hierarchies of perception. Sight, to Kant the “noblest of the senses” (158), was no longer the sense “least affected” by the surrounding world but an input centre that was equally manipulable. In Kant’s view of societal development, the “cosmopolitan” held the key to pacifying bellicose states and ensuring global prosperity and tranquillity. The process of developing a cosmopolitan ideology rests, according to Kant, on the gradual elimination of war and “the education of young people in intellectual and moral culture” (188-89). Transforming disparate societies into “a universal cosmopolitan existence” that would “at last be realised as the matrix within which all the original capacities of the human race may develop” and would take well-funded educational institutions and, potentially, a new framework for imparting knowledge (Kant 51). To some, the world of the visual presented a baseline for shared experience. Figure 2: Exhibition by the Gesellschafts- und Wirtschaftsmuseum in Vienna, photograph c. 1927. An International Picture Language The quest to find a mutually intelligible language that could “bridge worlds” and solder together all of humankind goes back to the late nineteenth century and the Esperanto movement of Ludwig Zamenhof (Schor 59). The expression of this ideal in the world of the visual picked up steam in the interwar years with designers and editors like Fritz Kahn, Gerd Arntz, and Otto and Marie Neurath. Their work transposing complex ideas into graphic form has been rediscovered as an antecedent to modern infographics, but the symbols they deployed were not to merely explain, but also help education and build international fellowship unbounded by spoken language. The Neuraths in particular are celebrated for their international picture language or Isotypes. These pictograms (sometimes viewed as proto-emojis) can be used to represent data without text. Taken together they are an “intemporal, hieroglyphic language” that Neutrath hoped would unite working-class people the world over (Lee 159). The Neuraths’ work was done in the explicit service of visual education with a popular socialist agenda and incubated in the social sphere of Red Vienna at the Gesellschafts- und Wirtschaftsmuseum (Social and Economic Museum) where Otto served as Director. The Wirtschaftsmuseum was an experiment in popular education, with multiple branches and late opening hours to accommodate the “the working man [who] has time to see a museum only at night” (Neurath 72-73). The Isotype contained universalist aspirations for the “making of a world language, or a helping picture language—[that] will give support to international developments generally” and “educate by the eye” (Neurath 13). Figure 3: Gerd Arntz Isotype Images. (Source: University of Reading.) The Isotype was widely adopted in the postwar era in pre-packaged sets of symbols used in graphic design and wayfinding systems for buildings and transportation networks, but with the socialism of the Neuraths’ peeled away, leaving only the system of logos that we are familiar with from airport washrooms, charts, and public transport maps. Much of the uptake in this symbol language could be traced to increased mobility and tourism, particularly in countries that did not make use of a Roman alphabet. The 1964 Olympics in Tokyo helped pave the way when organisers, fearful of jumbling too many scripts together, opted instead for black and white icons to represent the program of sports that summer. The new focus on the visual was both technologically mediated—cheaper printing and broadcast technologies made the diffusion of image increasingly possible—but also ideologically supported by a growing emphasis on projects that transcended linguistic, ethnic, and national borders. The Olympic symbols gradually morphed into Letraset icons, and, later, symbols in the Unicode Standard, which are the basis for today’s emojis. Wordless signs helped facilitate interconnectedness, but only in the most literal sense; their application was limited primarily to sports mega-events, highway maps, and “brand building”, and they never fulfilled their role as an educational language “to give the different nations a common outlook” (Neurath 18). Universally understood icons, particularly in the form of emojis, point to a rise in visual communication but they have fallen short as a cosmopolitan project, supporting neither the globalisation of Kantian ethics nor the transnational socialism of the Neuraths. Figure 4: Symbols in use. Women's bathroom. 1964 Tokyo Olympics. (Source: The official report of the Organizing Committee.) Counter Education By mid-century, the optimism of a universal symbol language seemed dated, and focus shifted from distillation to discernment. New educational programs presented ways to study images, increasingly reproducible with new technologies, as a language in and of themselves. These methods had their roots in the fin-de-siècle educational reforms of John Dewey, Helen Parkhurst, and Maria Montessori. As early as the 1920s, progressive educators were using highly visual magazines, like National Geographic, as the basis for lesson planning, with the hopes that they would “expose students to edifying and culturally enriching reading” and “develop a more catholic taste or sensibility, representing an important cosmopolitan value” (Hawkins 45). The rise in imagery from previously inaccessible regions helped pupils to see themselves in relation to the larger world (although this connection always came with the presumed superiority of the reader). “Pictorial education in public schools” taught readers—through images—to accept a broader world but, too often, they saw photographs as a “straightforward transcription of the real world” (Hawkins 57). The images of cultures and events presented in Life and National Geographic for the purposes of education and enrichment were now the subject of greater analysis in the classroom, not just as “windows into new worlds” but as cultural products in and of themselves. The emerging visual curriculum aimed to do more than just teach with previously excluded modes (photography, film and comics); it would investigate how images presented and mediated the world. This gained wider appeal with new analytical writing on film, like Raymond Spottiswoode's Grammar of the Film (1950) which sought to formulate the grammatical rules of visual communication (Messaris 181), influenced by semiotics and structural linguistics; the emphasis on grammar can also be seen in far earlier writings