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Jones, Rod. "A maximum price tariff." British Journal of Healthcare Management 16, no. 3 (March 2010): 146–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.12968/bjhc.2010.16.3.46824.
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Färe, Rolf, Hirofumi Fukuyama, Shawna Grosskopf, and William L. Weber. "Measuring Efficiency in Price Space with an Application to Japanese Securities Firms." International Journal of Operations Research and Information Systems 4, no. 1 (January 2013): 1–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/joris.2013010101.
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The authors exploit the duality between the directional output price distance function and the maximal revenue function to estimate the price efficiency of Japanese securities firms during 2000 to 2007, a period in which securities firms faced greater competitive pressures. The directional output price distance function gives the maximum feasible addition to output prices, given inputs and a revenue target. Output supply functions are theoretically derived from the directional output price distance function. The model estimates indicate that brokerage services are overproduced relative to underwriting services. In addition, they find that if securities firms were to become more efficient they could increase the prices charged for brokerage services and for underwriting securities, although the amount prices could be increased depends on the directional path used to inflate actual prices to the output price frontier.
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Sun, You Fa, Xiao Xiao Liang, Xu Chong Guo, and Cai Yan Liu. "Algorithm of Call Auction Price." Applied Mechanics and Materials 20-23 (January 2010): 981–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.20-23.981.
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Algorithm of call auction price is designed according to the determining principles popular in international stock markets. Basing on the algorithm, the roots of good characteristics of call auction are oriented in these principles. Theoretical analysis shows that: 1) by implementing principles of maximum volume, minimum residual, market pressures and reference prices, the candidate transaction price set of call auction is gradually narrowing, which indicates that the algorithm has good convergence; 2) principle of reference prices guarantees the uniqueness of final transaction price; 3) principles of minimum residual and market pressures contribute to reducing price volatility; 4) principles of market pressures and reference prices help to enhance the quality of price discovery.
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Bartiromo, Rosario. "Maximum entropy distribution of stock price fluctuations." Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications 392, no. 7 (April 2013): 1638–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.physa.2012.11.048.
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Chan, Daniel W. M., Patrick T. I. Lam, Albert P. C. Chan, and James M. W. Wong. "Guaranteed maximum price (GMP) contracts in practice." Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management 18, no. 2 (March 2011): 188–205. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09699981111111157.
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Woods, Jimmy C. "Maximum Profit without Calculus." Mathematics Teacher 81, no. 3 (March 1988): 224–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.5951/mt.81.3.0224.
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K. N., Chaithra, and Laxminarayana Kamath. "Cost variation analysis study of oral anti-depressant drugs available in India." International Journal of Basic & Clinical Pharmacology 6, no. 4 (March 25, 2017): 973. http://dx.doi.org/10.18203/2319-2003.ijbcp20171114.
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Background: Depression is a disorder of major public health importance, in terms of its prevalence and the suffering, dysfunction, morbidity and economic burden. In India, the overall prevalence of depression is reported to be 15.9%. Antidepressant drugs are available in many different brands and costs of all brands are different. Patients of depression have to take the antidepressant drug for a long duration, so cost of the antidepressant drug influence the patient adherence to treatment and it is one of the important part of rational prescription.Methods: The cost of a particular drug being manufactured by different companies in the same strength and dosage forms was obtained from “Current Index of Medical Specialties” July-October, 2015, and “DrugsUpadate.com”. The cost ratio and percentage cost variation was calculated.Results: The prices of a total of 28 drugs (22 single and 6 combination preparations) available in 64 different formulations were analyzed. In single drug therapy, among Tri cyclic antidepressants (TCAs), Reboxetine (2 mg) showed the maximum price variation of 900%. In SSRIs, Dapoxetine (30 mg) showed the maximum price variation of 2360%. In SNRIs, Venlafaxine (75 mg) showed the maximum price variation of 109%. In Atypical antidepressants, Bupropion (150 mg) showed the maximum price variation of 515.38%. In RIMAs, Moclobemide (150 mg) showed the maximum price variation of 246.15% and in combination therapies, Amitriptyline with Chlordiazepoxide showed the maximum price variation of 129.35%.Conclusions: This study shows a wide variation in the prices of oral Anti-depressant drugs available in India. Psychiatrist/ Physician should consider the cost while prescribing antidepressant drugs. India being developing country most of the people belong to poor socioeconomic status, so prescribing same generic drug with low cost reduces economic burden and improves patient adherence to treatment which results in better outcome.
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Venkatesh, R., and Vijay Mahajaim. "A Probabilistic Approach to Pricing a Bundle of Products or Services." Journal of Marketing Research 30, no. 4 (November 1993): 494–508. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/002224379303000408.
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The authors propose a probabilistic approach to optimally price a bundle of products or services that maximizes seller's profits. Their focus is on situations in which consumer decision making is on the basis of multiple criteria. For model development and empirical investigation they consider a season ticket bundle for a series of entertainment performances such as sports games and music/dance concerts. In this case, they assume consumer purchase decisions to be a function of two independent resource dimensions, namely, available time to attend performances and reservation price per performance. Using this information, the model suggests the optimal prices of the bundle and/or components (individual performances), and corresponding maximum profits under three alternative strategies: (a) pure components (each performance is priced and offered separately), (b) pure bundling (the performances are priced and offered only as a bundle), and (c) mixed bundling (both the bundle and the individual performances are priced and offered separately). They apply their model to price a planned series of music/dance performances. Results indicate that a mixed bundling strategy is more profitable than pure components or pure bundling strategies provided the relative prices of the bundle and components are carefully chosen. Limitations and possible extensions of the model are discussed.
