Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'The absorption of ammonia'

In this diploma work, the absorption of CO2 in different liquid solutions was studied by gas absorption in a randomly packed column. To characterize the absorption a few experiments with SO2 absorption were made.The report has resulted due to the large amounts of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere, mainly from fossil-fired power plants. To reduce these emissions, carbon dioxide can be separated from flue gas by different techniques such as CO2 absorption with ammonia. The work consists of a theoretical and a laboratory part of measurements and calculations. In the experimental part a system of absorption and associated test equipment was constructed. Different liquid solutions of pure water, potassium carbonate solution and ammonia in various concentrations were used to catch carbon dioxide by countercurrent absorption. Also SO2 was absorbed in the potassium carbonate solution to determine the gas film constant. The absorption efficiency of CO2 ranged from a few percent in the experiment with water to up to 7% with potassium carbonate solution. The CO2 absorption of ammonia varied with concentration and gave a separation of between 12 and 94%. Ammonia tests were made at both 10 and 20 °C. In general, a higher CO2-capture at 20 °C was obtained as confirmed by theory.
I detta examensarbete har absorptionseffektivitet av CO2 hos olika vätskelösningar undersökts genom gasabsorption i en slumpmässigt packad kolonn. För att karakterisera absorptionen absorberades även SO2 i några experiment. Rapporten är utförd med anledning av de stora mängder koldioxid som släpps ut i atmosfären, främst från fossileldade kraftverk. För att minska dessa utsläpp kan koldioxiden avskiljas från rökgaserna genom olika tekniker t.ex. genom CO2-absorption med ammoniak. Arbetet består av en teoridel och en laborativ del med mätningar och beräkningar. I den experimentella delen konstruerades ett system med en absorptionskolonn och tillhörande mätutrustning. Olika vätskelösningar bestående av rent vatten, kaliumkarbonatlösning och ammoniak i olika koncentrationer användes till att ta upp koldioxid genom motströms absorption. Även SO2 absorberades i kaliumkarbonatlösning för att bestämma gasfilmkonstanten. Absorptionsgraden av CO2 varierade från några få procent i försöket med vatten upp till 7 % med kaliumkarbonatlösningen. CO2-absorptionen av ammoniak varierade med koncentrationen och gav en avskiljning på mellan 12 och 94 %. Ammoniakförsöken gjordes med både vid 10 och 20 °C. Generellt erhölls en bättre CO2-avskiljning vid 20°C, vilket bekräftas av teorin.

En aquesta tesi s’estudia el procés d’absorció d’amoníac en dissolucions d’amoníac/aigua utilitzant membranes polimèriques com a contactors per a la seva integració en els sistemes de refrigeració per absorció-resorció. L’elevada relació superfície/volum proporcionada per les membranes permet reduir la mida dels absorbidors i així poder dissenyar equips de refrigeració més compactes i lleugers. Es proposa utilitzar sistemes de refrigeració per absorció-resorció d’amoníac/aigua ja que permeten reduir l’elevada pressió de treball dels sistemes d’absorció convencionals, fent viable l’ús de materials polimèrics. Inicialment es presenta un estudi del cicle de refrigeració per absorció-resorció d’amoníac/aigua mitjançant models termodinàmics, així com l’anàlisi del funcionament d’una planta de refrigeració per absorció-resorció de 25 kW. Per a l’estudi experimental del procés d’absorció adiabàtic d’amoníac en dissolucions d’amoníac/aigua es va construir un banc d’assajos en què es van provar dos mòduls diferents: membrana plana i fibres buides. En tots dos casos es van desenvolupar models teòrics que van ser validats amb els resultats experimentals. Fruit de l’estudi de la membrana plana es van determinar les característiques requerides per una membrana polimèrica per al seu ús en el procés d’absorció de l’amoníac. Aquestes característiques es van tenir en compte a l’hora de seleccionar el mòdul comercial de fibres buides. Finalment es va desenvolupar un model teòric d’un absorbidor de membranes de fibra buida amb intercanviador de calor integrat. Aquest model es va utilitzar per dissenyar un absorbidor i un resorbidor per al sistema de refrigeració per absorció-resorció de 25 kW. Els resultats obtinguts confirmen el potencial de reducció de mida que ofereixen les membranes, ja que es van obtenir relacions de càrrega tèrmica/volum de fins a 10000 kW/m3, molt superiors a les proporcionades pels absorbidors de plaques (2000 kW/m3) o de carcassa i tubs (300 kW/m3).
En esta tesis se estudia el proceso de absorción de amoniaco en disoluciones de amoniaco/agua utilizando membranas poliméricas como contactores para su integración en los sistemas de refrigeración por absorción-resorción. La elevada relación superficie/volumen proporcionada por las membranas permite reducir el tamaño de los absorbedores y así poder diseñar equipos de refrigeración más compactos y ligeros. Se propone utilizar sistemas de refrigeración por absorción-resorción de amoniaco/agua debido a que permiten reducir la elevada presión de trabajo de los sistemas de absorción convencionales, haciendo viable la utilización de materiales poliméricos. Inicialmente se presenta un estudio del ciclo de refrigeración por absorción-resorción de amoniaco/agua mediante modelos termodinámicos, así como el análisis del funcionamiento de una planta de refrigeración por absorción-resorción de 25 kW. Para el estudio experimental del proceso de absorción adiabático de amoniaco en disoluciones de amoniaco/agua se construyó un banco de ensayos en el que se probaron dos módulos diferentes: membrana plana y fibras huecas. En ambos casos se desarrollaron modelos teóricos que fueron validados con los resultados experimentales. Fruto del estudio con la membrana plana se determinaron las características requeridas por una membrana polimérica para su utilización en el proceso de absorción de amoniaco. Dichas características se tuvieron en cuenta a la hora de seleccionar el módulo comercial de fibras huecas. Finalmente, se desarrolló un modelo teórico de un absorbedor de membranas de fibra hueca con intercambiador de calor integrado. Este modelo se utilizó para diseñar un absorbedor y un resorbedor para el sistema de refrigeración por absorción-resorción de 25 kW. Los resultados obtenidos confirman el potencial de reducción de tamaño que ofrecen las membranas ya que se obtuvieron relaciones de carga térmica/volumen de hasta 10000 kW/m3, muy superiores a las proporcionadas por los absorbedores de placas (2000 kW/m3) o los de carcasa y tubos (300 kW/m3).
This thesis studies the ammonia absorption process into ammonia/water solutions using polymeric membranes as contactors in order to be used in the absorption-resorption refrigeration systems. The high surface/volume ratio provided by the membranes enable to reduce the size of the absorbers and, therefore, more compact and lighter designs can be made. The use of absorption-resorption refrigeration systems is proposed because they allow to reduce the typically high working pressure of the conventional absorption systems, making feasible the use of polymeric materials. Initially, the thesis presents a study of the ammonia/water absorption-resorption refrigeration cycle by means of thermodynamic models, as well as the analysis of the performance of a 25-kW absorption-resorption refrigeration plant. A test bench was designed and built for the experimental study of the adiabatic ammonia absorption process into ammonia/water solutions. Two different membrane modules were tested: a flat-sheet and a hollow fibre membrane module. In both cases, theoretical models were developed and validated with the experimental results. As a result of the study with the flat-sheet membrane, the characteristics required by a polymeric membrane to be used in the ammonia absorption process were determined. These characteristics were considered for the selection of the commercial hollow fibre membrane module. Finally, a theoretical model of a hollow fibre membrane absorber with heat exchanger integrated was developed. This model was used to design an absorber and a resorber for the 25-kW absorption-resorption refrigeration system. The results obtained confirm the potential in terms of size reduction provided by the membrane modules because heat duties/volume ratio up to 10000 kW/m3 were obtained, much higher than those provided by the plate absorbers (2000 kW/m3) or the shell and tube absorbers (300 kW/m3).

In this diploma work, the absorption of CO₂ in different liquid solutions was studied by gas absorption in a randomly packed column. To characterize the absorption a few experiments with SO₂ absorption were made.The report has resulted due to the large amounts of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere, mainly from fossil-fired power plants. To reduce these emissions, carbon dioxide can be separated from flue gas by different techniques such as CO₂ absorption with ammonia. The work consists of a theoretical and a laboratory part of measurements and calculations. In the experimental part a system of absorption and associated test equipment was constructed. Different liquid solutions of pure water, potassium carbonate solution and ammonia in various concentrations were used to catch carbon dioxide by countercurrent absorption. Also SO₂ was absorbed in the potassium carbonate solution to determine the gas film constant. The absorption efficiency of CO₂ ranged from a few percent in the experiment with water to up to 7% with potassium carbonate solution. The CO₂ absorption of ammonia varied with concentration and gave a separation of between 12 and 94%. Ammonia tests were made at both 10 and 20 °C. In general, a higher CO₂-capture at 20 °C was obtained as confirmed by theory.

I detta examensarbete har absorptionseffektivitet av CO₂ hos olika vätskelösningar undersökts genom gasabsorption i en slumpmässigt packad kolonn. För att karakterisera absorptionen absorberades även SO₂ i några experiment.

Rapporten är utförd med anledning av de stora mängder koldioxid som släpps ut i atmosfären, främst från fossileldade kraftverk. För att minska dessa utsläpp kan koldioxiden avskiljas från rökgaserna genom olika tekniker t.ex. genom CO₂-absorption med ammoniak.

Arbetet består av en teoridel och en laborativ del med mätningar och beräkningar. I den experimentella delen konstruerades ett system med en absorptionskolonn och tillhörande mätutrustning. Olika vätskelösningar bestående av rent vatten, kaliumkarbonatlösning och ammoniak i olika koncentrationer användes till att ta upp koldioxid genom motströms absorption. Även SO₂ absorberades i kaliumkarbonatlösning för att bestämma gasfilmkonstanten. Absorptionsgraden av CO₂ varierade från några få procent i försöket med vatten upp till 7 % med kaliumkarbonatlösningen. CO₂-absorptionen av ammoniak varierade med koncentrationen och gav en avskiljning på mellan 12 och 94 %. Ammoniakförsöken gjordes med både vid 10 och 20 °C. Generellt erhölls en bättre CO₂-avskiljning vid 20°C, vilket bekräftas av teorin.

Optimization of the performance of absorption systems during transient operations such as start-up and shut-down is particularly important for small-capacity chillers and heat pumps to minimize lifecycle costs. Dynamic models in the literature have been used to study responses to step changes in a single parameter, but more complex processes such as system start-up have not been studied in detail. A robust system-level model for simulating the transient behavior of an absorption chiller is developed here. Individual heat and mass exchangers are modeled using detailed segmental models. The UA-values and thermal masses of heat exchangers used in the model are representative of a practical operational chiller. Thermal masses of the heat exchangers and energy storage in the heat exchanging fluids are accounted for to achieve realistic transient simulation of the heat transfer processes in the chiller. The pressure drop due to fluid flow across the heat exchangers is considered negligible in comparison to the pressure difference between the high- and low-side components (~ 1.5 MPa). In components with significant mass transfer effects, reduced-order models are employed to decrease computational costs while also maintaining accurate system response. Mass and species storage in the cycle are modeled using storage devices. The storage devices account for expansion and contraction of the refrigerant and solution in the cycle as the system goes through start-up, shut-down, and other transient events. A counterflow falling film desorber model is employed to account for the heat and mass transfer interactions between the liquid and vapor phases, inside the desorber. The liquid film flows down counter to the rising vapor, thereby exchanging heat with the counterflowing heated coupling fluid. A segmented model is used to account for these processes, and a solver is developed for performing rapid iteration and quick estimation of unknown vapor and liquid states at the outlet of each segment of the desorber. Other components such as the rectifier, expansion valves and solution pump are modeled as quasi-steady devices. System start-up is simulated from ambient conditions, and the coupling fluid temperatures are assumed to start up to their steady-state values within the first 90 s of simulation. It is observed that the system attains steady-state in approximately 550 s. The evaporator cooling duty and COP of the chiller during steady-state are observed to be 3.41 kW and 0.60, respectively. Steady-state parameters such as flow rates, heat transfer rates and concentrations are found to match closely with results from simulations using corresponding steady-state models. Several control responses are investigated using this dynamic simulation model. System responses to step changes in the desorber coupling fluid temperature and flow rate, solution pumping rate, and valve setting are used to study the effects of several control strategies on system behavior. Results from this analysis can be used to optimize start-up and steady state performances. The model can also be used for devising and testing control strategies in commercial applications.

Accurate knowledge of the centimeter- and millimeter-wavelength absorptivity of ammonia is necessary for the interpretation of the emission spectra of the jovian planets. The objective of this research has been to advance the understanding of the centimeter- and millimeter-wavelength opacity spectra of ammonia under jovian conditions using a combination of laboratory measurements and theoretical formulations. As part of this research, over 1000 laboratory measurements of the 2-4 mm-wavelength properties of ammonia under simulated upper and middle tropospheric conditions of the jovian planets, and approximately 1200 laboratory measurements of the 5-20 cm-wavelength properties of ammonia under simulated deep tropospheric conditions of the jovian planets have been performed. Using these and pre-existing measurements, a consistent mathematical formalism has been developed to reconcile the centimeter- and millimeter-wavelength opacity spectra of ammonia. This formalism can be used to estimate the opacity of ammonia in a hydrogen/helium atmosphere in the centimeter-wavelength range at pressures up to 100 bar and temperatures in the 200 to 500 K range and in the millimeter-wavelength range at pressures up to 3 bar and temperatures in the 200 to 300 K range. In addition, a preliminary investigation of the influence of water vapor on the centimeter-wavelength ammonia absorptivity spectra has been conducted. This work addresses the areas of high-sensitivity centimeter- and millimeter-wavelength laboratory measurements, and planetary science, and contributes to the body of knowledge that provides clues into the origin of our solar system. The laboratory measurements and the model developed as part of this doctoral research work can be used for interpreting the emission spectra of jovian atmospheres obtained from ground-based and spacecraft-based observations. The results of the high-pressure ammonia opacity measurements will also be used to support the interpretation of the microwave radiometer (MWR) measurements on board the NASA Juno spacecraft at Jupiter.