on design systems such as Owen Jones’s 1856 The Grammar of Ornament, which also advocated for new, universalising methods in design education (Sloboda 228). The inventorying impulse is on display in books like Donis A. Dondis’s A Primer of Visual Literacy (1973), a text that meditates on visual perception but also functions as an introduction to line and form in the applied arts, picking up where the Bauhaus left off. Dondis enumerates the “syntactical guidelines” of the applied arts with illustrations that are in keeping with 1920s books by Kandinsky and Klee and analyse pictorial elements. However, at the end of the book she shifts focus with two chapters that examine “messaging” and visual literacy explicitly. Dondis predicts that “an intellectual, trained ability to make and understand visual messages is becoming a vital necessity to involvement with communication. It is quite likely that visual literacy will be one of the fundamental measures of education in the last third of our century” (33) and she presses for more programs that incorporate the exploration and analysis of images in tertiary education. Figure 5: Ideal spatial environment for the Blueprint charts, 1970. (Image: Inventory Press.) Visual literacy in education arrived in earnest with a wave of publications in the mid-1970s. They offered ways for students to understand media processes and for teachers to use visual culture as an entry point into complex social and scientific subject matter, tapping into the “visual consciousness of the ‘television generation’” (Fransecky 5). Visual culture was often seen as inherently democratising, a break from stuffiness, the “artificialities of civilisation”, and the “archaic structures” that set sensorial perception apart from scholarship (Dworkin 131-132). Many radical university projects and community education initiatives of the 1960s made use of new media in novel ways: from Maurice Stein and Larry Miller’s fold-out posters accompanying Blueprint for Counter Education (1970) to Emory Douglas’s graphics for The Black Panther newspaper. Blueprint’s text- and image-dense wall charts were made via assemblage and they were imagined less as charts and more as a “matrix of resources” that could be used—and added to—by youth to undertake their own counter education (Cronin 53). These experiments in visual learning helped to break down old hierarchies in education, but their aim was influenced more by countercultural notions of disruption than the universal ideals of cosmopolitanism. From Image as Text to City as Text For a brief period in the 1970s, thinkers like Marshall McLuhan (McLuhan et al., Massage) and artists like Bruno Munari (Tanchis and Munari) collaborated fruitfully with graphic designers to create books that mixed text and image in novel ways. Using new compositional methods, they broke apart traditional printing lock-ups to superimpose photographs, twist text, and bend narrative frames. The most famous work from this era is, undoubtedly, The Medium Is the Massage (1967), McLuhan’s team-up with graphic designer Quentin Fiore, but it was followed by dozens of other books intended to communicate theory and scientific ideas with popularising graphics. Following in the footsteps of McLuhan, many of these texts sought not just to explain an issue but to self-consciously reference their own method of information delivery. These works set the precedent for visual aids (and, to a lesser extent, audio) that launched a diverse, non-hierarchical discourse that was nonetheless bound to tactile artefacts. In 1977, McLuhan helped develop a media textbook for secondary school students called City as Classroom: Understanding Language and Media. It is notable for its direct address style and its focus on investigating spaces outside of the classroom (provocatively, a section on the third page begins with “Should all schools be closed?”). The book follows with a fine-grained analysis of advertising forms in which students are asked to first bring advertisements into class for analysis and later to go out into the city to explore “a man-made environment, a huge warehouse of information, a vast resource to be mined free of charge” (McLuhan et al., City 149). As a document City as Classroom is critical of existing teaching methods, in line with the radical “in the streets” pedagogy of its day. McLuhan’s theories proved particularly salient for the counter education movement, in part because they tapped into a healthy scepticism of advertisers and other image-makers. They also dovetailed with growing discontent with the ad-strew visual environment of cities in the 1970s. Budgets for advertising had mushroomed in the1960s and outdoor advertising “cluttered” cities with billboards and neon, generating “fierce intensities and new hybrid energies” that threatened to throw off the visual equilibrium (McLuhan 74). Visual literacy curricula brought in experiential learning focussed on the legibility of the cities, mapping, and the visualisation of urban issues with social justice implications. The Detroit Geographical Expedition and Institute (DGEI), a “collective endeavour of community research and education” that arose in the aftermath of the 1967 uprisings, is the most storied of the groups that suffused the collection of spatial data with community engagement and organising (Warren et al. 61). The following decades would see a tamed approach to visual literacy that, while still pressing for critical reading, did not upend traditional methods of educational delivery. Figure 6: Beginning a College Program-Assisting Teachers to Develop Visual Literacy Approaches in Public School Classrooms. 