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Shah, Nishita P., Aparna S. Chincholkar, Ranjit J. Wagh, and Waseem A. Siddiqui. "Cost variation analysis of antipsychotic drugs available in Indian market: an economic perspective." International Journal of Basic & Clinical Pharmacology 6, no. 3 (February 24, 2017): 684. http://dx.doi.org/10.18203/2319-2003.ijbcp20170837.
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Background: Pricing of drugs plays a very important role in a developing country like India especially in the management of chronic conditions. There exists a huge price variation among the different brands of the same drug. Hence this study was planned to find out variation in prices of antipsychotic drugs marketed in India. The objective was to compare the percentage price variation and cost ratio of various formulations of oral and parenteral antipsychotic drugs available in the Indian market.Methods: Cost of oral and parenteral antipsychotic drugs available in the Indian market manufactured by different companies, in the same strength, number and dosage form was obtained from http://www.medguideindia.com. The percentage price variation and cost ratio of each formulation was calculated.Results: Among the typical group of antipsychotic drugs, Tab Haloperidol 0.25mg shows maximum price variation of 650% and a cost ratio of 7.5 followed by Tab Trifluoperazine 1mg having a price variation of 555.5% and a cost ratio of 6.55. Among the atypical group of drugs, tab Risperidone 3mg shows a price variation of 2282.35% with a cost ratio of 23.82 followed by Tab Risperidone 4mg with a price variation of 1976.92 % and a cost ratio of 20.76.Conclusions: There is a wide variation between the minimum and maximum cost among the different brands of the same drug in the same formulations. Combined efforts are needed from the regulatory authorities, pharmaceutical companies, physicians and pharmacist towards controlling the prices and attaining maximum economic benefits for the patient.
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CARR, PETER, HONGZHONG ZHANG, and OLYMPIA HADJILIADIS. "MAXIMUM DRAWDOWN INSURANCE." International Journal of Theoretical and Applied Finance 14, no. 08 (December 2011): 1195–230. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0219024911006826.
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The drawdown of an asset is a risk measure defined in terms of the running maximum of the asset's spot price over some period [0, T]. The asset price is said to have drawn down by at least $K over this period if there exists a time at which the underlying is at least $K below its maximum-to-date. We introduce insurance against a large realization of maximum drawdown and a novel way to hedge the liability incurred by underwriting this insurance. Our proposed insurance pays a fixed amount should the maximum drawdown exceed some fixed threshold over a specified period. The need for this drawdown insurance would diminish should markets rise before they fall. Consequently, we propose a second kind of cheaper maximum drawdown insurance that pays a fixed amount contingent on the drawdown preceding a drawup. We propose double barrier options as hedges for both kinds of insurance against large maximum drawdowns. In fact for the second kind of insurance we show that the hedge is model-free. Since double barrier options do not trade liquidly in all markets, we examine the assumptions under which alternative hedges using either single barrier options or standard vanilla options can be used.
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Rogalska, M., and J. Żelazna-Pawlicka. "Analysis of the Distribution Influence of the Density of Cost-forming Factors on Results of the LCCA Calculations." Archives of Civil Engineering 65, no. 3 (September 1, 2019): 101–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/ace-2019-0037.
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AbstractThe paper evaluates the relationship between the selection of the probability density function and the construction price, and the price of the building's life cycle, in relation to the deterministic cost estimate in terms of the minimum, mean, and maximum. The deterministic cost estimates were made based on the minimum, mean, and maximum prices: labor rates, indirect costs, profit, and the cost of equipment and materials. The net construction prices received were given different probability density distributions based on the minimum, mean, and maximum values. Twelve kinds of probability distributions were used: triangular, normal, lognormal, beta pert, gamma, beta, exponential, Laplace, Cauchy, Gumbel, Rayleigh, and uniform. The results of calculations with the event probability from 5 to 95% were subjected to the statistical comparative analysis. The dependencies between the results of calculations were determined, for which different probability density distributions of price factors were assumed. A certain price level was assigned to specific distributions in 6 groups based on the t-test. It was shown that each of the distributions analyzed is suitable for use, however, it has consequences in the form of a final result. The lowest final price is obtained using the gamma distribution, the highest is obtained by the beta distribution, beta pert, normal, and uniform.
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Boukendour, Said, and Rahim Bah. "The guaranteed maximum price contract as call option." Construction Management and Economics 19, no. 6 (October 2001): 563–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01446190110049848.
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Chen, Guo-quan, and Eden S. H. Yu. "Input price, isocost and maximum output under fuzziness." Mathematical Social Sciences 13, no. 3 (June 1987): 243–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0165-4896(87)90032-1.
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Exenberger, Emil, Jozef Bucko, and Pavol Rabatin. "An assessment of consumer behavior in the quality to price relationship of tomatoes in the Slovak Republic environment." Journal of Eastern European and Central Asian Research (JEECAR) 7, no. 3 (December 1, 2020): 267–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.15549/jeecar.v7i3.528.
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The aim of this research was to compare consumer expectations of quality of tomatoes based on disclosed price and later estimate the unknown price of tomatoes based on its tasting. One hundred six participants tasted four types of tomatoes with disclosed prices and with unknow prices and fulfilled the questionnaire. We focused on analysing how recognition of prices affects customer behaviour and price estimation of additional products. Using descriptive statistics and machine learning techniques in WEKA software we got results. The findings of this study corroborate that the knowledge of current prices significantly affected participants’ perception of the quality of the tomatoes being tasted; affected 63,21% students’ maximum price limits that they are willing to pay for tomatoes and make 32,77% of students use known prices and its rounded values to evaluate prices of additional products.
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Bojnec, Štefan, and Alan Križaj. "Electricity Markets during the Liberalization: The Case of a European Union Country." Energies 14, no. 14 (July 17, 2021): 4317. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en14144317.