Recentment, s'han proposat líquids iònics com a absorbents alternatius i ajustables per a refrigerants naturals en sistemes de refrigeració per absorció. Tanmateix, l’alta viscositat, la baixa difusivitat de la massa i la manca d’informació fiable sobre les propietats termofísiques de les seves mescles amb aquests refrigerants són limitacions importants per a la seva implementació efectiva. L'objectiu principal d'aquesta tesi és estudiar el procés d'absorció d'amoníac en líquids iònics per determinar l'evolució temporal de la taxa d'absorció i els perfils de concentració en el fluid absorbent. Aquest tipus de dades experimentals són útils per seleccionar líquids iònics adequats com a absorbents d'amoníac en sistemes de refrigeració i bombes de calor d'absorció nous. Els líquids iònics estudiats són: nitrat d’etilamoni (EAN); 1-etil-3-metilimidazoli-tetrafluoroborat ([emim] [BF4]); i 1- butil-3-metil-imidazoli-tetrafluoroborat ([bmim] [BF4]), amb diferents solubilitats i viscositats d'amoníac. El mètode de caiguda de pressió es va implementar per determinar l'evolució temporal de la taxa d'absorció de l'amoníac en les IL seleccionades, al llarg del procés d'absorció. Els experiments d’absorció es van realitzar a una dilució infinita d’amoníac, a la temperatura de 293,15 K i 303,15 K, durant més de 15 hores. La taxa d'absorció determinada d'amoníac a les IL va ser més de 20 vegades menor que a l'aigua.
Recientemente, se han propuesto líquidos iónicos como absorbentes ajustables alternativos para refrigerantes naturales en sistemas de refrigeración por absorción. Sin embargo, la alta viscosidad, la baja difusividad de masa y la falta de información confiable sobre las propiedades termofísicas de sus mezclas con estos refrigerantes son limitaciones importantes para su implementación efectiva. El objetivo principal de esta tesis es estudiar el proceso de absorción del amoniaco en líquidos iónicos para determinar la evolución temporal de la tasa de absorción y los perfiles de concentración en el fluido absorbente. Estos tipos de datos experimentales son útiles para seleccionar líquidos iónicos adecuados como absorbentes de amoníaco en nuevos sistemas de refrigeración por absorción y bombas de calor. Los líquidos iónicos estudiados son: nitrato de etilamonio (EAN); Tetrafluoroborato de 1-etil-3-metilimidazolio ([emim] [BF4]); y tetrafluoroborato de 1-butil-3-metil-imidazolio ([bmim] [BF4]), con diferentes solubilidades y viscosidades del amoniaco. Se implementó el Método de Caída de Presión para determinar el tiempo de evolución de la tasa de absorción de amoníaco en los IL seleccionados, a lo largo del proceso de absorción. Los experimentos de absorción se realizaron a dilución infinita de amoniaco, a las temperaturas de 293,15 K y 303,15 K, durante más de 15 horas.
Recently, ionic liquids have been proposed as alternative, adjustable absorbents for natural refrigerants in absorption refrigeration systems. However, the high viscosity, low mass diffusivity, and the lack of reliable information on the thermophysical properties of their mixtures with these refrigerants are important limitations for their effective implementation. The main objective of this thesis is to study the absorption process of ammonia in ionic liquids to determine the time evolution of the absorption rate and the concentration profiles in the absorbent fluid. These types of experimental data are useful for selecting ionic liquids suitable as absorbent of ammonia in new absorption refrigeration and heat pump systems. The ionic liquids studied are: ethylammonium nitrate (EAN); 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium-tetrafluoroborate ([emim] [BF4]); and 1-butyl-3-methyl-imidazolium-tetrafluoroborate ([bmim][BF4]), with different ammonia solubilities and viscosities. The Pressure Drop Method was implemented to determine the time evolution of the absorption rate of ammonia in the ILs selected, throughout the absorption process. Absorption experiments were performed at infinite dilution of ammonia, at the temperatures of 293.15 K and 303.15 K, during more 15 hours.

An investigation of binary fluid heat and mass transfer in ammonia-water absorption was conducted. Experiments were conducted on a horizontal-tube falling-film absorber consisting of four columns of six 9.5 mm (3/8 in) nominal OD, 0.292 m (11.5 in) long tubes, installed in an absorption heat pump. Measurements were recorded at both system and local levels within the absorber for a wide range of operating conditions (nominally, desorber solution outlet concentrations of 5 - 40% for three nominal absorber pressures of 150, 345 and 500 kPa, for solution flow rates of 0.019 - 0.034 kg/s.). Local measurements were supplemented by high-speed, high-resolution visualization of the flow over the tube banks. Using the measurements and observations from videos, heat and mass transfer rates, heat and vapor mass transfer coefficients for each test condition were determined at the component and local levels. For the range of experiments conducted, the overall film heat transfer coefficient varied from 923 to 2857 W/m²-K while the vapor and liquid mass transfer coefficients varied from 0.0026 to 0.25 m/s and from 5.51×10^-6 to 3.31×10^-5 m/s, respectively. Local measurements and insights from the video frames were used to obtain the contributions of falling-film and droplet modes to the total absorption rates. The local heat transfer coefficients varied from 78 to 6116 W/m²-K, while the local vapor and liquid mass transfer coefficients varied from -0.04 to 2.8 m/s and from -3.59×10^-5 (indicating local desorption in some cases) to 8.96×10^-5 m/s, respectively. The heat transfer coefficient was found to increase with solution Reynolds number, while the mass transfer coefficient was found to be primarily determined by the vapor and solution properties. Based on the observed trends, correlations were developed to predict heat and mass transfer coefficients valid for the range of experimental conditions tested. These correlations can be used to design horizontal tube falling-film absorbers for ammonia-water absorption systems.

This thesis was aimed to analyse the feasibility and the performance of ionic liquids as an absorbent for ammonia refrigerant in absorption refrigeration systems. Ionic liquids, novel and tailor-made absorbents, can be used with ammonia as working pairs for absorption refrigeration cycles and give some advantages such as elimination of the rectification process in ammonia/water systems. The performances of several ammonia/ionic liquid mixtures working pair available in the literature were then theoretically studied and analysed for absorption refrigeration applications using selected NRTL model. In addition, new selected ammonia/ionic liquid mixtures working pair for absorption refrigeration applications were also theoretically studied and analysed. The results show that the coefficient of performance (COP) of the absorption systems working with ammonia/ionic liquid working fluids were about similar when compared with ammonia/LiNO3 at same cooling capacity and operation conditions. Among all of selected ammonia/ionic liquid working fluids studied in this thesis, only [N1113][NTf2] presented higher COP that that of ammonia/LiNO3 at certain operation conditions. The COP of the systems with other ionic liquids as absorbents follows an order of [EtOHmim][BF4] > [N111(2OH)][NTf2] > [EtOHmim][NTf2] at all operation conditions. Finally it can be concluded that the ionic liquid has a great potential to be an alternative absorbent for ammonia refrigerant. The ammonia/ionic liquid working fluid can provide competitive performance in comparison with conventional absorbent for ammonia refrigerant. However, some drawbacks were still remains to be solved such as relatively low solubility of ammonia into ionic liquids which affects to the solution circulation mass flow ratio and relatively high viscosity of ionic liquid in comparison with other conventional absorbent which may affects to the performance of absorber and solution pump.

A study of ammonia-water desorption in compact counter-flow geometries was conducted. Two novel vapor generation units, comprising integrated desorber, analyzer, and rectifier segments that use microchannel geometries, were conceptualized. The branched-tray concept features a desorber segment that uses predominantly pool-boiling mechanisms for desorption, while the vertical column desorber relies on falling-film evaporation and boiling mechanisms. Both concepts rely on falling-film heat and mass transfer mechanisms in the analyzer and rectifier sections. Segmented heat and mass transfer models, based on available correlations and modeling methodologies, were developed and used for the design of branched tray and vertical column test sections. An experimental facility was designed and constructed to evaluate desorption and rectification heat and mass transfer processes within these components, under realistic operating conditions. Data were analyzed to determine the boiling/evaporation (desorber) and condensation (rectifier) heat transfer coefficients, and to determine values of the desorber liquid and vapor mass transfer coefficients. Additionally, high-speed video and images were used to gain insights into the hydrodynamic phenomena and heat transfer mechanisms in these vapor generation units. Results of the heat and mass transfer analysis were compared with the predictions of correlations and modeling methods in the literature. The vapor generation unit (VGU) test sections were evaluated across a range of concentrated solution mass fractions (0.400 – 0.550), desorber coupling-fluid inlet temperatures (170 – 190ᵒC), and concentrated solution flow rates (0.70 – 1.3 g s-1). Flow rates in this range correspond to desorber liquid Reynolds numbers of approximately 175 to 410 for the branched tray design, and desorber film Reynolds numbers of approximately 90 to 215 for the vertical column. Pressures observed within the VGU test sections ranged from approximately 1620 to 2840 kPa during testing. The novel VGUs were shown to achieve ideal cooling capacities as high as 432 and 323 W for the branched tray and vertical column, respectively. This parameter indicates the cooling capacity that would be achieved by an idealized cooling system using the refrigerant stream produced by the experimental VGU. Ideal COPs of 0.561 and 0.496 were demonstrated for the branched tray and vertical column, respectively. Experimental heat transfer coefficients were found to range from approximately 1860 to 11690 W m-2 K-1 for the pool-boiling desorption of the branched tray VGU. A new correlation was proposed and shown to provide good agreement with the data, achieving average and average absolute deviation of -5.2 and 16.1%, respectively, across the range of conditions tested. Falling-film evaporation/boiling heat transfer coefficients, determined for the desorption process in the vertical column VGU, were found to range from approximately 1290 to 4310 W m-2 K-1. Rectifier condensation heat transfer coefficients ranging from approximately 160 to 250 W m-2 K-1 were observed. Mass transfer coefficients for the desorbers of both concepts were also quantified. These results were used to develop revised heat and mass transfer models of the VGU concepts. The revised models were demonstrated to predict component-level performance with reasonable accuracy, and may be used in the design of future compact VGUs with similar geometries and operating conditions.

In today’s world regulations to reduce vehicle emissions are only gettingtougher, from said regulations the concept of a Selective Catalytic Reduction(SCR) unit was born, designed to provide a healthy dose of ammonia (NH3)to reduce the NOx compound into harmless components such as water andnitrogen. In this thesis novel approaches where investigated, by combiningthe fast physical absorption and desorption properties of a highly porous ma-terial such as zeolites with the high storage capacity of metal chlorides wecan potentially improve NH3 dosing in the low temperature operating range,such as when vehicles have just been turned on. Additive manufacturing pro-vides a faster and convenient processing route, that can cut down costs andallows for an inexpensive prototyping phase. With the aid of 3D printing weprepared a prototype cage-like shape using zeolite 13X with a combination ofPVP, binders and solvent,this structures would be used in conjunction withMgCl2, the latter would be enclosed the cage and so that their volume ex-pansion could be contained. This approach provides a low temperature rangefriendly solution for the release of NH3 in a SCR unit. The experimentationand characterization of the composites mixed by mechanical process showedgreat promise of what it can be achieved by incorporating zeolites and metalchlorides for ammonia storage and dosing. In the end a successful formulaand process to 3D print zeolite 13X using a PAM approach was deliveredthat showed similar results to untreated 13X.