1977. ERIC. Searching for Civic Education The visual literacy initiatives formed in the early 1970s both affirmed existing civil society institutions while also asserting the need to better inform the public. Most of the campaigns were sponsored by universities, major libraries, and international groups such as UNESCO, which published its “Declaration on Media Education” in 1982. They noted that “participation” was “essential to the working of a pluralistic and representative democracy” and the “public—users, citizens, individuals, groups ... were too systematically overlooked”. Here, the public is conceived as both “targets of the information and communication process” and users who “should have the last word”. To that end their “continuing education” should be ensured (Study 18). Programs consisted primarily of cognitive “see-scan-analyse” techniques (Little et al.) for younger students but some also sought to bring visual analysis to adult learners via continuing education (often through museums eager to engage more diverse audiences) and more radical popular education programs sponsored by community groups. By the mid-80s, scores of modules had been built around the comprehension of visual media and had become standard educational fare across North America, Australasia, and to a lesser extent, Europe. There was an increasing awareness of the role of data and image presentation in decision-making, as evidenced by the surprising commercial success of Edward Tufte’s 1982 book, The Visual Display of Quantitative Information. Visual literacy—or at least image analysis—was now enmeshed in teaching practice and needed little active advocacy. Scholarly interest in the subject went into a brief period of hibernation in the 1980s and early 1990s, only to be reborn with the arrival of new media distribution technologies (CD-ROMs and then the internet) in classrooms and the widespread availability of digital imaging technology starting in the late 1990s; companies like Adobe distributed free and reduced-fee licences to schools and launched extensive teacher training programs. Visual literacy was reanimated but primarily within a circumscribed academic field of education and data visualisation. Figure 7: Visual Literacy; What Research Says to the Teacher, 1975. National Education Association. USA. Part of the shifting frame of visual literacy has to do with institutional imperatives, particularly in places where austerity measures forced strange alliances between disciplines. What had been a project in alternative education morphed into an uncontested part of the curriculum and a dependable budget line. This shift was already forecasted in 1972 by Harun Farocki who, writing in Filmkritik, noted that funding for new film schools would be difficult to obtain but money might be found for “training in media education … a discipline that could persuade ministers of education, that would at the same time turn the budget restrictions into an advantage, and that would match the functions of art schools” (98). Nearly 50 years later educators are still using media education (rebranded as visual or media literacy) to make the case for fine arts and humanities education. While earlier iterations of visual literacy education were often too reliant on the idea of cracking the “code” of images, they did promote ways of learning that were a deep departure from the rote methods of previous generations. Next-gen curricula frame visual literacy as largely supplemental—a resource, but not a program. By the end of the 20th century, visual literacy had changed from a scholarly interest to a standard resource in the “teacher’s toolkit”, entering into school programs and influencing museum education, corporate training, and the development of public-oriented media (Literacy). An appreciation of image culture was seen as key to creating empathetic global citizens, but its scope was increasingly limited. With rising austerity in the education sector (a shift that preceded the 2008 recession by decades in some countries), art educators, museum enrichment staff, and design researchers need to make a case for why their disciplines were relevant in pedagogical models that are increasingly aimed at “skills-based” and “job ready” teaching. Arts educators worked hard to insert their fields into learning goals for secondary students as visual literacy, with the hope that “literacy” would carry the weight of an educational imperative and not a supplementary field of study. Conclusion For nearly a century, educational initiatives have sought to inculcate a cosmopolitan perspective with a variety of teaching materials and pedagogical reference points. Symbolic languages, like the Isotype, looked to unite disparate people with shared visual forms; while educational initiatives aimed to train the eyes of students to make them more discerning citizens. The term ‘visual literacy’ emerged in the 1960s and has since been deployed in programs with a wide variety of goals. Countercultural initiatives saw it as a prerequisite for popular education from the ground up, but, in the years since, it has been formalised and brought into more staid curricula, often as a sort of shorthand for learning from media and pictures. The grand cosmopolitan vision of a complete ‘visual language’ has been scaled back considerably, but still exists in trace amounts. Processes of globalisation require images to universalise experiences, commodities, and more for people without shared languages. Emoji alphabets and globalese (brands and consumer messaging that are “visual-linguistic” amalgams “increasingly detached from any specific ethnolinguistic group or locality”) are a testament to a mediatised banal cosmopolitanism (Jaworski 231). In this sense, becoming “fluent” in global design vernacular means familiarity with firms and products, an understanding that is aesthetic, not critical. It is very much the beneficiaries of globalisation—both state and commercial actors—who have been able to harness increasingly image-based technologies for their benefit. To take a humorous but nonetheless consequential example, Spanish culinary boosters were able to successfully lobby for a paella emoji (Miller) rather than having a food symbol from a less wealthy country such as a Senegalese jollof or a Morrocan tagine. This trend has gone even further as new forms of visual communication are increasingly streamlined and managed by for-profit media platforms. The ubiquity of these forms of communication and their global reach has made visual literacy more important than ever but it has also fundamentally shifted the endeavour from a graphic sorting practice to a critical piece of social infrastructure that has tremendous political ramifications. Visual literacy campaigns hold out the promise of educating students in an image-based system with the potential to transcend linguistic and cultural boundaries. This cosmopolitan political project has not yet been realised, as the visual literacy frame has drifted into specialised silos of art, design, and digital humanities education. It can help bridge the “incomplete connections” of an increasingly globalised world (Calhoun 112), but it does not have a program in and of itself. Rather, an evolving visual literacy curriculum might be seen as a litmus test for how we imagine the role of images in the world. 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