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This paper analyzes electricity markets in Slovenia during the specific period of market deregulation and price liberalization. The drivers of electricity prices and electricity consumption are investigated. The Slovenian electricity markets are analyzed in relation with the European Energy Exchange (EEX) market. Associations between electricity prices on the one hand, and primary energy prices, variation in air temperature, daily maximum electricity power, and cross-border grid prices on the other hand, are analyzed separately for industrial and household consumers. Monthly data are used in a regression analysis during the period of Slovenia’s electricity market deregulation and price liberalization. Empirical results show that electricity prices achieved in the EEX market were significantly associated with primary energy prices. In Slovenia, the prices for daily maximum electricity power were significantly associated with electricity prices achieved on the EEX market. The increases in electricity prices for households, however, cannot be explained with developments in electricity prices on the EEX market. As the period analyzed is the stage of market deregulation and price liberalization, this can have important policy implications for the countries that still have regulated and monopolized electricity markets. Opening the electricity markets is expected to increase competition and reduce pressures for electricity price increases. However, the experiences and lessons learned among the countries following market deregulation and price liberalization are mixed. For industry, electricity prices affect cost competitiveness, while for households, electricity prices, through expenses, affect their welfare. A competitive and efficient electricity market should balance between suppliers’ and consumers’ market interests. With greening the energy markets and the development of the CO2 emission trading market, it is also important to encourage use of renewable energy sources.
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GRECO, Anthony J. "A Concise History of United States Resale Price Maintenance Arrangements and its Current Status under State and Federal Laws." Journal of Advanced Research in Law and Economics 11, no. 1 (March 31, 2020): 26. http://dx.doi.org/10.14505//jarle.v11.1(47).04.
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Resale price maintenance (RPM), a form of vertical price fixing is the practice whereby manufacturers of brand-name or trademark goods stipulate and attempt to enforce minimum, maximum, or actual wholesale and retail prices of such goods as they progress through the distribution chain to the final consumers of said products.
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B., Kiran, Kala P., Chitra N. S., and Jamuna Rani R. "Comparison of different brands of centrally acting skeletal muscle relaxants: a cost analysis study." International Journal of Basic & Clinical Pharmacology 8, no. 6 (May 23, 2019): 1419. http://dx.doi.org/10.18203/2319-2003.ijbcp20192213.
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Background: Skeletal muscle relaxants are structurally distinct drugs prescribed for reducing muscle spasms, pain, and hyperreflexia. Centrally acting skeletal muscle relaxants are manufactured by various pharmaceutical companies with variable price. The present study, aimed to analyze the cost variation of various brands of centrally acting skeletal muscle relaxants, so as to help the physician to choose the cost effective treatment.Methods: Current index of medical stores (CIMS) April 2018 and online literature were used as information guide to review the prices of drugs used in the treatment of musculo skeletal pain and spastic neurological disorders.Results: Among anti spasmodic group, thiocolchicoside 4 mg shows maximum price variation of 337.5%, whereas carisoprodol 350 mg shows the least variation of 0.1%. It is evident from antispastic group that baclofen 10 mg shows maximum price variation of 93.91% and 5 mg of Baclofen shows the least variation of 11.22%. It is observed that, among anti spastic group, a percentage prize variation of 93.91 for 10 mg and 11.22 for 5 mg baclofen. Largest % prize variation is seen in metaxalone + diclofenac sodium (400+50) mg as 525% and the least variation is observed in tolperisone+ paracetamol (150+325) mg as 3.88%.Conclusions: Centrally acting orally effective skeletal muscle relaxants are commonly prescribed for painful musculoskeletal and spastic neurological disorders. Physicians should give due importance for the cost of the drugs while selecting appropriate drug for musculo skeletal disorders.
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Dökmeci, V. F. "Multiplant Location with Respect to Price-Elastic Demand." Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space 21, no. 9 (September 1989): 1169–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/a211169.
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In this paper a model is developed to determine the optimal location of plants by taking into consideration the price elastic demand, production cost, and transportation cost. It is assumed that demand is distributed unevenly. The objective is to determine the location of maximum profit. Each basic function is interrelated with other functions, and the location of maximum profit is a balanced situation of price, demand, economies of scale, and transportation cost. This situation results in a complicated function, and the solution cannot be obtained by techniques of direct calculation. Therefore, a stepwise heuristic approach is used. First, the number of plants is chosen and the allocation of plants is made with respect to a criterion of minimum distance. Demand and thus optimum locations are calculated according to different prices. The location of maximum net profit is determined for this particular number of plants. This procedure is repeated for a different number of plants. The alternative which has the maximum profit is chosen as being the best system.
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Guan, Xiaodong, Haishaerjiang Wushouer, Mingchun Yang, Sheng Han, Luwen Shi, Dennis Ross-Degnan, and Anita Katharina Wagner. "Influence of government price regulation and deregulation on the price of antineoplastic medications in China: a controlled interrupted time series study." BMJ Open 9, no. 11 (November 2019): e031658. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2019-031658.
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BackgroundIn October 2012, the Chinese government established maximum retail prices for specific products, including 30 antineoplastic medications. Three years later, in June 2015, the government abolished price regulation for most medications, including all antineoplastic medications. This study examined the impacts of regulation and subsequent deregulation of prices of antineoplastic medications in China.MethodsUsing hospital procurement data and an interrupted time series with comparison series design, we examined the impacts of the policy changes on relative purchase prices (Laspeyres price index) and volumes of and spending on 52 antineoplastic medications in 699 hospitals. We identified three policy periods: prior to the initial price regulation (October 2011 to September 2012); during price regulation (October 2012 to June 2015); and after price deregulation (July 2015 to June 2016).ResultsDuring government price regulation, compared with price-unregulated cancer medications (n=22, mostly newer targeted products), the relative price of price-regulated medications (n=30, mostly chemotherapeutic products) decreased significantly (β=−0.081, p<0.001). After the government price deregulation, no significant price change occurred. Neither government price regulation nor deregulation had a significant impact on average volumes of or average spending on all antineoplastic medications immediately after the policy changes or in the longer term (p>0.05).ConclusionCompared with unregulated antineoplastics, the prices of regulated antineoplastic medications decreased after setting price caps and did not increase after deregulation. To control the rapid growth of oncology medication expenditures, more effective measures than price regulation through price caps for traditional chemotherapy are needed.