One of the most crucial issues nowadays is the protection of the environment and the replacement of fossil fuels, which are abundantly used around the world, with more efficient and renewable sources. The highest portion of global energy demands today is used in heating and cooling purposes. One way of alleviating the fossil-based thermal energy uses is to harvest excess thermal energy using thermochemical storage materials (TCMs) for use at heating/cooling demands at different times and locations. Along this, in this master’s thesis, a bench-scale thermochemical heat storage (TCS) system is numerically designed, as a part of a collaborative project: Neutrons for Heat Storage (NHS), funded by Nordforsk. The TCS system that is designed herein employs the reversible chemical reaction of ammonia with a metal halide (MeX) for a heat storage capacity of 0.5 kWh, respectively releasing and storing heat during absorption and desorption of ammonia into and from the MeX. This system is designed for low temperature heat applications, around 40-80 °C. SrCl2 is chosen as the metal halide to be used, based on the research outcomes in determining the most suitable materials conducted by NHS project partners. In the ammonia-SrCl2 system, only the absorption and desorption between SrCl2∙NH3 and SrCl2∙8NH3 are considered. The main reason is because absorption/desorption between the last ammine and SrCl2 undergoes at a significantly higher/lower reaction pressure (for a given temperature), with a significant volume change compared to the rest of the ammines, and therefore is practically less cost effective. This thesis also includes a detailed discussion of four different thermochemical storage designs from literature, found as the most relevant to the present TCS system study, which use the reaction between ammonia and metal halides. The first system that was examined is a TCS system built by the NHS project partners at Technical University of Denmark (DTU), owing to its similarities with the desired project, regarding the design and parameters the system uses. This system works in batch mode, only allowing either absorption (i.e. heat release) or desorption (i.e. heat storage) at a given cycle. Thus, upgrading the design of this TCS system at DTU is considered as a most-likely solution to the research objectives of this current thesis project. Moreover, the TCS system at DTU uses storage conditions and desorption temperature similar to the current project’s desired low temperature range of 40-80 °C. The second system discussed herein from literature uses two reactors for cold and heat generation, which means that both charging and discharging processes occur simultaneously. This simultaneous operability is the main reason that this particular system was examined in this thesis. The next discussed system from literature also uses two reactors, for absorption and desorption processes, which work reversibly when each process is completed, like in the desired concept of this project. These two systems (i.e., the secondly and the thirdly discussed systems) use the reversible solid-gas reaction for absorption and desorption between SrCl2∙NH3 and SrCl2∙8NH3, however, the conditions of pressure and temperature between them differ. The second system from literature operates at desorption and absorption at respective conditions of 96 °C, 15 bar and 87 °C, 11 bar while the third system discussed operates at 103 °C, 16 bar and 59 °C, 3 bar during desorption and absorption respectively. The last system from literature that is discussed herein provides the same desorption temperature of 80 °C. Inaddition this particular study suggests that the reaction of solid with gaseous NH3 is better (than the solid with liquid NH3 reaction) based on results derived from several different low-pressure experiments of the reactions. The main differences between all these discussed systems from literature, as opposed to the desired TCS system design in this thesis project, concern the systems’ operating mode and the pressure and temperature-conditions. The first difference is that only one of the examined systems pumps the solid VIII powder salt around the system in contrast to the others that keep the salt static inside the reactors and pumped only the ammonia around the system, as chosen in the current system. The second difference concerns the operating conditions during absorption and desorption reactions, where these different systems operate at a widely different pressure and temperature conditions as compared to the current system expectations. Thus, there are four main lessons that were learnt via this literature analysis, to improve the TCS system at DTU to the desired new system in this work. The first lesson is related to the reactants’ transportation mechanism that should be used in this system. Regarding this, it was decided to maintain the solid salt (metal halide) stationary inside each reactor (but not pumping it instead of ammonia), similar to the majority of designs discussed from literature. According to the second and third lessons, the solid-gas reaction is the most suitable solution and only the reactions of absorption and desorption between SrCl2∙NH3 and SrCl2∙8NH3 are considered, following the experience from literature (for the reasons explained earlier). The last lesson regards the system’s suitable operating conditions and more specifically the TCS system’s temperatures that should match the district heating temperatures. Thus, the temperature point that was chosen as a priority was 80 °C, from the range 40- 80 °C set in the partner project NHS. To maintain this condition, therefore, the most suitable condition of pressure of both reactions (according to the equilibrium pressure vs temperature curve) was chosen to be at around 8 bar. This same pressure was chosen for both reactions, since the pressure difference between these reactors and the storage of ammonia (i.e. from 8 to 10 bar) should be as small as possible due to the high costs that can arise in the case of a higher pressure difference (i.e. requiring more compressors and heat exchangers). Inspired by these literature cases, firstly a conceptually suitable TCS system was proposed in this project and after that the final desired system was designed and was implemented and evaluated numerically. The numerical design and optimization of the chosen TCS system was performed herein by using the software Aspen Plus (version 9), which contains both fluids and solids in a simulation environment, using consistent physical properties. This TCS system is designed to store and release heat at around 80 °C and 8 bar through absorption and desorption by using two identical reactors respectively. Each reactor includes the amount of around 1 kg (more specifically 0.985 kg) strontium chloride salt reacting with 1.7 kg of ammonia. A verification system is also modelled in Aspen, using available experimental data from literature. Here, the modelled novel system design was adapted to this chosen other system layout from literature which uses the same reaction pair, yet at different operating conditions. This adapted system design in Aspen was then used to verify the chosen configuration and the reliability of the constructed system for the NHS project. Good agreements between the modelled results in Aspen against the available experimental data of this verification model are obtained. A sensitivity analysis is also conducted herein on the proposed novel TCS system to identify the optimum operating conditions and the behaviour of the chosen most important parameters of the system. The designed system provides an energy storage capacity of 0.5 kWh for the specific amounts (in volumetric flow rates) of ammonia and monoammine of strontium chloride, that comes from the analysis, of 1.08696 e-05 kmol/s and 1.5528 e-06 kmol/s respectively. For these specific values of the HTF, the analysis showed that the volumetric flow rates of the heat and cold external sources must be 1.56 l/min (which is decreasing with the increase of the inlet HTF temperature) and 0.42 l/min (which is increasing with the increase of the inlet HTF temperature) respectively. In conclusion, this study presents an ammonia-SrCl2 TCS benchscale system design that allows continuous heat storage and release, in an easy-to-scale up design, also suggesting optimum operating conditions.
En av de mest avgörande frågorna i dag är skyddet av miljön och utfasningen av fossila bränslen som används allmänt över hela världen för mer effektiva och förnybara resurser. Den största delen av den globala energibehovet idag avser uppvärmnings- och kylapplikationer. Ett sätt att minska fossilbaserad termiskenergianvändning är att lagra överskottsvärmeenergi genom termokemiska lagringsmaterial (TCM) och använda den för värme- och kylbehov vid olika tidpunkter och platser. I samband med detta är ett termokemiskt värmelagringssystem numeriskt utformat i detta mastersexamensprojekt, som en del av ett samarbetsprojekt Neutrons for Heat Storage (NHS) finansierat av Nordforsk. Det termokemiska lagringssystemet (TCS) som är konstruerat utnyttjar den reversibla kemiska reaktionen av ammoniak med en metallhalogenid (MeX) för en värmelagringskapacitet på 0.5 kWh, och frigör och lagrar värme respektive under absorption och desorption av ammoniak till och från MeX. Systemet är designat för lågtemperaturuppvärmningstillämpningar runt 40-80 °C. SrCl2 väljs som det mest lämpliga metallhalogeniden för systemet, baserat på studier som utförts av NHS-projektpartnerna. I ammoniak SrCl2-systemet beaktas endast absorption och desorption mellan SrCl2NH3 och SrCl28NH3. De huvudsakliga orsakerna till detta är att absorptionen/desorptionen mellan den sista aminen och SrCl2 kräver ett betydligt högre/lägre reaktionstryck (för en given temperatur), och resulterar i en betydande volymförändring jämfört med resten av aminerna, och är därför praktiskt taget mindre kostnadseffektivt. Detta mastersexamensprojekt inkluderar en detaljerad genomgång av fyra olika TCS-system från litteratur som använder reaktionen mellan ammoniak och metallhalogenider. Dessa väljs här eftersom dessa anses vara de mest relevanta (från litteratur) jämfört med det valda systemet i denna studie. Det första undersökta systemet är ett system byggt av NHS-projektpartnerna vid Danmarks Tekniska Universitet (DTU). Detta har valts på grund av likheterna med det önskade systemet i det aktuella mastersexamensprojektet, vad gäller systemdesign och parametrar. Detta system fungerar i batch-läge, vilket endast tillåter antingen absorption (dvs värmeavgivning) eller desorption (dvs värmelagring) under en specifik cykel. Således kan en uppgraderad design av detta TCS-system vid DTU möjligen vara en lämplig lösning på forskningsmålen för detta mastersexamensprojekt. Dessutom använder detta TCS-system från DTU ganska liknande driftsförhållanden (temperaturer och tryck) i nivå med det aktuella projektets önskade lågtemperaturintervall på 40-80 °C. Det andra systemet från den litteratur som diskuterats använder två reaktorer för kyla och värmeproduktion, vilket innebär att både laddningsoch urladdningsprocesser sker samtidigt. Denna samtidiga operation är främst anledningen till att systemet undersöktes, eftersom detta är en önskad funktion att uppnå i det aktuella projektet. Nästa system från den litteratur som diskuteras häri använder också två reaktorer för absorptions- och desorptionsprocesser, som fungerar reversibelt när varje process är klar, precis som önskat i detta projekt. Dessa två system (dvs det andra och det tredje diskuterade systemen) använder den reversibla fastgasreaktionen för absorption och desorption mellan SrCl2NH3 och SrCl28NH3, dock vid olika tryck- och temperaturförhållanden. Det andra systemet arbetar nämligen under kombinationer av absorption och desorption av 96 °C, 15 bar och 87 °C, 11 bar, medan det tredje systemet arbetar vid 103 °C, 16 bar respektive 59 °C, 3 bar. Det sista systemet som diskuterats från litteraturen arbetar vid samma temperatur som det önskade systemet gör (dvs. 80 ° C) och genom olika lågtrycksexperiment visar att den fasta salt-gasreaktionen är ett bättre val än reaktionen av det fasta saltet med flytande gasreaktion. De viktigaste skillnaderna mellan alla dessa diskuterade system från litteratur i motsats till det önskade TCS-system i detta mastersexamensprojekt, avser systemdriftläge samt deras tryck och X temperaturförhållanden. Den första skillnaden är att endast ett av alla undersökta system pumpar saltet i fast pulverform, till skillnad från de andra som håller saltet stillastående i reaktorerna och endast pumpar ammoniak. Den andra skillnaden gäller driftsförhållandena under absorptions- och desorptionsreaktioner där dessa system arbetar vid mycket olika tryck- och temperaturförhållanden jämfört med det nuvarande systemet. Således, från översynen av alla system, finns det fyra huvudsakliga lärdomar för att förbättra TCS-systemet vid DTU till det önskade nya systemet. Den första är relaterad till reaktanttransportmekanismen som bör användas i detta system. I detta avseende har det beslutats att hålla det fasta saltet (metallhalogenid) stillastående i varje reaktor (men inte pumpa det istället för ammoniak), till skillnad från de flesta system i litteraturen. Enligt dem andra och tredje lektionerna är den fasta gasreaktionen den mest lämpliga lösningen och endast reaktionerna på absorption och desorption mellan SrCl2∙NH3 och SrCl2∙8NH3 bör övervägas enligt erfarenheten från litteraturen (av de skäl som förklarats tidigare). Den sista lärdomen avser systemets lämpliga driftsförhållanden och mer specifikt TCS-systemets temperaturer för att matcha fjärrvärmetemperaturerna. Den temperaturpunkten valts som prioritet, från området 40-80 °C inställt av moderprojektet NHS, sattes till 80 °C. För att bibehålla detta tillstånd var det lämpligaste tryckvillkoret för båda reaktionerna (enligt jämviktstrycket kontra temperaturkurva) valdes att ligga på cirka 8 bar. Samma tryck valdes för båda reaktionerna, eftersom tryckskillnaden mellan dessa reaktorer och lagring av ammoniak (dvs. från 8 till 10 bar) borde vara så liten som möjligt på grund av de höga kostnaderna som kan uppstå vid högre tryckskillnad (dvs. fler kompressorer krävs och värmeväxlare). Inspirerad av denna litteratur föreslogs för det första ett konceptuellt lämpligt TCS-system i detta mastersexamensprojekt, varefter det slutliga systemet implementerades och utvärderades numeriskt för de önskade förhållandena. Den numeriska utformningen och optimeringen av det valda TCS-systemet utfördes här med hjälp av programvaran Aspen Plus (version 9), som innehåller både vätskor och fasta ämnen i en simuleringsmiljö, med konstant fysiska egenskaper. Detta TCS-system är utformat för att lagra och släppa värme vid cirka 80 °C och 8 bar genom absorption och desorption med användning av två identiska reaktorer respektive. Varje reaktor innefattar cirka 1 kg (närmare bestämt 0.985 kg) strontiumkloridsalt reagerande med 1.7 kg ammoniak. Ett verifieringssystem modelleras också i Aspen med hjälp av tillgängliga experimentella data från litteraturen. I detta anpassades den modellerade nya systemdesignen till denna valda andra verifieringssystemlayout från litteratur, som använder samma reaktionspar, men under olika driftsförhållanden. Denna anpassade systemdesign i Aspen användes sedan för att verifiera den valda konfigurationen och tillförlitligheten för det designade systemet för NHS-projektet. Här erhålls ett bra avtal för denna verifieringssystemdesign mellan Aspenmodellresultaten och experimentdata. Här utförs också en känslighetsanalys för det utformade TCSsystemet i det aktuella projektet för att identifiera de optimala driftsförhållandena och beteendet för de valda viktigaste parametrarna i systemet. Det konstruerade systemet ger en energilagringskapacitet på 0.5 kWh för de specifika mängderna (i volymflöde) av ammoniak och monoamin av strontiumklorid, som kommer från analysen, av 1.08696 e-05 kmol/s och 1.5528 e-06 kmol/s respektive. För dessa specifika värden på värmeöverföringsvätskan visade analysen att de volymetriska flödeshastigheterna för värme och kalla yttre källor måste vara 1.56 l/min (vilket minskar när temperaturen på värmeöverföringsvätskan ökar) och 0.42 l/min (som ökar när temperaturen på värmeöverföringsvätskan ökar). Sammanfattningsvis presenterar denna studie ett ammoniak-SrCl2 TCS-bänkskålsystem som möjliggör kontinuerlig värmelagring och frigöring, har en design som är lätt att anpassa och föreslår också optimala driftsförhållanden.

Refrigeration systems employing the NH3-H2O absorption cycle provide cooling using a thermal energy input. This cycle relies on the zeotropic nature of the refrigerant - absorbent pair: because of the difference in boiling temperatures between NH3 and H2O, they can be separated through selective boiling in the desorber. Desorbers with counter-current flow of the solution and generated vapor enable efficient heat and mass transfer between the two phases, reducing the absorbent content in the generated vapor. Flow visualization experiments at temperatures, concentrations and pressures representative of operating conditions are necessary to understand the heat and mass transfer processes and flow regime characteristics within the component. In this study, a Flooded Column desorber, which accomplishes desorption of the refrigerant vapor through a combination of falling-film and pool boiling, was fabricated and tested. Refrigerant-rich solution enters the top of the component and fills a column, which is heated by an adjacent heated microchannel array. The vapor generated within the component is removed from the top of the component, while the dilute solution drains from the bottom. Flow visualization experiments showed that the Flooded Column desorber operated most stably in a partially flooded condition, with a pool-boiling region below a falling-film region. It was found that the liquid column level was dependent on operating conditions, and that the pool-boiling region exhibits aggressive mixing between the vapor and solution phases. Heat transfer coefficients were calculated from the data for the pool-boiling region, and were compared with the predictions of several mixture pool-boiling correlations from the literature. The correlations from the literature were in general unable to predict the data from this study adequately. It was found that the Flooded Column desorber yielded higher heat transfer coefficients within the pool-boiling region than those predicted by these correlations. Therefore, modifications to existing mixture boiling correlations are suggested based on the findings of this study. The resulting modified correlation predicts 33 of the 35 data points from this study within ±40%, with an average absolute error of 19%.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Ohio State University, 2003.
Title from first page of PDF file. Document formatted into pages; contains xxv, 475 p.; also includes graphics Includes bibliographical references (p. 469-475). Available online via OhioLINK's ETD Center

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 2008.
Ghiaasiaan, S. Mostafa, Committee Member ; Sheldon, M. Jeter, Committee Member ; Fuller, Tom, Committee Member ; Teja, Amyn, Committee Member ; Garimella, Srinivas, Committee Chair.

For ammonia-water absorption refrigeration technology it is suggested to use bubble type absorbers because the higher contact surface area provides a higher mass transfer rate. Furthermore, dispersion of bubbles in the bulk of liquid phase also exhibits better heat transfer characteristics that facilitate the recovery of dissipated heat of the exothermic absorption.In this context, plate heat exchangers are believed to be an option to be employed as absorber in some applications. Commercial plate heat exchangers have only one inlet and outlet for a working fluid and as a result, gas and liquid should be mixed before supplied to a gap between the two adjacent plates. The consequence is the high risk of bubble mergence to form a bigger bubble and to follow the shortest flow paths in vertical direction so that not all the heat transfer surface can be effectively used. Furthermore this feature makes plate heat exchangers sensitive to the angle of plate relative to the vertical which would be worst when it is laid to its side on a horizontal plane.Austrian Institute of Technology (AIT) develops an efficient Bubble Plate Absorber for applications in high-pressure absorption systems and this work tries to investigate design possibility of this Bubble Plate Absorber based on a plate heat exchanger equipped with microchannels between plates.Two sets of seven parallel microchannels same in shape and dimension were tested. The first set had a continuous wall which means fluids could flow independently along the microchannels; whereas, the other set was benefiting from some linkages between channels that fluids could cross from one microchannel to another one. Ammonia vapour was injected via one and two-holed distributors.It was found that microchannels with continuous wall deliver higher concentration and less unabsorbed bubbles at the microchannels outlet. In visual analysis by high-speed camera, changing the vapour distributors from single-hole to double-hole had no significant effect on the bubble distribution quality in lower flowrates; however, double-hole vapour distributor showed better performance in higher vapours flowrates.

Energy shortages around the world necessitated research into alternative energy sources especially for domestic applications to reduce the load on conventional energy sources. This resulted in research done on the possibility of integrating solar energy with an aqua-ammonia diffusion absorption cycle specifically for domestic applications. The bubble pump can be seen as the heart of the diffusion absorption cycle, since it is responsible, in the absence of a mechanical pump, to circulate the fluid and to desorb the refrigerant (ammonia) from the mixture. It is thus of paramount importance to ensure that the bubble pump is designed efficiently. Various bubble pump simulation models have been developed over the years, but it was found that none of the existing models served as a good basis for application-specific design. Most of the models constrained too many parameters from the outset which made the investigation of the effects of certain parameters on the bubble pump’s performance impossible. According to the research, no bubble pump model investigated the effect of such a wide variety of factors including tube diameter, heat flux, mass flux, generator heat input and system pressure on the bubble pump’s lift height. A simulation model for a bubble pump for integration with a solar-driven aqua-ammonia diffusion absorption cycle was developed. It serves as a versatile design model to optimise the bubble pump for a large variety of conditions as well as changes in parameters. It was achieved by constraining the bubble pump dimensions and parameters as little as possible. A unique feature of this model was the fact that the bubble pump tube was divided into segments of known quality which made the length of the pipe completely dependent on the flow inside the pipe. It also made the demarcation of the flow development inside the tube easier. The model attempted to incorporate the most appropriate correlations for pressurised two-phase aqua-ammonia flow. The most appropriate void fraction correlation was found to be Abstract The design and optimisation of a bubble pump for an aqua-ammonia diffusion absorption heat pump the Rouhani-Axelsson (Rouhani I) correlation. It was mainly due to its exclusive use of thermophysical properties and the vapour quality. The most appropriate heat transfer coefficient that predicted the most realistic wall temperature, was the correlation from Riviera and Best (1999) which was the only correlation found in the literature developed with aqua-ammonia in mind. It was found that the published correlation could not reproduce their experimental results, and a modification of their correlation was made after which the simulation model’s results correlated well with the experimental values of Riviera and Best (1999). The main goal of the simulation model was to determine the height that the bubble pump was capable of lifting at the slug to churn flow transition under various conditions. The effect of varying a variety of parameters on the bubble pump lift height was also investigated. The results from Shelton & White Stewart (2002) were compared to the outputs of the simulation model, and it was found that their constraining of the submergence ratio limited their outputs, and that their heat inputs under different conditions was a bit optimistic. The simulation model’s outputs correlated well at higher tube diameters with the results from Shelton & White Stewart (2002), but at the lower diameters which was used in their study it was impossible to compare data, since their diameters was already in mini flow and micro flow regions. The temperatures also correlated well, all within 2% of the results from Shelton & White Stewart (2002). It was found that there couldn’t be just one set of optimised conditions and values for the bubble pump, but that each cycle with differing specifications and operating conditions would yield a unique set of optimised parameters. It was for that reason very important not to constrain parameters beforehand without investigating its effect on the bubble pump first.
Thesis (MIng (Mechanical Engineering))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013.

Absorption space-conditioning systems are environmentally benign alternatives to vapor compression systems and have the capability of being driven by waste heat. However, a lack of practically feasible and economically viable compact heat and mass exchangers is a major limitation in the success of this technology. The viability of the absorption cycle depends upon the performance of the absorber, which experiences large heat and mass transfer resistances due to adverse temperature and concentration gradients during the phase change of the binary mixture working fluid, resulting in large overall component sizes. Understanding of the coupled heat and mass transfer during binary fluid mixture absorption at the microscales is critical for the miniaturization of these components, which will enable broad implementation of this technology. The proposed study aims to achieve this by investigating ammonia-water absorption for two distinct flow configurations: external falling films and internal convective flows. For the falling-film absorption case, ammonia-water solution flows around an array of small diameter coolant tubes while absorbing vapor. This absorber is installed in a test facility comprising all components of a single-effect absorption chiller to provide realistic operating conditions at the absorber. Local temperature, pressure, and flow measurements will be taken over a wide range of operating conditions and analyzed to develop a heat and mass transfer model for falling-film ammonia-water absorption. A microscale convective flow absorber will also be investigated. This absorber consists of an array of parallel, aligned alternating shims with integral microscale features, enclosed between cover plates. These microscale features facilitate flow of various fluid streams and the associated heat and mass transfer. The use of microchannels induces high heat and mass transfer rates without any active or passive surface enhancement. The microscale absorber for small-scale applications will be evaluated over a wide range of operating conditions on a single-effect absorption heat pump breadboard test facility. The study will conclude with a comparison of the two flow configurations for absorption, with recommendations for their application in future miniaturization efforts

En els darrers anys nombrosos investigadors han proposat els líquids Iònics (LI) com a nous absorbents en refrigeració per absorció, per resoldre certes desavantatges que presenten els fluids convencionals, ja que aquestes substàncies ofereixen l'oportunitat de ser dissenyades segons les seves propietats termofísiques d'acord a la Aplicació. No obstant això, la falta d'informació sobre les propietats termofísiques dels líquids iònics i les seves mescles amb refrigerants dificulta la seva valoració. El principal objectiu d'aquesta tesi és la determinació experimental i el modelatge de les propietats termofísiques més rellevants dels líquids iònics estudiats i les seves mescles amb amoníac. La selecció dels sis líquids iònics es va realitzar a partir de la informació existent a la literatura, tenint en compte característiques com ara baixa viscositat, alta solubilitat d'amoniaco i alta estabilitat termal. Els líquids seleccionats són els següents: N-etil-N- (2-hidroxietil) N, N dimetil amb dos diferents anions bis (trifluorometilsulfonil) imida i trifluorometasulfonato, tetrafluoroborato de 1- (2-hidroxietil) -3-metilimidazol, colina bis ( Trifluorometilsulfonil) -imida, 1- (2-hidroxietil) -3-metilimidazol bis (trifluorometilsulfonil) imida i N-trimetil-N-propilamoniobis (trifluorometilsulfonil) imida. Els dos primers contenen el mateix catión i van ser dissenyats, sintetitzats i subministrats pel Laboratori de Química Orgànica de la Universitat de Vigo. Els últims dos han estat seleccionats per ser apropiats per absorbir amoníac. Un dels dos últims no té un grup d'hidroxil a la estructura del catión, que és útil per comparar l'efecte d'aquesta característica sobre les diferents propietats termofísiques. Abans de mesurar les propietats termofísiques és necessari verificar la estructura dels LI i determinar la quantitat d'impureses presents (especialment aigua). Com a primera tasca es van utilitzar diverses tècniques espectroscòpiques com la Resonància Magnètica Nuclear (RMN) i l'Infraroig per Transformada de Fourier (IRTF) per confirmar la estructura química dels LI. En la següent fase, el contingut d'aigua i halurs és determinat usant un coulómetro Karl Fisher i absorció atòmica. A més, es va determinar l'estabilitat termal mitjançant una anàlisi termogravimetrica. Al ser limitada la quantitat disponible de LIs sintetitzats per ser productes de gran puresa difícils de obtenir a escala de laboratori i de gran cost, va ser necessari realitzar modificacions en les tècniques experimentals existents i implementar noves unitats per manejar aquestes substàncies. Entre les més rellevants modificacions, es pot ressaltar el disseny i implementació d'una línia d'emissió per reduir el contingut d'aigua en els LI menors a 200 ppm, d'una nova cel·la per a la preparació i injecció de la mostra per a la mesura de la densitat i la viscositat De les mesclas amb un volum de 10 cm3, d'una nova cel·la per a mesurar la capacitat calorífica que permet treballar a alta pressió amb un volum de 2 cm3 i d'un nou muntatge experimental per a mesurar la pressió de vapor de les mescles amb una cel·la de Mesura amb volum inferior a 15 cm3. Posteriorment, les propietats termofísiques dels llicenciats com la densitat, viscositat, capacitat calorífica i conductivitat tèrmica dels LI es van mesurar amb un densímetre de tub vibrant, un viscòmetre de pistó, el mètode transitori de fil humit i un microcalorímetre tipus Calvet, respectivament . En el cas de les mescles de LIs i les seves mescles amb amoníac, les propietats mesures van ser la pressió de vapor, densitat i viscositat. La pressió de vapor es va mesurar utilitzant el mètode estàtic. A excepció de la conductivitat termal, totes les propietats termofísicas van ser mesures en el rang de temperatura de 293,15 K a 373,15 K. La composició de les mesclas va ser preparada per cobrir tot el rang de composició molar per al amoníac. També, es van calcular les incertidumbres per a totes les propietats i es van trobar baixos, indicant que els valors experimentals són confiables. L'estabilitat termal dels LIs estudiats es va trobar per sobre de 300 ° C i les seves viscositats a 323,15 K estan compreses entre (146.6-28.5) cP. Les pressions de vapor dels LIs amb amoniaco presenten deduccions negatives de la llei de Raoult majors que les de l'amoníac / aigua a 303.13 K. Els dades experimentals per a totes les propietats termofísiques dels LI es van correlacionar utilitzant equacions polinomials algebraiques, i en el cas de la viscositat es va emprar l'equació de Vogel. Totes les equacions representen de manera acceptable les dades, a causa que les deviències van ser menors a un 1,2% en tots els casos. Les pressions de vapor van ser correlacionades amb la temperatura i la composició de les mesclas de manera adequada utilitzant l'equació d'Antoine, sent els resultats adequats especialment a composicions molars d'amoniaco majors de 0,4 i temperat
En los últimos años numerosos investigadores han propuesto los Líquidos Iónicos (LIs) como nuevos absorbentes en refrigeración por absorción, para resolver ciertas desventajas que presentan los fluidos convencionales, ya que estas sustancias ofrecen la oportunidad de ser diseñadas según sus propiedades termofísicas de acuerdo a la aplicación. Sin embargo, la falta de información acerca de las propiedades termofísicas de los líquidos iónicos y sus mezclas con refrigerantes dificulta su evaluación. El principal objetivo de esta tesis es la determinación experimental y el modelado de las propiedades termofísicas más relevantes de los líquidos iónicos estudiados y sus mezclas con amoniaco. La selección de los seis líquidos iónicos fue realizada a partir de la información existente en la literatura, teniendo en cuenta características tales como baja viscosidad, alta solubilidad de amoniaco y alta estabilidad térmica. Los líquidos seleccionados son los siguientes: N-etil-N-(2-hidroxietil)N, N dimetil con dos diferentes aniones bis (trifluorometilsulfonil) imida y trifluorometasulfonato, 1-(2-hidroxietil)-3-metilimidazol tetrafluoroborato, colina bis (trifluorometilsulfonil)-imida, 1-(2-hidroxietil)-3-metilimidazol bis (trifluorometilsulfonil) imida y N-trimetil-N-propilamoniobis(trifluorometilsulfonil)imida. Los dos primeros contienen el mismo catión y fueron diseñados, sintetizados y suministrados por el Laboratorio de Química Orgánica de la Universidad de Vigo. Los últimos dos han sido seleccionaos por ser apropiados para absorber amoniaco. Uno de los dos últimos no tiene un grupo de hidroxilo en la estructura del catión, lo cual es útil para comparar el efecto de esta característica sobre las diferentes propiedades termofísicas. Antes de medir las propiedades termofísicas es necesario verificar la estructura de los LIs and determinar la cantidad de impurezas presentes (especialmente agua). Como primera tarea se emplearon varias técnicas espectroscópicas como la Resonancia Magnética Nuclear (RMN) y el Infrarrojo por Transformada de Fourier (IRTF) para confirmar la estructura química de los LIs. En la siguiente fase, el contenido de agua y haluros es determinado usando un coulómetro Karl Fisher y absorción atómica. Además, se determinó la estabilidad térmica usando un análisis termogravimétrico. Al ser limitada la cantidad disponible de LIs sintetizados por ser productos de alta pureza difíciles de obtener a escala de laboratorio y de alto coste, fue necesario hacer modificaciones en las técnicas experimentales existentes e implementar nuevas unidades para manejar estas sustancias. Entre las más relevantes modificaciones, se pueden resaltar el diseño e implementación de una línea de vacío para reducir el contenido de agua en los LIs menor a 200 ppm, de una nueva celda para la preparación e inyección de la muestra para medir la densidad y viscosidad de las mezclas con un volumen de 10 cm3, de una nueva celda para medir la capacidad calorífica que permita trabajar a alta presión con un volumen de 2 cm3 y de un nuevo montaje experimental para medir la presión de vapor de las mezclas con una celda de medida con volumen inferior a 15 cm3. Posteriormente, las propiedades termofísicas de los LIs tales como la densidad, viscosidad, capacidad calorífica y conductividad térmica de los LIs se midieron con un densímetro de tubo vibrante, un viscosímetro de pistón, el método transitorio de hilo caliente y un microcalorímetro tipo Calvet, respectivamente. En el caso de las mezclas de LIs y sus mezclas con amoniaco, las propiedades medidas fueron la presión de vapor, densidad y viscosidad. La presión de vapor fue medida usando el método estático. A excepción de la conductividad térmica, todas las propiedades termofísicas fueron medidas en el rango de temperature de 293.15 K a 373.15 K. La composición de las mezclas fue preparada para cubrir todo el rango de composición molar para el amoniaco. También, fueron calculadas las incertidumbres para todas las propiedades y se encontraron bajos, indicando que los valores experimentales son confiables. La estabilidad térmica de los LIs estudiados se encontró por encima de 300°C y sus viscosidades a 323.15 K están comprendidas entre (146.6-28.5) cP. Las presiones de vapor de los LIs con amoniaco presentan desviaciones negativas de la ley de Raoult mayores que las del de amoniaco/agua a 303.13 K. Los datos experimentales para todas las propiedades termofísicas de los LIs fueron correlacionados usando ecuaciones algebraicas polinomiales, y en el caso de la viscosidad fue empleada la ecuación de Vogel. Todas las ecuaciones representan de manera aceptable los datos, debido a que las desviaciones fueron menores a 1.2% en todos los casos. Las presiones de vapor fueron correlacionadas con la temperatura y la composición de las mezclas de manera adecuada usando la ecuación de Antoine, siendo los resultados adecuados especialmente a composiciones molares de amoniaco mayores de 0.4
Recently, the use of Ionic Liquids (ILs) as new absorbents has been proposed in refrigeration by absorption to overcome some handicaps of conventional fluids, given that this kind of substances have a wide window of opportunities to tailor easily their thermophysical properties according their application. Nevertheless, the lack of information about the thermophysical properties of pure ILs and its mixtures with natural refrigerants makes difficult the evaluation of their potential. Therefore, the main objective in this thesis is the experimental determine the most relevant thermophysical properties of pure ILs and binary mixtures with ammonia. It is necessary to highlight that the ILs used herein have been selected based on the literature taking into account their low viscosity, high capacity to absorb ammonia and high thermal stability. Four of six ILs studied herein has been reported as suitable for this application. Two of them ILs containing the common choline cation with two different anions; bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide and trifluoromethanesulfonate were designed for this application. The others are 1-(2-Hydroxyethyl)-3-methylimidazoliumtetrafluoroborate and choline (trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide are available commercially. In addition, it was selected ILs 1-(2-Hydroxyethyl)-3-methylimidazolium [EtOHmim] bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide and finally N-Trimethyl-N-propylammonium[N1113] bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, which does not have and hydroxyl group in its structure in order to know the effect of this functional group on the thermophysical properties. Due to there is the hypothesis that the presence of this group increase promotes the interactions between the ammonia and the IL. The first step before measuring thermophysical properties is necessary to confirm the structure of the ILs and quantify their impurities mostly water. In the first task were used several common techniques used such as Resonance Magnetic Nuclear (NMR) and FTIR. The second task the water content and halide content were determined by means and Coulometer and Atomic absorption. Then, thermophysical properties such as density, viscosity, heat capacity and thermal conductivity of ILs were measure, and in the case of mixtures the properties measured were vapor liquid equilibrium, density and viscosity. Furthermore, to accomplish the measurements of mixtures some modifications to experimental techniques, and new units to manage these substances are required. Among the most relevant are: design and implementation of: 1) a sample injection-preparation cell to measure density-viscosity, 2) a system to measure vapor pressure of the mixtures. The experimental data is correlated and/or modeled to create a database required to do a thermodynamic analysis about performance of refrigeration absorption cycle. Results show that ILs studied herein with a hydroxyl group in the cation structure present a better coefficient performance than conventional working fluids (ammonia-water and ammonia-lithium nitrate) and different ILs used for this application. On the other hand, the mass flow circulation ratio was quite high when compare with conventional working fluids. Nevertheless, the 1-(2-Hydroxyethyl)-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate presented the lowest value of this parameter among the IL studied herein and also when was compare with different ILs.