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Lee, Jung Eun, and Leslie Stoel. "An unintended consequence of exaggerated maximum-discount tensile price claims." Journal of Product & Brand Management 25, no. 7 (November 21, 2016): 700–709. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jpbm-01-2016-1091.
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Purpose Retailers are known to present tensile price claims (TPCs) stating high discounts to entice shoppers. Prior research on TPCs suggests that high TPC discounts increase purchase intentions. However, the current study proposes, first, that the TPC discount shifts expected price discount (EPD) and, second, that the gap between the actual price discount and the EPD influence perceptions of the discount deal. Support for these propositions would suggest that high TPC discounts will only be effective when they closely match the actual price discount. Therefore, the purpose of this paper was to evaluate the effectiveness of exaggerated maximum-discount TPCs. Design/methodology/approach Two experiments were used. Study 1 investigated the effect of exposure to a TPC on EPD. Study 2 examined discount discrepancy as a mediator of the relationship between a TPC and consumer perceptions (i.e. perceived savings and price fairness) and purchase intentions. PROCESS and ANOVA were used for the analysis. Findings This research showed that exposure to a TPC influenced consumers’ EPDs. As TPC discount increased, EPD increased and the discount discrepancy (i.e. actual price discount minus EPD) decreased (and, in some cases, became negative). The discount discrepancy influenced consumer perceptions of savings and fairness, as well as purchase intentions. Consequently, when the actual price discount encountered was not as large as the advertised TPC discount, the results showed a negative, indirect influence of exaggerated maximum-discount TPCs on consumers’ discount perceptions, mediated by the discount discrepancy. Originality/value Previous TPC studies found that the size of the TPC discount positively influences consumers’ discount perceptions, implying that larger discounts are more effective. However, this approach does not take into consideration the notion that larger TPC discounts increase consumer expectations about the size of discount and these expectations are used as a frame to evaluate a discount deal. The findings of the current research show a negative, indirect influence of exaggerated TPC discount on consumer perceptions and purchase intentions through discount discrepancy. Therefore, this study provides a new perspective to explain the influence of TPC discount size on consumer perceptions.
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Oetama, Raymond Sunardi. "Analisis Titik Tertinggi dan Terendah dengan Model Stokastik pada Perdagangan Mata Uang Modern." Jurnal ULTIMA InfoSys 7, no. 2 (December 12, 2016): 106–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.31937/si.v7i2.548.
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The Internet supports a new era of trading online in foreign Exchange Market. One of popular pairs in this market is Gold which is paired with US Dollars or commonly coded as XAUUSD. Prices are drawn as candle sticks. These candle sticks have four data such as open, low, high, and close price. The highest and the lowest price are explored in this study using Stochastic. The highest and lowest price is interesting to be analyzed as Traders can make maximum profit by trading from the highest price to the lowest price or vice versa.
Index Terms—forex, gold, candle sticks, statistics, stochastics
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Tran, Dai Q., Alex Brihac, Long D. Nguyen, and Young Hoon Kwak. "Project Cost Implications of Competitive Guaranteed Maximum Price Contracts." Journal of Management in Engineering 34, no. 2 (March 2018): 05018001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/(asce)me.1943-5479.0000594.
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Bhandari, Prasan R., and Apeksha Bhandary. "Cost variation analysis of parenteral antibiotics in Indian pharmaceutical market." International Journal of Basic & Clinical Pharmacology 8, no. 11 (October 22, 2019): 2535. http://dx.doi.org/10.18203/2319-2003.ijbcp20194798.
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Background: The objective of the present study was to analyse price differences between parenteral antibiotics available in a tertiary care teaching hospital.Methods: The study was done in the Department of Pharmacology of S. D. M. College of Medical Sciences, Dharwad, Karnataka. Latest volume of current index of medical specialties or Indian Drug Review was used to analyze the prices of parenteral antibiotics.Results: Overall, prices of 17 single drug antibiotics available in 37 strengths marketed and 8 fixed-dose combinations available in 16 strength marketed were analyzed. It was observed that the maximum cost variation among the single ingredient parenteral antibiotic was with cefpirome 1000 mg. The price difference being Rs. 283 and the cost variation being 90.7%. The minimum price variation was seen with Ampicillin 100 mg of Rs. 4.3 and the cost variation being 40.2%. Additionally the highest price difference was also seen teicoplanin 400 mg i.e., Rs. 610 and its cost variation being 68.5%. Among the fixed-dose combination (FDC’s) the maximum price variation was observed in the combination of cefoperazone+sulbactum 1000+1000 of Rs. 340. Whereas the cost variation of the same was 212.5 %. The minimum price variation among the FDC’s was of the combination of ceftriaxone 250 mg + tazobactum 31.25 mg Rs. 3.3 and its cost variation being 7.9 %.Conclusions: Pharmacoeconomics facets must be taken into deliberation by healthcare practitioners while prescribing antibiotics to the patients for infectious disease treatment. This will assist compliance, reduce antibiotic resistance and treatment failure.
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Rzepecki, Łukasz, and Piotr Jaśkowski. "Application of Game Theory against Nature in Supporting Bid Pricing in Construction." Symmetry 13, no. 1 (January 14, 2021): 132. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/sym13010132.