Several steps are followed in order to evaluate the cycle as the title suggests. The diffusion absorption refrigerator (DAR) cycle performance is evaluated when using helium or hydrogen as auxiliary gas. A slight increase in COP is found when using helium, but it is not sufficient to justify the cost. A secondary simulation of an alternate dual-pressure cycle using a pump is done as feasibility comparison with the same parameters as the diffusion cycle. It was found that the second cycle is not acceptable due to high evaporator temperatures needed to ensure liquid enters the pump instead of partially evaporated solution. This would greatly increase the work input required for what essentially becomes a compressor. Optimisation of the DAR is evaluated by simulating the use of a rectification column and the effects of different design points on overall performance. Meteorological data for Potchefstroom, South Africa is used to perform a yearly analysis on the simulated cycle and to specify a suitable design point. The use of a radiative cooling system as heat sink for the system is then investigated and incorporated into the system model. Finally, the performance characteristics of the simulated DAR cycle are discussed, verified and compared with available data from similar research. It is shown that a 40% solution aqua-ammonia-hydrogen cycle driven by 526 kW of solar thermal energy at 130°C and a system pressure of 1.5 MPa can easily achieve a COP over 0.4 with an air-cooled absorber at 40°C and a water-cooled condenser at 35°C. A 231 kW refrigeration capacity at an average evaporator temperature of –20°C is achieved, satisfying the requirements for a domestic refrigeration system.
Thesis (MIng (Mechanical Engineering))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013.

Thesis (M.S. in environmental engineering)--Washington State University, May 2009.
Title from PDF title page (viewed on May 21, 2009). "Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering." Includes bibliographical references (p. 87-91).

ASPEN-Plus se utilizó para llevar a cabo investigaciones en régimen estacionario sobre una máquina comercial de refrigeración de absorción de 3 toneladas (10 kW de capacidad de refrigeración) accionada con gas natural y un refrigerador de difusión-absorción (DAR) de pequeña potencia (7.5 W de capacidad de refrigeración).Antes de iniciar las simulaciones, se selecciona entre los nueve modelos implementados en la librería de ASPEN-Plus, el modelo adecuado para estimar las propiedades termodinámicas del fluido de trabajo amoníaco/agua en amplios rangos de temperatura (273,16 ≤ T ≤ 613,15 K) y de presión (0 < P ≤ 210 bar). Se ha demostrado que la ecuación de estado de Peng-Robinson-Boston-Mathias (PR-BM) es la más adecuada para el par de trabajo amoníaco/agua en los intervalos de temperatura y presión típicos en las máquinas de refrigeración de absorción. Los modelos de simulación desarrollados en ASPEN-Plus para las máquinas de refrigeración de absorción, reproducen y predicen bastante bien los resultados experimentales. Los primeros ensayos experimentales del refrigerador comercial de difusión-absorción (DAR) han mostrado que se requiere un suministro de calor al generador superior a 35W para garantizar el funcionamiento de la máquina y su estabilidad. Además, todas las características esenciales del refrigerador han sido determinadas experimentalmente, especialmente los coeficientes globales de transferencia de calor de la cámara refrigerada y el evaporador, las cuales son(UA)_cab=0.554 WK^(-1) and (UA)_int=0.3 WK^(-1), respectivamente. El mejor rendimiento del refrigerador ha sido obtenido experimentalmente con una fuente de alimentación eléctrica de 46W y una temperatura del generador de 167°C. Se ha encontrado que el COP de la máquina es de 0.159. Las predicciones de los modelos ASPEN-Plus del DAR han mostrado una buena concordancia con los datos experimentales. Por último, un modelo dinámico de caja negra ha sido desarrollado para el refrigerador de difusión-absorción (DAR) en el entorno de Matlab Simulink®. Se ha encontrado que la función de transferencia de primer orden con retardo describe correctamente la relación entre la potencia de accionamiento en el generador y la capacidad de refrigeración.
ASPEN-Plus was used to carry out steady-state investigations on a commercial 3-ton gas-fired absorption chiller (10 kW cooling capacity) and a small capacity (7.5W cooling capacity) diffusion-absorption refrigerator (DAR). Before starting the simulations, the adequate thermodynamic properties model for the ammonia/water fluid mixture over wider ranges of temperature (273.16 ≤ T ≤ 613.15 K) and pressure (0 < P ≤ 210 bar) was selected among nine candidates from the ASPEN-Plus model library. It was found that the Peng-Robinson-Boston-Mathias equation of state (PR-BM) is the most suitable for the ammonia/water working pair in the temperature and pressure ranges encountered in absorption refrigerating machines. The ASPEN-Plus simulation models developed for the absorption chiller were able to reproduce and predict quite well the experimental findings. First experimental tests on the commercial diffusion-absorption refrigerator showed that a heat supply of greater than 35 W in the generator is required to ensure the functioning of the machine and its stability. Further, all the essential features of the refrigerator were determined experimentally, especially the overall heat transfer coefficients of the refrigerated room cabinet and the evaporator, which were (UA)_cab=0.554 WK^(-1) and (UA)_int=0.3 WK^(-1), respectively. The best performance of the refrigerator was reached experimentally with an electric power supply of 46 W and a generator temperature of 167°C. The machine COP was found to be 0.159. The predictions of the ASPEN-Plus models of the DAR showed good agreement with the experimental data. Finally, a dynamic black-box model was developed for the diffusion-absorption refrigerator (DAR) using Matlab Simulink® environment. It was found that a first order transfer function with delay describes correctly the relationship between the power input to the generator and the cooling capacity. The unsteady-state behavior of the refrigerator predicted by the black-box developed agreed well with the experimental data.

Orientador: Waldir Antônio Bizzo
Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Mecânica
Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-16T11:49:07Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Benedetti_TulioMoraes_M.pdf: 4422761 bytes, checksum: 031e0ea87f5638a6ffc654bbee4adb3d (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010
Resumo: Este trabalho apresenta uma análise técnica e econômica da substituição parcial de um sistema de refrigeração por compressão de vapor por um sistema de absorção água-amônia e sua integração energética com um abatedouro de aves. Na primeira parte do trabalho, é desenvolvido um quadro geral para a modelagem termodinâmica de um sistema de refrigeração por ciclo de absorção utilizando a mistura água-amônia, a fim de se avaliar condições operacionais e parâmetros de projeto. Desenvolve-se também modelos para pré-dimensionamento dos principais equipamentos presentes no sistema, como trocadores de calor e coluna de recheio. A influência das temperaturas de operação, eficiência e disposição dos trocadores de calor e diferentes configurações do ciclo (GAX - "Generator-Absorber heat eXchange" e simples estágio) são analisadas e comparadas no intuito de se verificar o efeito no desempenho do sistema. Na segunda parte, são analisadas práticas viáveis para recuperação material e energética dos subprodutos do abate de aves, com o intuito de se obter energia térmica com baixo custo e integração com o sistema de refrigeração por absorção. Na terceira e última parte do trabalho, um estudo de viabilidade econômica é realizado, com o intuito de se obter o retorno do investimento, considerado pela substituição da energia elétrica por energia térmica. Os resultados da investigação mostram que os trocadores de calor aumentam o desempenho do ciclo significativamente (mais de 40 %), sendo o pré-aquecedor de solução rica indispensável. O sistema GAX mostrou-se uma alternativa potencial para obtenção de maiores valores para o coeficiente de desempenho, entretanto sua vantagem energética sofre significativas limitações de alguns parâmetros, como o desnível térmico entre gerador e absorvedor. Considerando, assim, a validade das técnicas de recuperação energética a partir dos subprodutos do abate de aves e a utilização do sistema de absorção, o abatedouro tem enorme potencial de recuperação energética em pequena e grande escala, possibilitando maior sustentabilidade ambiental e econômica
Abstract: This work presents a technical and economic analysis of partial replacement of a vapor compression refrigeration system for an ammonia-water absorption system and its energetic integration with a poultry slaughterhouse. In the first part of this work, is developed a general framework for the thermodynamic modeling of a system of absorption refrigeration cycle using ammonia-water mixture in order to evaluate operating conditions and design parameters. It is also developed models for pre-sizing of major equipment in the system, such as heat exchangers and packed column. The influence of operation temperatures, efficiency and arrangement of heat exchangers and different configurations of the cycle (GAX - "Generator-Absorber heat eXchange and single stage) are analyzed and compared in order to verify the effect on system performance. In the second part, is discussed practical feasible to recover material and energy by-products from slaughtered poultry, in order to obtain thermal energy with low costs and integration with the absorption refrigeration system. In the third and final section, an economic feasibility study is conducted in order to obtain the return on investment, considered by the substitution of electricity by thermal power. Research results show that the heat exchangers increase the cycle performance significantly (more than 40 %), and the rich solution preheater is indispensable. The GAX system proved to be a potential alternative to obtain higher values for the coefficient of performance, however, its energy advantage suffers significant limitations of some parameters, such as the thermal gradient between the generator and absorber. Considering, therefore, the validity of the techniques of energy recovery from by-products from slaughtered poultry and the use of absorption system, the slaughterhouse has enormous potential for energy recovery in small and large scale, allowing for greater environmental and economic sustainability
Mestrado
Termica e Fluidos
Mestre em Engenharia Mecânica

Ce travail se rapporte à l'étude de pompes à chaleur à absorption multiétagées, dans le but de développer des nouvelles machines frigorifiques de faible puissance pour la climatisation des bâtiments et utilisant la combustion du gaz naturel comme source de chaleur. Ce type de travail fait l'objet d'une demande de plus en plus importante car il s'avère être une solution de substitution intéressante à l'interdiction récente de production et d'utilisation des composés fluorés tels que les CFC (ChloroFluoroCarbures) et les HCFC (HydroChloroFluoroCarbures). Nous proposons donc dans ce travail, des structures de pompes à chaleur à absorption multiétagées pour frigo pompes qui offrent une excellente voie d'amélioration des performances par rapport aux systèmes simples mono-étages. Dans cette étude, nous nous intéressons plus particulièrement à développer les structures multiétagées en parallèle thermique au niveau du mélangeur, et ce pour une production maximale de froid utile. Ce principe nécessite un mélange qui présente un large domaine de travail (en pression et température). Le mélange utilisé dans cette étude est le couple Nh3/H2O de par ses propriétés et les données thermodynamiques le concernant qui sont assez bien connues. Pour améliorer les performances de ces systèmes, nous distinguons deux grandes voies. La première voie consiste à essayer de profiter de ce besoin de rectification, tandis que la seconde voie cherche à éliminer cette rectification.

En la presente tesis doctoral se realiza un estudio experimental de la intensificación del proceso de absorción de amoniaco por parte de la mezcla NH3/LiNO3 en absorbedores de burbuja por medio del uso de superficies avanzadas y nanotubos de carbono. Las condiciones de operación de los ensayos experimentales fueron obtenidas a partir de una simulación termodinámica de un ciclo de absorción de simple efecto con NH3/LiNO3 a las condiciones de operación de interés para una enfriadora por absorción activada por fuentes de energía a baja temperatura y enfriada por aire. Los experimentos se llevaron a cabo en un banco de prueba experimental diseñado para la evaluación del desempeño de absorbedores a las condiciones deseadas. El estudio del proceso de absorción se realizo en dos tipos de intercambiadores de calor trabajando como absorbedores; un intercambiador de calor de placas y un intercambiador de calor tubular. Los resultados experimentos en el absorbedor tubular muestran que las superficies avanzadas y nanotubos de carbono usados mejoran significativamente el proceso de absorción de amoniaco en el absorbedor de burbuja estudiado en comparación con un absorbedor de tubo liso con el fluido base. Las mejoras máximas alcanzadas fueron superiores al 50%.
This thesis deals with an experimental study on intensification of the ammonia absorption process in the NH3/LiNO3 mixture in vertical bubble mode absorbers using advanced surfaces and nanoparticles of carbon nanotubes (CNTs). Operating conditions selected for the absorber test were obtained from a thermodynamic analysis of a single effect absorption cycle with NH3/LiNO3 driven by low temperature heat sources and head released by air. The experiments were conducted in an experimental test facility designed for evaluating the absorber performance at the desired operating conditions. Intensification of the ammonia absorption process was studied using two types of heat exchangers working as bubble absorbers; a plate heat exchanger and a tubular heat exchanger. Experimental results showed that the advanced surfaces and CNTs used significantly improve the ammonia absorption process in the tubular bubble absorber analyzed in comparison with results in the smooth tube absorber with the base fluid. The maximum improvements achieved were higher than 50 %.

The diploma thesis is devoted to the separation of a pollutant (NH3) from a water solution using an experimental technology device - membrane contactor. The theoretical part is mostly focused on the recent progress in the field of membrane contactors. The theoretical part also contains theory of absorption, chemisorption and microreactions, which is needed to understand the subject properly. The experimental part focuses on the construction of the experimental device and what does experimental device consist of. The efficiency of the device in transfer of ammonia to an nitrate salt of nitric acid solution was tested. At the end, experimental data are further discussed.

Les machines frigorifiques à absorption ammoniac-eau sont prometteuses dans les domaines de la climatisation solaire et de la valorisation des rejets thermiques pour l’industrie. Pour permettre à ces machines de devenir compétitives par rapport aux systèmes à compression mécanique de vapeur, l’amélioration de leur efficacité et la baisse de leur coût sont nécessaires. C’est dans ce contexte que s’inscrit ce travail de thèse.L’étude se concentre sur l’absorbeur qui est un des composants les plus critiques de la machine à absorption en matière de taille, de coût et d’efficacité. L’objectif est d’étudier numériquement et expérimentalement les transferts couplés de masse et de chaleur dans l’absorbeur dans le but de prédire et d’améliorer ses performances.Deux absorbeurs à film tombant sont étudiés, dans lesquels la solution pauvre et la vapeur entrent en haut et le fluide caloporteur entre en bas. Le premier est un échangeur à plaques soudées et le deuxième est un échangeur à plaques et joints avec des dimensions et des profils de plaques différents.L’analyse expérimentale de ces deux absorbeurs est réalisée dans des conditions réelles de fonctionnement sur un prototype instrumenté de machine à absorption ammoniac-eau de 5 kW. Ce dispositif permet une analyse globale des débits de vapeur absorbés, des flux thermiques évacués et des efficacités d’absorption. Une analyse plus locale est aussi réalisée à l’aide de mesures de températures à l’intérieur des canaux de refroidissement dans l’absorbeur plaques et joints. Les résultats montrent une importante corrélation entre la puissance frigorifique produite par la machine à absorption et les performances de l’absorbeur. Mais ce prototype étant une machine réelle, les variables d’entrée de l’absorbeur ne peuvent pas être contrôlées. Un modèle numérique est donc nécessaire pour dissocier l’impact des différentes variables sur les performances de l’absorbeur.Un modèle 1D d’un absorbeur à film tombant est donc développé. Il est basé sur des bilans de masses, d’espèces et d’énergies, des équations de transferts de masse et de chaleur et des conditions d’équilibre à l’interface liquide-vapeur. Les résistances aux transferts de masse sont considérées dans les phases liquide et vapeur et des corrélations empiriques sont utilisées pour calculer les coefficients de transfert de masse et de chaleur.Ce modèle est validé expérimentalement avec les données globales aux bornes des deux absorbeurs et avec les mesures de températures le long des canaux du fluide de refroidissement puisqu’une différence maximale de 15% est observée. Il permet donc l’analyse détaillée des phénomènes de transferts de masse et de chaleur le long de l’absorbeur et facilite l’étude du procédé d’absorption.Enfin, une étude de sensibilité paramétrique est réalisée avec ce modèle pour discuter des résultats expérimentaux et pour identifier les pistes d’amélioration des performances de l’absorbeur et donc de la machine à absorption
Ammonia-water absorption chillers are promising both for solar air conditioning and for industry processes. To become competitive compared to electric compression chillers, their efficiency needs to be improved and their cost has to be decreased. This thesis study takes place in this context.The focus is put on the absorber, which is one of the most critical component of absorption chillers in terms of compactness, cost and efficiency. The purpose is to study numerically and experimentally coupled heat and mass transfers which occur in the absorber in order to predict and improve its overall performances.Two falling film absorbers are analysed. In both of them, the poor solution and the vapour enter at the top and the coolant fluid enters at the bottom of the absorber. The first absorber is a brazed plate heat exchanger and the second is a gasketed plate-and-frame heat exchanger with different geometric dimensions and plates corrugations.The experimental study of these two absorbers is performed in real working conditions on an instrumented ammonia-water absorption chiller prototype of 5 KW. Thanks to this device, a global analysis of vapour absorbed mass flow rates, absorbed heat fluxes and mass effectiveness is achieved. A local analysis is also performed thanks to temperature measures inside channels of coolant fluid in the gasketed plate-and-frame heat exchanger. Results show a strong correlation between the absorption chiller cooling capacity and the absorber performances. However, since this prototype is a real chiller, absorber inlet variables cannot be controlled. Thus, a numerical model is necessary to dissociate the impact of these variables on the absorber performances.A 1D numerical model of the absorber is developed. It is based on mass, species and enthalpy balances, mass and heat transfer equations and equilibrium conditions at the vapour/solution interface. Mass transfer resistances in both liquid and vapour phases are considered while heat and mass transfer coefficients are calculated using empirical correlations.This model is validated experimentally with global data at the inlet and the outlet of the absorber and temperature measures along the absorber coolant fluid channels. A maximal relative error of 15 % is observed. Therefore, a detailed analysis of combined heat and mass transfers along the absorber and the absorption process study is performed thanks to this model.A parametric study is also performed with this model to discuss experimental results and find ways to improve the absorber performances and thus the absorption chiller performances

For ammonia-water absorption refrigeration technology it is suggested to use bubble type absorbers because the higher contact surface area provides a higher mass transfer rate. Furthermore, dispersion of bubbles in the bulk of liquid phase also exhibits better heat transfer characteristics that facilitate the recovery of dissipated heat of the exothermic absorption. In this context, plate heat exchangers are believed to be an option to be employed as absorber in some applications. Commercial plate heat exchangers have only one inlet and outlet for a working fluid and as a result, gas and liquid should be mixed before supplied to a gap between the two adjacent plates. The consequence is the high risk of bubble mergence to form a bigger bubble and to follow the shortest flow paths in vertical direction so that not all the heat transfer surface can be effectively used. Furthermore this feature makes plate heat exchangers sensitive to the angle of plate relative to the vertical which would be worst when it is laid to its side on a horizontal plane. Austrian Institute of Technology (AIT) develops an efficient Bubble Plate Absorber for applications in high-pressure absorption systems and this work tries to investigate design possibility of this Bubble Plate Absorber based on a plate heat exchanger equipped with microchannels between plates. Two sets of seven parallel microchannels same in shape and dimension were tested. The first set had a continuous wall which means fluids could flow independently along the microchannels; whereas, the other set was benefiting from some linkages between channels that fluids could cross from one microchannel to another one. Ammonia vapour was injected via one and two-holed distributors. It was found that microchannels with continuous wall deliver higher concentration and less unabsorbed bubbles at the microchannels outlet. In visual analysis by high-speed camera, changing the vapour distributors from single-hole to double-hole had no significant effect on the bubble distribution quality in lower flowrates; however, double-hole vapour distributor showed better performance in higher vapours flowrates.

Orientador: Jose Ricardo Figueiredo
Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Mecanica
Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-12T16:34:55Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Makiyama_PatriciaAkemi_D.pdf: 909858 bytes, checksum: 44f3dcd6439a819df8a8d16fa7f5d458 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2008
Resumo: Este estudo apresenta o desenvolvimento de um programa pré-existente de simulação de um sistema de refrigeração por absorção água-amônia que utiliza como fonte de energia os gases de exaustão de um motor diesel de um grupo diesel-gerador. O projeto foi executado em quatro etapas. Um dimensionamento inicial dos diversos componentes envolveu relações puramente termodinâmicas, e baseou-se no arbítrio de diferenças de temperatura nos diversos trocadores de calor e algumas condições operacionais e ambientais, como capacidade de refrigeração e temperatura de entrada da água de resfriamento nos condensadores e absorvedor. Obteve-se, assim, o porte de cada equipamento do sistema de refrigeração em termos de parâmetros, tais como os coeficientes globais de transferência de calor multiplicado pelas áreas de cada componente ou a efetividade multiplicada pela mínima capacidade térmica horária. Na segunda etapa, foi feito o detalhamento construtivo de cada componente do sistema com o intuito de se chegar o mais próximo possível aos resultados do projeto inicial. Foram introduzidas as relações para o cálculo de transferência de calor de cada componente do sistema, o cálculo dos respectivos coeficientes de transferência de calor e as perdas de cargas relevantes ao cálculo da potência elétrica auxiliar demandada pelo sistema. Uma vez definida a configuração inicial de um sistema de refrigeração por absorção específico, buscou-se a maximização da potência térmica do evaporador e a minimização da potência elétrica auxiliar total requerida pelo sistema, variando-se parâmetros construtivos (comprimento, diâmetro e número de tubos) de cada trocador de calor. Os comprimentos, número e diâmetro dos tubos foram, então, fixados em função dos resultados obtidos nesta etapa do projeto. Definida a configuração final do sistema, calculou-se a capacidade de produção de gelo em barras pelo sistema de refrigeração por absorção proposto em função da demanda de energia elétrica ao longo do dia para a Região Norte Amazônica. Na quarta etapa do projeto, o absorvedor foi estudado isoladamente. O sistema de refrigeração por absorção proposto, que utiliza os gases de escape de um motor diesel de 123 kW de potência máxima de um grupo diesel-gerador de pequeno porte, possui uma capacidade de produção de 372 barras de gelo de 10 kg por dia, operando o dia inteiro, ou de 150 barras, considerando-se horário comercial (8h às 18h horas).
Abstract: This work shows the development of an ammonia-water absorption refrigeration system pre-existing simulation program, which uses diesel engine exhaust gases from a diesel-generator group as energy source. The project was implemented in four stages. An initial design of its components involved solely thermodynamic relations, and was based on the arbitration of temperature differences in the different heat exchangers and some environmental and operational conditions, such as cooling water inlet temperature in condensers and absorber and refrigeration capacity. The size of each refrigeration system equipment was obtained in terms of parameters such as overall heat transfer coefficients multiplied by the areas of each component or the effectiveness multiplied by the hourly minimum thermal capacity. In the second stage, the detailed construction of each component of the system was made with the aim of reaching as close to the original design parameters. The heat transfer equations for each system component, the heat transfer coefficient calculation, and the relevant pressure drops related to the calculation of required electric power were introduced. After the initial configuration had been defined of a specific absorption refrigeration system, an additional adjustment took place, aiming at the maximization of the thermal power of the evaporator and the minimization of the total electric power required by the system. This fine tunning was carried out by varying the construction parameters (length, diameter and number of tubes) of each heat exchanger. The length, number and diameter of the tubes were then set according to the results obtained in this part of the project. After settling the system configuration, the production capacity of ice bars of the proposed absorption refrigeration system was estimated according to the demand for electricity along the day for the northern Amazon region. In the fourth stage of the project, the absorber has been studied in separate, as a standalone module. The proposed absorption refrigeration system in this work, which uses the exhaust gases from a diesel engine of a small diesel-generator group, showed to have a production capacity of ice, measured in bars of 10 kg, equals to 372 bars a day (3720 kg), working all day, or 150 bars a day (1500 kg), if considering only the period of 8 working hours (business hours, from 8 am to 6 pm).
Doutorado
Termica e Fluidos
Doutor em Engenharia Mecânica

L'ammoniac atmosphérique (NH3) est émis en majeure partie par l'agriculture. Etant très soluble, il se dépose rapidement sur la végétation par absorption foliaire et dépôt sur les surfaces (dépôt cuticulaire). Ces dépôts constituent une source de pollution importante pour les écosystèmes dits sensibles. Afin d'étudier la variabilité des dépôts secs d'ammoniac à proximité des sources agricoles, en réponse aux conditions climatiques et au type d'écosystème, un modèle mécaniste de dispersion et de dépôt d'NH3 a été développé. Il repose sur le couplage d'un modèle de dispersion de gaz-traces, de type marche aléatoire, et d'un modèle d'échange à l'échelle foliaire prenant en compte les voies stomatiques et cuticulaires, et incluant le point de compensation stomatique. Le modèle a été validé à partir de données expérimentales mesurées sur un couvert de maïs et de deux autres jeux de données sur prairie. Le modèle simule bien les concentrations dans le cas de la prairie mais il est biaisé dans le cas du maïs. Le biais semble provenir de l'orientation moyenne de la direction du vent et met en avant la nécessité d'utiliser un modèle en 3 dimensions pour l'étude de la dispersion à l'échelle locale. L'application du modèle montre que les dépôts secs cumulés peuvent varier entre quelques dixièmes de % et quasiment 20% de la quantité émise à 400 m en aval d'une source ligne. Le modèle indique que les facteurs les plus influents sur le dépôt sont la hauteur de la source par rapport au couvert, la vitesse du vent et la stratification thermique, ainsi que les résistances stomatiques et cuticulaires. Sous un climat chaud et sec, le dépôt sec local d'ammoniac emprunte prioritairement la voie stomatique, tandis que sous un climat tempéré et humide, il se fait par voie cuticulaire. Il en ressort que pour améliorer les estimations du dépôt sec local, il sera nécessaire de mieux comprendre et paramétrer le dépôt cuticulaire, et le point de compensation stomatique.

Для створення датчиків присутності шкідливих газів необхідно задовольнити певним початковим умовам. Перш за все, датчик повинен досить швидко реагувати на присутність шкідливого газу і швидко релаксувати в початковий стан при видаленні цього газу. Перша вимога легко реалізується для тонких полімерних шарів, які містять поліметиновий барвник (ПМБ). Для реалізації другого вимоги, необхідно, щоб взаємодія між молекулами газу, наприклад, аміаку і ПМБ було досить слабкою. Цій вимозі може задовольнити утворення водневих зв'язків між зазначеними молекулами.