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The problem of setting prices for construction works is significant for both the investor and contractor companies. The periodically occurring instabilities in the economy require investment process participants to perform detailed market analyses and assessments, as well as to monitor price forecasts in construction. It is only after such an assessment that it is possible within the framework of the initial assumptions for cost calculation to select the basis for setting prices and their levels. The identification and analysis of the risks related to uncontrolled price increases allow contractors to secure their businesses by developing bids that ensure maximum profit. In view of the above, this study proposes an approach based on the use of game theory against nature to identify the optimal variant of a bid estimate. The study considers price forecasts for construction products, which may reduce the negative impact in case the prices increase. The obtained results confirmed the effectiveness of the used decision-making support methods, indicating the optimal strategy to reduce financial losses in times of market instability. The proposed approach also allows for a balance (symmetry) between maximum profit and probability of winning the contract.
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Dimas, Athanasios, and Christos Genakos. "Exploring the Long-term impact of Maximum Markup Deregulation." Anali Pravnog fakulteta u Beogradu, no. 4 (December 18, 2020): 5–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.51204/anali_pfub_20401a.
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Do product market reforms have a lasting impact on the market? How does the adjustment path to the new equilibrium look once these reforms are implemented? Does it matter whether reforms are conducted under weak macroeconomic conditions? We examine pricing equilibrium, three and five years after the repeal of the maximum wholesale and retail markup regulation, in an oligopolistic and vertically non-integrated market in Greece, at the beginning of its economic crisis. Using a difference-in-difference framework, we show that market liberalization led to a significant decrease in both retail and wholesale prices and a shift to the left of the whole price distribution five years after the change, corresponding to approximately €212 million of added consumer welfare per year, or €1.06 billion in total over five years.
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Yan, Qiao, and Ming Shun Li. "Research on Price Prediction of the Land Transfer Based on the Maximum Entropy Method." Applied Mechanics and Materials 209-211 (October 2012): 1521–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.209-211.1521.
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With the rapid development of economy and the speeding-up market, the extention of construction land is inevitable and the land transfer price also becomes increasingly salient. There are many factors affect the price of the land transfer. In this paper the auther constructs the price forecasting model of land transfer using maximum entropy method and finally does the price projections calculation of land transfer with engineering examples.
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Yang, Qing Qing, Li Ping Xu, and Yue Yang. "Dynamic Pricing for Multiple-Class High-Speed Railway on the Internet." Applied Mechanics and Materials 253-255 (December 2012): 1263–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.253-255.1263.
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By incorporating a cumulative distribution function of the maximum permissible purchasing price, a discrete time dynamic pricing model is developed in which the high-speed railway can set its prices at the time of booking request arrivals. The dynamic pricing policy included suitable price for the opened booking classes with respect to different combination of booking statues and remaining planning time, and when to close those opened booking classes.
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Khula, Andile, and Ntebogang Dinah Moroke. "The Performance of Maximum Likelihood Factor Analysis on South African Stock Price Performance." Journal of Economics and Behavioral Studies 8, no. 6(J) (January 24, 2017): 40–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.22610/jebs.v8i6(j).1482.
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Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to explore the effectiveness and applicability of Maximum Likelihood Factor Analysis (MLFA) method on stock price performance. This method identifies the variables according to their co-movement and variability and builds a model that can be useful for prediction and ranking or classification. The results of factor analysis in this study provide a guide as far as investment decision is concerned. Stock price performance of the seven well-known and biggest companies listed in the Johannesburg stock exchange (JSE) was used as an experimental unit. Monthly data was available for the period 2010 to 2014.Details of a trivariate factor model is: Factor 1 comprises of Absa and Standard Bank (Financial sectors), Factor 2 has Shoprite and Pick ‘n Pay (Retail sectors) while Factor 3 collected Vodacom MTN and Sasol (Industrial sectors). The companies contribute 46.9%, 12.7% and 10.8% respectively to the three sectors and these findings are confirmed by a Chi-square and the Akaike information criterion to be valid. The three factors are also diverse and reliable according to Tucker and Lewis and Cronbach’s coefficients. The findings of this study give economic significance and the study is relevant as it gives investors and portfolio manager’s sensible investment reference.Keywords: Maximum Likelihood Factor Analysis, stock prices
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Nait Mohand, Nacim, Abdelhakim Hammoudi, Mohammed Said Radjef, Oualid Hamza, and Maria Angela Perito. "How do food safety regulations influence market price? A theoretical analysis." British Food Journal 119, no. 8 (August 7, 2017): 1687–704. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/bfj-12-2016-0594.
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Purpose This study is in line with the debate concerning the compatibility between the qualitative and quantitative food production objectives. The purpose of this paper is to identify the causal relationship that may exist between public food safety regulations (specifically, the maximum authorised levels of chemical or microbiological contaminants), and the expected price in the spot markets (wholesale markets, for example). Design/methodology/approach The authors propose a theoretical industrial economic model that identifies the causal link which may exist between public food safety regulations (e.g. the maximum authorised levels of chemical or microbiological contaminants), the expected price in domestic markets, and the rate of exclusion of local producers. This general model allows one to characterize the price formation process in markets subject to maximum residue level constraints by focusing on the role of the official inspection systems established by public authorities. Findings The authors show how strengthening official controls does not systematically impact negatively on producers’ participation and does not always decrease supply. Moreover, the authors show that reinforcing the maximum permitted contamination thresholds is not always sufficient for ensuring consumer health. Originality/value The originality of the model is that it shows how all variables (economic and sanitary variables) interact in the formation of agricultural prices and determine the final size of the productive system (number of active producers). The characterisation of the market price as a function of producers’ investment efforts and of the level of official control reliability allows one to determine both the total supply and the proportion of this supply that is contaminated (i.e. does not comply with the maximum threshold of contamination).