O foco deste trabalho é o desenvolvimento de um modelo físico representativo de um absorvedor de filme líquido descendente para um ciclo de refrigeração por absorção amônia-água, considerando uma capacidade de refrigeração de 5TR. O absorvedor é constituído basicamente de feixes de tubos dispostos horizontalmente, no interior dos quais escoa água com a finalidade de retirar o calor liberado ao longo do processo de absorção. Desenvolveu-se o modelo com base na obtenção e resolução dos balanços de energia e de massa. Isso com o auxílio de correlações e analogias que possibilitaram a obtenção dos coeficientes de transferência de calor e massa. Levou-se em conta a variação das propriedades tanto do líquido como do vapor ao longo do absorvedor, assim como a resistência existente nessas duas fases. Obtiveram-se os perfis de frações e vazões mássicas, temperatura, coeficientes de transferência e taxas de transferência de amônia. Avaliou-se a influência de parâmetros importantes em se tratando de absorvedores de filme líquido descendente, tais como número de Reynolds, temperatura do fluido de resfriamento e temperatura de entrada da solução. Estes perfis possibilitaram a análise de alguns aspectos relevantes no que diz respeito ao projeto do absorvedor, considerando-se algumas condições operacionais e geométricas previamente estabelecidas. Por fim, foi possível, através da obtenção do comprimento do equipamento para as diversas condições de simulação adotadas, calcular a área de troca de calor necessária para o processo absortivo.
The goal of this work is to develop a representative physical modeling of a falling film absorber for an ammonia-water absorption refrigeration cycle, rated at cooling 5 TR. The absorber is composed of a bundle of tubes arranged horizontally. The water flows inside these tubes in order to remove the heat released during the absorption process. The model was developed based on solving the conservation equations of energy and mass. Practical correlations and the heat and mass transfer analogy were used to find the convective coefficients. It was considered the changes of the properties of liquid and vapor along the absorber and also it was taken into account the thermal resistances in each phase. It was found the profiles of mass fractions and mass flow rates, temperature, transfer coefficients and transfer rates of ammonia. It was evaluated the influence of important parameters such as the Reynolds number, cooling temperature and inlet temperature of the solution. These profiles allowed the analysis of some relevant aspects regarding the design of the absorber, considering operational and dimensional conditions preestablished. Finally, it was possible to calculate the area and other geometrical aspects to achieve the absorptive process, by analyzing the operation of the equipment at various conditions.

Dans cette thèse, nous améliorons et utilisons le montage expérimental développé au laboratoire nommé femto/OPO-FT-CEAS. Ce montage combine une source laser femto/OPO, une cavité optique haute finesse et un interféromètre à transformée de Fourier. Il permet d'enregistrer des spectres sur un intervalle de 150 cm-1, avec un coefficient d'absorption minimal de 3x10-9 cm-1, à une résolution de 2x10-2 cm-1 et un temps d’acquisition de 2 heures. Un chemin d'absorption de 20 km a été obtenu dans une cellule de 145 cm. Différents miroirs à hauts indices de réflexion permettent d'accéder à deux gamme spectrales dans le domaine de l'infrarouge proche :6200-6700 cm-1 et 7700-8300 cm-1.Le montage femto/OPO-FT-CEAS a été utilisé afin d'enregistrer des spectres à température ambiante. La molécule OCS a été étudiée dans les gammes spectrales de 6200 à 6700 cm-1 et 7700 à 8300 cm-1. Les nouvelles données rovibrationnelles ont été intégrées au modèle global développé par le Prof. Fayt de l'université catholique de Louvain. Un échantillon de CO2 enrichi en oxygène 17 a également été étudié dans la gamme spectrale de 7700 à 8300 cm-1. Les données ont été traitées avec l'aide du Dr. Lyulin l'institut d'optique atmosphérique de Tomsk, Russie.Le montage femto/OPO-FT-CEAS a également été modifié pour enregistrer des spectres de molécules refroidies au sein d'un jet supersonique. Les molécules de N2O, C2H4 et H12C13CH en abondance isotopique naturelle ont été étudiées. Le montage permet de refroidir les molécules étudiées jusqu'à 10 K et un coefficient de 5x10-8 cm-1 a été obtenu. Ce montage a également permis d'enregistrer des spectres CEAS et CRDS de NH3 à des températures de 17 et 14 K respectivement. L'analyse des spectres aété réalisée avec l'aide des Profs. Fusina et Di Lonardo de l'Université de Bologne, Italie.Une cellule de 145 cm pouvant être refroidie à l'aide de réfrigérants liquides a également été développée en vue de remplacer une cellule à température ambiante de 77 cm utilisée dans le montage femto/OPO-FT-CEAS.Enfin, les montages FANTASIO+ et femto/OPO-FT-CEAS ont été utilisés afin afin d'enregistrer des spectres de HCOOH à température ambiante et à 10 K. Les données ont été traitées avec l'aide du Dr. Perrin de l'Université Paris-Créteil, France.
Doctorat en Sciences
info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Ce mémoire présente l'étude d'un système de trigénération ou CCHP (combined cooling, heating and power) au gaz naturel fournissant les besoins thermiques à un immeuble à logement typique de 13 étages. Un groupe électrogène permettant de générer de l'électricité tout en fournissant de l'eau chaude assure le chauffage du bâtiment et de l'eau chaude sanitaire tandis qu'une machine à absorption ammoniac-eau permet de transformer cette chaleur en puissance frigorifique afin de climatiser le bâtiment en période chaude. Le modèle de cette machine à absorption a spécialement été conçu pour fonctionner avec une température de désorption basse et permet d'évaluer les performances de telles machines dans des situations hors design. Ce modèle a été vérifié à l'aide d'autres modèles avérés et propose des coefficients de performance de l'ordre de 0,7 à 0,8. L'évaluation des performances horaires de ce système est présentée pour une année standard sous trois climats canadiens. Ces performances sont ensuite comparées aux différentes méthodes employées pour assurer ces besoins ainsi que pour générer l'électricité supplémentaire. Les résultats démontrent d'excellentes performances même lorsque comparées aux plus récentes technologies. Les résultats passent d'une légère augmentation de la consommation de gaz naturel dans un climat chaud comme Toronto à une importante réduction dans un climat froid comme Edmonton. Ce système permet donc de combler les besoins thermiques d'un bâtiment tout en générant de l'électricité dans des périodes de pointes annuelles et possiblement journalières. Plusieurs études dont notamment l'optimisation du système et le couplage à d'autres types de bâtiment permettrait cependant de mieux évaluer les possibilités complètes de la trigénération.

L'objectif de ces travaux vise à évaluer les performances d'un contacteur membranaire à fibres creuses utilisé pour réaliser l'absorption chimique du CO2 dans une solution ammoniacale ainsi que la régénération de cette dernière. Les membranes utilisées sont composites, c'est-à-dire composées d'une fine couche dense recouverte sur un support microporeux, la couche dense permettant d'éviter le mouillage par pénétration de liquide dans la membrane. Pour réaliser ces études, une approche combinant expérimentation et modélisation a été adoptée. Lors de la réalisation de l'absorption chimique avec un contacteur membranaire, des chutes importantes d’efficacité de captage du CO2 au cours du temps ont été observées et confirment les résultats obtenus lors de travaux ultérieurs. Cette baisse des performances est attribuée à la précipitation de sels d’ammonium en phase gaz. Lors de l'utilisation d’un gaz saturé en vapeur d'eau, comme le seraient les fumées industrielles, les performances du procédé se sont révélées stables. Un modèle 1D multi-composant adiabatique du contacteur a été développé sur Aspen Custom Modeler® et validé à partir des résultats expérimentaux. Les simulations réalisées avec ce modèle ont confirmé le potentiel d'intensification volumique de la technologie, toutefois, la réduction des pertes de NH3, grâce à l'utilisation d’une couche dense sélective moins perméable à NH3 qu’au CO2, n’a pas été satisfaisante. Les phénomènes de condensation dans les contacteurs membranaires ont été étudiés par expérimentation et modélisation. Il a ainsi été montré que le mouillage par condensation de la membrane ne devrait pas survenir, par contre, la condensation dans le lumen des fibres creuses entraîne une augmentation importante de la perte de charge pouvant conduire à des coûts de compression des gaz à traiter plus élevés. Des expériences et des simulations sur la régénération de solutions ammoniacales chargées avec des contacteurs membranaires ont été effectuées et des disparités importantes ont été trouvées entre les flux de CO2 mesurés et simulés. Une réduction volumique de trois par rapport à la colonne à garnissage a pu être calculée laissant entrevoir un potentiel intéressant de la technologie pour l’étape de régénération. En collaboration avec les partenaires du projet C2B, dans lequel s’intègre cette thèse, des essais d’absorption de CO2 ont été réalisés sur site avec un contacteur de taille industrielle. Les résultats de ce pilote sont conformes aux résultats obtenus au laboratoire et encourageants quant au transfert de la technologie vers l’échelle industrielle
This work aims to evaluate the performances of hollow fiber membrane contactors used for the CO2 absorption in aqueous ammonia and the regeneration of the latter within the frame of post-combustion CO2 capture. Fibers are made of a thin dense layer coated on a microporous support, the dense layer prevent membrane wetting by liquid penetration. Both experiment and modelling were done. During absorption experiments, important decrease of the CO2 capture efficiency was observed due to ammonium salts precipitation in the gas-side corroborating results from previous works. Experiments with CO2/N2 mixture saturated with water vapor, as would be the case for flue gas, interestingly, showed stable performances of the process. A one-dimensional multi-component adiabatic transfer model for CO2 absorption in NH3 has been implemented in Aspen Custom Modeler® and validated with experimental results. The simulations performed with the model confirmed the volumetric intensification potential of the technology, however, the NH3 slip reduction expected, because of the use of a dense layer more permeable to CO2 than NH3, wasn’t satisfying. Water condensation phenomenon in membrane contactors were studied with both experiments and simulations. It was thus showed that membrane pore wetting by condensation should not happened but gas-side condensation led to an important increase of the pressure drop with the potential of increasing compression costs. Experiments and simulations of the desorption of CO2 from a loaded aqueous ammonia solution with a membrane contactor were performed and important disparities were found between CO2 flux measured and simulated. A volumetric reduction of the membrane contactor when compared to the packed column was calculated highlighting the potential of the technology for the stripping step. In collaboration with the partners of the C2B project, in which this thesis is integrated, CO2 absorption essays were carried out on site with an industrial scale membrane contactor. The results of this pilot are consistent with laboratory results and encourages the transfer of the technology to the industrial scale

Este estudio investiga la conductividad térmica de fluidos de trabajo para ciclos de refrigeración por absorción activados por energía solar o calor residual. Una mezcla prometedora es el NH3+LiNO3. Sin embargo, el conocimiento de las propiedades termofísicastales como la conductividad térmica,son necesarias para un diseño adecuado de estos sistemas. Por lo tanto, en este trabajo se ha medido la conductividad térmica de esta mezcla con una fracción másica de amoníaco ente el 0.3-0.6 y temperaturas de entre 303.15 y 353.15 K. Los resultados obtenidos muestran valores bajos de conductividad térmica, y se sabe que la baja conductividad es una de las limitaciones principales en el desarrollo de los fluidos de transferencia de calor. Para superar esta limitación, se propuso la adición de agua o nanotubos de carbono a la mezcla binaria (NH3+LiNO3). Se ha visto que la adición de un tercer componente indica una mejora en la conductividad térmica en ambos casos. Las medidas de conductividad térmica se llevaron a cabo mediante el método transitorio de hilo caliente y dos equipos experimentales diferentes fueron diseñados y construidos en este trabajo. La incertidumbre en las mediciones se estima en menos del0.025 W•m-1•K-1. Por último, los datos experimentales se correlacionaron con un modelo matemático basado en el “local composition concept” y teniendo en cuenta el efecto de los electrolitos.
This study investigates the thermal conductivity of working fluids for absorption refrigeration cycles activated by solar energy or waste heat. A promising mixture is NH3+LiNO3. However, accurate thermophysical properties such as thermal conductivity are needed for adequate design, analysis and evaluation of such systems. Therefore, this property has been measured with ammonia mass fraction range from 0.3 to 0.6 and temperatures between 303.15 and 353.15 K. Results show low values in thermal conductivity, and it is known that low thermal conductivity is a primary limitation in the development of energy-efficient heat transfer fluids that are required in these systems. To overcome this limitation, the addition of water or carbon nanotubes to the binary mixture (NH3+LiNO3)was proposed. It has been seen that the addition of a third component indicates an enhancement in the effective thermal conductivity in both cases. Thermal conductivity measurements were carried on with the transient hot wire technique and two different devices were designed and built in this work. Uncertainty in the measurements was estimated to be less than 0.025 W•m-1•K-1. Finally, the experimental data was fitted with a comprehensive model based on the local composition concept and the effect of electrolytes.

Orientador: José Ricardo Figueiredo
Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Mecânica
Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-24T21:05:36Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Martins_KarlosRobertodaSilvaBraga_D.pdf: 3767166 bytes, checksum: 84dbe1fdd47e51f85b0bb9c1fdf09a4e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014
Resumo: Neste trabalho foi adaptado um programa computacional para o projeto e simulação numérica de diferentes configurações de ciclos de refrigeração por absorção utilizando a mistura água ¿ amônia como fluido de trabalho, visando aplicações em condicionamento de ar para setores residencial e comercial. Foram estudados os ciclos de simples efeito e duas configurações de modelos com Troca de Calor Gerador-Absorvedor (GAX ¿ Generator-Absorber heat eXchange), uma com absorvedor de dois estágios e gerador de dois estágios e outra com absorvedor de três estágios e gerador de dois. Foram utilizadas equações de conservação da massa total da matéria, do número de moles de amônia e de energia para cada componente relevante da máquina, relações de estado termodinâmico para cada ponto do sistema, bem como, equações de transferência de calor em termos de parâmetro globais, para relacionar a transferência de calor às diferenças efetivas de temperatura, empregando os métodos da Diferença de Temperaturas Média Logarítmica e da Efetividade. As relações de estado termodinâmico da mistura água-amônia são derivadas analiticamente de duas equações representando a energia livre de Gibbs em termos de pressão, temperatura e concentração para as fases de líquido e de vapor. O sistema resultante de equações não lineares foi resolvido pelo método de Substituição-Newton-Raphson. Os resultados de desempenho, de temperaturas e de transferência de calor nos equipamentos que compõem o ciclo foram obtidos a partir da variação de parâmetros operacionais tais como, temperatura do ambiente a ser resfriado, temperatura do ar externo e temperatura do fluido quente na entrada do gerador. Após isso, foi realizado um estudo de otimização do coeficiente de desempenho e efeito frigorífico do ciclo GAX a partir da variação dos parâmetros globais dos trocadores
Abstract: In this work a computer program was adapted for design and numerical simulation of different configurations of absorption refrigeration cycles using the mixture water - ammonia as the working fluid, aiming at applications in air conditioning for residential and commercial sectors. Cycles of single effect, Generator-Absorber Heat eXchange (GAX ¿ Generator-Absorber heat eXchange) with two-stages absorber and two-stages generator and the other with three-stage absorber and two-stages generator were studied. Mass conservation equations of mass and energy of ammonia for each relevant component ratios thermodynamic state for each point in the system were used, as well as heat transfer equations in terms of global heat transfer parameter, relating to heat transfer to the actual temperature difference, using the methods of the logarithmic average temperature difference and effectiveness. The relations of thermodynamic state of the mixture water - ammonia are derived analytically for two equations for the Gibbs free energy in terms of pressure, temperature and concentration for phases of liquid and vapor. The resulting system of nonlinear equations was solved by the substitution method-Newton-Raphson. The results of performance, temperature and heat transfer equipment comprising in the cycle were obtained from the variation of operating parameters such as temperature of the environment to be cooled, the external air temperature and the hot fluid inlet temperature generator. After that, an optimization study of the coefficient of performance and fridge effect was performed for GAX cycle from the variation of the global parameters of the exchangers
Doutorado
Termica e Fluidos
Doutor em Engenharia Mecânica

Made available in DSpace on 2015-05-08T14:59:43Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 arquivototal.pdf: 945763 bytes, checksum: fe2d85f78a6046f40c390d8192e6b90a (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009-04-24
Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior
The absorption refrigeration cycle studied in this work it uses as working fluid a mixture of water and ammonia and it is fed by thermal energy provided by direct burning of the natural gas. The objective is to produce cold in low temperatures for applications in the conservation of foods in general, especially in areas less favored by the electric net, as the fishing sector, or even for economical subjects of electric power rationing. The used cycle presents two sections of recovery interns of heat - one in the generator and the other in the absorber - for reduction in the amount of thermal energy supplied by burning natural gas directly. For a fixed temperature of cooling, the input parameters are optimized to obtain the best coefficient of performance based on the second law of thermodynamics. From the obtained results of the thermodynamics analysis, it is made the analysis of the transfer of heat for dimensionar the devices of the system where transfer of heat occurs. All simulation of the cycle was made with the creation of a code computacional in programming platform EES.
O ciclo de refrigeração por absorção aqui estudado usa como fluido de trabalho uma mistura de água e amônia e é alimentado com a energia térmica proveniente da queima direta do gás natural. O objetivo é produzir frio em baixas temperaturas para aplicações na conservação de alimentos em geral, principalmente em regiões pouco favorecidas pela rede elétrica, como o setor pesqueiro, ou mesmo por questões econômicas de racionamento de energia elétrica. O ciclo usado apresenta duas seções de recuperação interna de calor uma no retificador e a outra no absorvedor visando à redução na quantidade de energia térmica fornecida pela queima direta do gás natural. Para uma temperatura de refrigeração fixada, os parâmetros de entrada são otimizados até se obter o melhor coeficiente de performance baseado na segunda lei da termodinâmica. A partir dos resultados obtidos da análise termodinâmica, é feita a análise da transferência de calor para dimensionar os dispositivos do sistema onde ocorrem transferência de calor. Toda simulação do ciclo foi feita com a criação de um código computacional em plataforma de programação EES.

Esse trabalho constitui o desenvolvimento da modelagem térmica e simulação por métodos numéricos de dois componentes fundamentais do ciclo de refrigeração por absorção de calor com o par amônia/água: o absorvedor e o gerador. A função do absorvedor é produzir mistura líquida com alta fração mássica de amônia a partir de mistura líquida com baixa fração mássica de amônia e mistura vapor mediante retirada de calor. A função do gerador é produzir mistura líquido/vapor a partir de mistura líquida mediante o fornecimento de calor. É proposto o uso da tecnologia de filmes descendentes sobre placas inclinadas e o método de diferenças finitas para dividir o comprimento da placa em volumes de controle discretos e realizar os balanços de massa, espécie de amônia e energia juntamente com as equações de transferência de calor e massa para o filme descendente. O objetivo desse trabalho é obter um modelo matemático simplificado para ser utilizado em controle e otimização. Esse modelo foi utilizado para calcular as trocas de calor e massa no absorvedor e gerador para diversas condições a partir de dados operacionais, tais como: dimensões desses componentes, ângulo de inclinação da placa, temperatura de superfície e condições de entrada da fase líquida e vapor. Esses resultados foram utilizados para estabelecer relações de causa e efeito entre as variáveis e parâmetros do problema. Os resultados mostraram que o ângulo de inclinação da placa ótimo tanto para o absorvedor como para o gerador é a posição vertical, ou 90°. A posição vertical proporciona o menor comprimento de equilíbrio (0,85 m para o absorvedor e 1,27 m para o gerador com as condições testadas) e se mostrou estável, pois até 75° não foram verificadas variações no funcionamento do absorvedor e gerador. Dentre as condições testadas para uma placa de 0,5 m verificou-se que as maiores efetividades térmicas no absorvedor e gerador foram respectivamente 0,9 e 0,7 e as maiores efetividades mássicas no absorvedor e gerador foram respectivamente 0,6 e 0,5. É esperado que os dados obtidos sejam utilizados em trabalhos futuros para a construção de um protótipo laboratorial e na validação do modelo.
This work presents the development of thermal modeling and simulation by numerical methods of two fundamental components of an ammonia/water heat absorption refrigeration cycle: absorber and generator. The function of the absorber is produce high ammonia mass fraction liquid mixture from low ammonia mass fraction liquid mixture and vapor mixture by heat removal. The function of the generator is produce vapor mixture from liquid mixture by heat addition. It is used the falling film technology over Inclined plates and the finite difference method to slice the plate length in discreet control volumes and do the mass, ammonia specie and energy balances along with the heat and mass transfer equations to the falling film. The aim of this work was obtain a simplified mathematical model to be used in control and optimization. This model was used to calculate the exchanges of heat and mass of both absorber and generator in many conditions from operational data such as: components dimensions, plate angle, surface temperature and inlet condition of liquid and vapor phase. These results were used to establish relations of cause and effect between the problem variables and parameters. The results showed that the optimum plate angle for both absorber and generator is the vertical position, or 90°. The vertical position provides the smallest equilibrium length (0,85 m to the absorber and 1,27 to the generator in tested conditions) and it proves itself to be stable, because until 75° no variations in the function of absorber and generator were detected. Among the tested condition for a 0,5 m plate length the highest thermal effectiveness for absorber and generator were respectively 0,9 and 0,7 and the highest mass effectiveness for absorber and generator were respectively 0,6 and 0,5. The obtained data is expected to be used in future works for the construction of a laboratorial prototype and in the model validation.

L’étude de la pompe à chaleur à compression-absorption est motivée en partie par l'interdiction de production des fluides CFC depuis le 1er janvier 1995 et par les menaces qui pèsent sur les fluides HCFC. L’étude du cycle de cette pompe à chaleur électrique à haute température permet d'en faire ressortir les avantages avec l'utilisation du mélange eau-ammoniac. Une étude théorique démontre la supériorité du compresseur à vis refroidi par injection d'huile. L’étude de l'absorbeur et du désorbeur oriente le choix expérimental vers une technologie de film tombant sur un empilement de plaques ondulées verticales. Le projet expérimental est décrit en détail, et les premiers résultats d'essais valident le choix du compresseur. L’évolution de la modélisation ainsi que la recherche d'applications industrielles sont les principales perspectives

Dans cette thèse, l'objectif est d'évaluer les potentialités et les performances à attendre des procédés d'absorption de l'ammoniac et l'eau pour réaliser un transport de froid et /ou de chaleur sur long distance. Tout d'abord, il convient de présenter les systèmes déjà employés pour le transport d'énergie thermique à longue distance et comprendre leurs limites. Après cet état de l'art, le modèle mathématique d'absorption de l'ammoniac et l'eau est présenté. Les analyses des performances de transport de chaleur et de froid à longue distance avec tels systèmes sont détaillés. Les températures de fonctionnement et les rendements énergétiques attendus sont présentés. L'impact du transport des fluides sur les performances du procédé est étudié. Le coût du transport au niveau est évalué. Nouveaux cycles d'absorption sont envisagés pour la revalorisation de rejets thermiques basse température. Ensuite, un prototype de petite taille est installé pour vérifier expérimentalement la faisabilité thermodynamique. Pour compléter cette étude, l'analyse économique est réalisée
In this thesis, the object is to evaluate the potentials and the performances of the ammonia-water absorption processes in the transportation of low-grade thermal energy over long distance. First of all, it contains the already employed systems for the transportation of low-grade thermal energy over long distance and understands their limitations. After this state-of-the-art introduction, the mathematical model of the ammonia-water absorption system is presented. The analysis of the performance of the transportation of low-grade thermal energy over long distance with this kind of systems is detailed. The output temperatures ranges are presented. The impact of the transportation process on the performance is studied. The investment cost of the transportation pipes was evaluated. Novel ammonia-water absorption cycles are proposed for the revalorization of the low-grade thermal energy. And then, a small-scale prototype is installed to experimentally verifier the thermodynamic feasibility. In order to complete the study, the economical analysis is realized

Detta är ett examensarbete som genomförts hos Göteborg Energi AB och syftar till att utreda omkryogen uppgradering av biogas med fördel kan ske genom att producera nödvändig kyla medvärmedriven absorptionskylmaskin. Göteborg Energi är en av tre parter som tillsammans ska bygga enbiogasanläggning i Lidköping som ska vara i drift 2010. Anläggningen ska producera 30 GWhflytande biogas per år.

Arbetet utreder om det är fördelaktigt ur ekonomiskt, energimässigt och miljömässigt perspektiv attuppgradera biogas med kryogen teknik med värmeproducerad kyla. En jämförelse görs först medkryogen teknik där kylan är producerad med el och sen med andra uppgraderingstekniker. Som stödhar två olika processimuleringsprogram används, Hysys och DESIGN II.

Resultatet visar att energianvändningen ökar då värmedriven kyla används i jämförelse med kylaproducerad med el. 0,47 kW/Nm3 rågas för kryo med absorptionskyla och 0,29 kW/Nm3 rågas medel. Om det finns avsättning för spillvärmen kan energianvändningen i uppgraderingen minska till 0,29kW/Nm3 rågas och 0,15 kW/Nm3 rågas för systemet med värmedriven respektive eldriven kyla. Ijämförelse med andra uppgraderingstekniker ligger 0,47 kW/Nm3 bland de teknikerna med högstenergianvändning medans 0,29 kW/Nm3 placerar sig bland de teknikerna med lägstenergianvändning.

Resultat visar att klimatpåverkan från uppgraderingen, som kommer av metanslip och elanvändningen,minskar marginellt om kylan produceras med värme istället för el. Resultatet varierar mycket beroendepå hur koldioxidutsläppen från marginalelen beräknas. I jämförelse med andra uppgraderingsteknikerligger kryo lägre än de flesta andra. Undantaget är COOAB-tekniken som är överlägset bäst tack varalågt metanslip och liten elanvändning.

Ekonomisk jämförelse med andra uppgraderingstekniker visar att kostnaden för energianvändningenligger i samma nivå som övriga uppgraderingstekniker i jämförelsen, ca 0,03 kr/kWh uppgraderad gas.Om det finns avsättning för spillvärmen sjunker kostnaden till 0,024 och 0,02 kr/kWh uppgraderad gasför kryoteknik med kyla ifrån värme respektive el.

Min slutsats är att utnyttjande av spillvärmen är av stor vikt för att få god ekonomi och lågenergianvändning med kryogen uppgradering. En marginellt förbättrad miljöprestanda kan erhållas omnödvändig kyla produceras med värme istället för el då kryogen uppgradering används. Annars är detalltid mer fördelaktigt att använda el för att producera nödvändig kyla.

This is a master thesis that has been carried out at Göteborg Energi AB. It refers to investigate ifcryogenic upgrading of biogas with advantage can be done by producing necessary cold with a heatdriven absorption cooling machine. Göteborg Energi is one of three actors that together will build abiogas plant in Lidköping that will be up and running in 2010. The plant will produce 30 GWhliquefied biogas annually.

This thesis investigastes whether it is advantageous, to upgrade biogas with heat driven cooling, in aperspective of economy, energy use and environment. It compares cryogenic upgrading with coldproduced by electricity, but also by other techniques. Two different process simulation softwares havebeen used as support to this thesis; Hysys and DESIGN II.

The result shows that energy usage increases when the necessary cold is produced with heat instead ofelectricity; 0,47 kW/Nm3 rawgas for cryo upgrade with absorptions cooling and 0,29 kW/Nm3 rawgaswith cold produced by electricity. If it’s possible to use the waste heat to warm the digester, the energyconsumption for the upgrading can be reduced to 0,29 kW/Nm3 for the system with heat-driven cold,and 0,15 kW/Nm3 rawgas for cold produced by electricity. In comparison with other techniques forupgrading, 0,47 kW/Nm3 rawgas is a high value while 0,29 kW/Nm3 rawgas is among the lowestvalues for energy use.

The impact on the climate emerges from the use of electricity and when methane slips out from theupgrading plant. The result shows that the impact on the climate is slightly decreased for cryogenicupgrading when the cold is produced with a heat driven absorption machine instead of electricity. Theresult varies a lot due to how one calculate the emission of carbon dioxide from the electricity on themargin. In comparison with other upgrading techniques, the climate impact from cryogenic upgradingis less, other than the COOAB-technique that is superior because of its low methane slip and lowdemand of electricity.

An economical comparison shows that the cost for energy usage is about the same for cryogenic as forother techniques; approximately 0,03 SEK/kWh upgraded gas. If one can utilize the waste heat, thecost would be decreased to 0,024 and 0,02 SEK/kWh upgraded gas for the system with cryogenicupgrading with cooling from absorption machine respectively cooling produced with electricity.

My conclusion is that the utilization of the waste heat is essential if one wishes to get good economyand low energy use for the upgrading of biogas with cryogenic methods. A slightly increasedenvironmental improvement can be received if one change the cold production from electricity to heat,otherwise it is always more advantageous to use electricity for cryogenic methods.