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Saputera, Denny. "Pengaruh Harga Minyak Bumi, Harga Bahan Baku Plastik Terhadap Return On Asset Pada Perusahaan Penghasil Bahan Baku Plastik." Jurnal Manajemen 9, no. 1 (July 1, 2019): 30. http://dx.doi.org/10.30656/jm.v9i1.1000.
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This study focuses on the effect of petroleum prices, the price of plastic raw materials on return on assets in companies producing plastic raw materials in Indonesia. This study aims to determine the high growth return on assets, making the companies that produce plastic raw materials will get the maximum benefit from the use or turnover of assets owned. If directly related to the relationship between the growth of petroleum prices, the growth of the plastic industry and growth return on assets has a relationship, namely plastic raw materials derived from petroleum, where the price of plastic raw materials becomes very sensitive to fluctuations in oil price movements which will affect the company's profitability. The Independent Variables used are Petroleum Prices, Naphtha Prices, Ethylene Prices, Polyethylene Prices, Ethylene Glycol Prices, Polyvinyl Chloride Prices, Propylene Prices and Polyproylene Prices. The analytical method used is multiple linear regression using the help of SPSS 20 software. The results of this study can be concluded that Ethylene Prices and Ethylene Glycol Prices have an influence on return on assets.
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Gedam, Sanjay, and Namita Barmaiya. "Cost variation analysis of oral anti-diabetic agents available in Indian market." International Journal of Basic & Clinical Pharmacology 10, no. 6 (May 25, 2021): 694. http://dx.doi.org/10.18203/2319-2003.ijbcp20212080.
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Background: The objective of this study was to analyze cost variations of oral antidiabetic drugs available in Indian market.Methods: An observational study was carried out using CIMS (current index of medical specialities), (July 2020 to October 2020) and 1 mg.com, where difference in the maximum and minimum price of a particular drug, manufactured by different pharmaceutical companies, in the same strength, number and dosage form was compared and the percentage variation in price was calculated. Data was analyzed using descriptive statistical analysis.Results: The minimum and maximum percentage price variation for different classes of drugs respectively is as follows- in single drug therapy, the price variation between a sulfonylurea group of drugs glibenclamide (5 mg) shows maximum price variation of 400%, while glipizide (2.5 mg) shows variation of 81.8%. In biguanides, thizolidinediones and DPP4 inhibitor groups of drugs, metformin (500 mg), pioglitazone (30 mg) and vildagliptin show maximum price variation of 334.78%, 307 % and 264.6% respectively. In α- glucosidases inhibitor group of drugs voglibose (0.2 mg) shows maximum price variation of 284%. In meglitinides group of drugs, nateglinide (60 mg) shows maximum price variation of 284.6 %. In combination drug therapy, glimepiride and metformin combination (2+500 mg SR) shows the maximum variation up to 352.8%.Conclusions: The percentage cost variation of different brands of the same drug manufactured in India is very wide and the reason behind marketing a drug should be directed towards maximizing the benefit of therapy and minimizing negative personal and economic consequences.
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Ramsey, A. Ford, Sujit K. Ghosh, and Barry K. Goodwin. "Rating exotic price coverage in crop revenue insurance." Agricultural Finance Review 80, no. 5 (May 1, 2020): 609–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/afr-10-2019-0107.
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PurposeRevenue insurance is the most popular form of insurance available in the US federal crop insurance program. The majority of crop revenue policies are sold with a harvest price replacement feature that pays out on lost crop yields at the maximum of a realized or projected harvest price. The authors introduce a novel actuarial and statistical approach to rate revenue insurance policies with exotic price coverage: the payout depends on an order statistic or average of prices. The authors examine the price implications of different dependence models and demonstrate the feasibility of policies of this type.Design/methodology/approachHierarchical Archimedean copulas and vine copulas are used to model dependence between prices and yields and serial dependence of prices. The authors construct several synthetic exotic price coverage insurance policies and evaluate the impact of copula models on policies covering different types of risk.FindingsThe authors’ findings show that the price of exotic price coverage policies is sensitive to the choice of dependence model. Serial dependence varies across the growing season. It is possible to accurately price exotic coverage policies and we suggest these add-ons as a possible avenue for developing private crop insurance markets.Originality/valueThe authors apply hierarchical Archimedean copulas and vine copulas that allow for flexibility in the modeling of multivariate dependence. Unlike previous research, which has primarily considered dependence across space, the form of exotic price coverage requires modeling serial dependence in relative prices. Results are important for this segment of the agricultural insurance market: one of the main areas that insurers can develop private products around the federal program.
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Niklas, Britta, and Wolfram Rinke. "Pricing Models for German Wine: Hedonic Regression vs. Machine Learning." Journal of Wine Economics 15, no. 3 (August 2020): 284–311. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/jwe.2020.16.
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AbstractThis article examines whether there are different hedonic price models for different German wines by grape variety, and identifies influential factors that focus on weather variables and direct and indirect quality measures for wine prices. A log linear regression model is first applied only for Riesling, and then machine learning is used to find hedonic price models for Riesling, Silvaner, Pinot Blanc, and Pinot Noir. Machine learning exhibits slightly greater explanatory power, suggests adding additional variables, and allows for a more detailed interpretation of results. Gault&Millau points are shown to have a significant positive impact on German wine prices. The log linear approach suggests a huge effect of different quality categories on the wine prices for Riesling with the highest price premiums for Auslese and “Beerenauslese/Trockenbeerenauslese/Eiswein (Batbaice),” while the machine learning model shows, that additionally the alcohol level has a positive effect on wines in the quality categories “QbA,” “Kabinett,” and “Spätlese,” and a mostly negative one in the categories “Auslese” and “Batbaice.” Weather variables exert different affects per grape variety, but all grape varieties have problems coping with rising maximum temperatures in the winter and with rising minimum and maximum temperatures in the harvest season. (JEL Classifications: C45, L11, Q11)
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Wang, Yi, Hui Wang, and Shubing Guo. "Research on Dynamic Game Model and Application of China’s Imported Soybean Price in the Context of China-US Economic and Trade Friction." Complexity 2019 (November 12, 2019): 1–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2019/6048186.
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China’s soybean price fluctuates due to the current economic and trade frictions between China and the United States. Brazil and the United States are regarded as two oligarchs in China’s soybean import market. A dynamic price game model is established, and price elasticity parameters are estimated by using statistical data and Rotterdam model. The stability of Nash equilibrium point is discussed through bifurcation diagram, maximum Lyapunov exponent, evolutionary trajectory, and time series diagram. The influence of price adjustment speed on equilibrium price is analyzed. The numerical simulation of price adjustment speed is carried out, which is compared with the actual situation of imported soybean price before and after the trade friction. The results show that the model constructed in this paper can reflect the changing trend of price and demand and predict the short-term import soybean prices of Brazil and the United States. The forecast accuracy of price fluctuation is high. The results provide model and theoretical reference for price game under trade disputes and provide methodological reference for forecasting the price of imported goods.
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Rödiger, Manika, Sabine Plaßmann, and Ulrich Hamm. "Organic consumers’ price knowledge, willingness-to-pay and purchase decision." British Food Journal 118, no. 11 (November 7, 2016): 2732–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/bfj-04-2016-0164.
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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to gain insights into organic consumers’ price sensitivity by investigating price knowledge, willingness-to-pay and real purchase decision. Design/methodology/approach Organic food consumers’ price knowledge, willingness-to-pay and real purchase decision were examined in a comprehensive field study with 642 respondents. An innovative method was used to collect data for products that were truly relevant to the respondents: before entering the shop, respondents were asked about the items on their shopping list, the prices they expected to find and the maximum prices they were willing to pay. If respondents stated a willingness-to-pay value below the actual store price, they were approached again after shopping to verify their purchase decision. Findings The great majority of respondents failed to estimate the correct store price. The deviation between the estimated price and the actual store price was on average 19.9 per cent. The respondents were willing to pay on average 52.7 per cent above store prices. It was revealed that in 67.0 per cent of the cases, respondents bought a product even though the store price was higher than the willingness-to-pay they stated upon entering the store. Practical implications Category-specific insights into price knowledge and willingness-to-pay of organic consumers might be used for price differentiation strategies. Originality/value To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study to investigate organic consumers’ item- and store-specific price knowledge, willingness-to-pay and real purchase decision in a single-source approach.
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Cahill, Nathanial, Michael Popp, Charles West, Alexandre Rocateli, Amanda Ashworth, Rodney Farris, and Bruce Dixon. "Switchgrass Harvest Time Effects on Nutrient Use and Yield: An Economic Analysis." Journal of Agricultural and Applied Economics 46, no. 4 (November 2014): 487–507. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1074070800029060.
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This article analyzes economic tradeoffs among harvest date, fertilizer applied, nutrient removal, and switchgrass yield as they vary with respect to input and output prices. Economic sensitivity analyses suggest that higher biomass prices lead to earlier harvest. Optimal harvest time occurs beyond time of maximum yield because nutrient removal in the biomass is an important economic consideration. Switchgrass price premia that reflect the cost of non-optimal harvest time are driven by standing crop yield loss, nutrient removal, storage loss, and opportunity cost. These price premia could provide a mechanism to compensate producers for alternative harvest times and aid with logistics management.
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Kumar, Rahul, Narendra Kumar, Akhlaque Ahmad, Manoj Kumar, Rajendra Nath, Rakesh Kumar Dixit, and Sarvesh Singh. "Cost comparison of antihypertensive drugs available in India with Drugs Prices Control Order price list." International Journal of Research in Medical Sciences 7, no. 1 (December 26, 2018): 101. http://dx.doi.org/10.18203/2320-6012.ijrms20185124.
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Background: DPCO (Drugs Prices Control Order) price list is issued by NPPA (National Pharmaceutical Pricing Authority) each year to guide the pharmaceuticals companies for controlling the prices in India. Some drugs cost more than the DPCO list. As antihypertensive drugs are taken lifelong once diagnosis is made, price variation and costing above prescribed price cause a huge economic burden on such patients. This study was undertaken to know the number of antihypertensive drugs brands with price above the recommended DPCO price list 2017.Methods: Authors have collected the data from website medguideindia.com, CIMS (current index of medical specialties), Drug Today, and compared the listed antihypertensive drugs of various available brands in India with DPCO price list 2017. Data was entered in Microsoft excel 2010. Percentage of selling price above the DPCO price list was calculated for each drug.Results: The data of 30 formulations of 16 antihypertensive drugs was analysed. The total number of available brands of all formulations was 1365 out of which only 831 (60.88%) brands were found to have price <DPCO recommended list. 534 (39.12%) brands had price more than the recommended limit. The minimum violation of price limit was found in case of metoprolol 25mg (6.66%) and maximum price violation was observed with spironolactone 25mg and sodium nitroprusside inj 10mg/ml.Conclusions: Reassessment and monitoring for implementation of DPCO price list should be done as still large number of brands are not following the regulations and are violating the limit set by NPPA/DPCO.
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Özsayın, Damla. "Investigation of Production and Price Relationship in Cow Milk Production by Koyck Model Approach." Turkish Journal of Agriculture - Food Science and Technology 5, no. 6 (July 14, 2017): 681. http://dx.doi.org/10.24925/turjaf.v5i6.681-686.1164.
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The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between the amount of cow milk production and its price in Turkey in the period between 1985-2015.The Koyck model that is one of the distributed lag models was used to analyse of these data. The production of cow milk was considered as dependent variable and the price series consisting of cow milk prices and lagged price series are considered as explanatory variable in the model. According to the results of Koyck model, it was determined that the production of cow milk was affected by the prices of maximum one year retrospectively and the time required to dramatically affect to production of cow milk of the change taken place in prices of cow milk was 2.9 years. Furthermore, the increase of 1 TL in price of cow milk decreases the production of cow milk by 183372.4 tonnes. On the other hand, the increase of 1 TL in prices in the previous period decreases the production of cow milk by 137345.9 tonnes. Based on these data, it can be said that the price of cow milk composed in the free market conditions is rather efficient in determination to production amount. In conclusion, economic measures such as making of production planning, constituting of efficient marketing opportunities, price policies and giving a place to stable production can be taken against to fluctutations in the price increases.
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Duan, Jin-Chuan. "MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD ESTIMATION USING PRICE DATA OF THE DERIVATIVE CONTRACT." Mathematical Finance 4, no. 2 (April 1994): 155–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9965.1994.tb00055.x.
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Shyam, Sharvari, and Bhavya Darshini Mahanthegowda. "A cost variation analysis of various brands of oral anti-diabetic drugs currently available in Indian pharmaceutical market." International Journal of Basic & Clinical Pharmacology 9, no. 8 (July 21, 2020): 1253. http://dx.doi.org/10.18203/2319-2003.ijbcp20203144.
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Background: Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disorder requiring lifelong treatment. There are a large number of anti-diabetic drugs available in the Indian market. The cost of drugs plays an important role in patient’s care, warranting the need for all physicians to keep themselves updated with the latest prices and price variation of various brands of anti-diabetic drugs. The objective of this study is to evaluate the cost of oral anti-diabetic drugs of different brands currently available in the Indian market.Methods: Cost of oral anti-diabetic drugs manufactured by different pharmaceutical companies in the same strength and dosage forms was obtained. The percentage price variation and cost ratio for each formulation was calculated.Results: In sulfonylurea group of drugs, maximum price variation was seen in glimepiride 1mg 1366% and minimum was seen in glipizide 2.5 mg 17%. In non-sulfonylurea group of drugs, a maximum variation was seen in metformin 500 mg 809% and a minimum variation was seen in acarbose 100 mg 10%. Among the fixed dose combination therapy, glimepiride 2 mg and metformin 500 mg showed the highest price variation 555% and pioglitazone 7.5 mg and metformin 500 mg showed the least price variation 8%.Conclusions: Our study showed that there is a very high price variation for oral anti-diabetic drugs by different brands. Since diabetes mellitus is a chronic illness, cost of the drug plays an important role in compliance to the treatment regimen. It is necessary to bring awareness regarding this wide variation in prices, such that the drug costs can be reduced and made more affordable to the common man.
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Fatikhah, Sabna Ainazah, and Siti Puryandani. "FAKTOR PENENTU BID-ASK SPREAD SAHAM LQ45." ECONBANK: Journal of Economics and Banking 2, no. 1 (April 29, 2020): 43–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.35829/econbank.v2i1.78.
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Investors always use various information to get the maximum profit in investment activities. One such information is the bid-ask spread. This study aims to determine the effect of company size, stock prices, stock price volatility and trading volume on the bid-ask spread of companies listed in the LQ45 index in the period 2015 to 2018. A total of 14 companies were taken as a purposive sampling sample in order to obtain 56 observational data. The analytical method used in this study is the method of multiple linear regression analysis. The results showed that stock prices and stock price volatility affect the bid-ask spread. While company size and trading volume do not affect bid-ask spread. Investors can consider the size of the company, stock prices, stock price volatility, and trading volume to avoid high spreads and get profit in the future.
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Devkota, Amrit, Anubhav Paudel, Bhawesh Koirala, Dharanidhar Baral, Swotantra Gautam, and Sanjib Kumar Sharma. "Variation in Price of Medicines and Free Medicine Availability for Treatment of Non-communicable Diseases in Public Sector of Eastern Nepal." Journal of Nepal Health Research Council 16, no. 2 (July 5, 2018): 118–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/jnhrc.v16i2.20295.
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Background: Nepal is witnessing rise in non-communicable chronic diseases. Costs of the medicine, availability of the medicine for free in public health sectors and variation of price of medicines may play an important role in the management of chronic disease. The study was undertaken to find out the variation in price of drugs used for treating non communicable diseases among private pharmacies and availability of free essential medicines in public facilities.Methods: Randomly selected 33 public health centers and 13 pharmacies were included for the study. Availability of free essential medicines for treating selected chronic diseases was assessed in public health centers and percentage price variation in various branded drugs used for treating these diseases was assessed at the consumer level.Results: Out of 89 different formulations, variations between maximum and minimum priced brands of more than 100% were observed in 37 formulations and that of > 200% in 22 formulations. Thirty-seven formulations had more than 100% inter-pharmacy variation. The most commonly available free essential medicines was 4 mg salbutamol (88.57%) while the least available free essential drug was levothyroxine 5 mg (9.0%).Conclusions: Considerable variation in prices is seen among similar drugs and in prices of same drug in different pharmacies. These factors may have implications in the management of chronic disease in Nepal offsetting the government’s effort to control chronic diseases.
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Rovbel, R. L. "Analyzing the Problems and Opportunities of Reference Pricing for the Use by State Government and Local Self-Government Bodies in Procurement Activities and Housing Development." Management Science 8, no. 2 (August 11, 2018): 44–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.26794/2404-022x-2018-8-2-44-51.
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The problem of increasing transparency and elimination of corruption component in procurement is the most acute in the recent 10 years. The purpose of this study is to analyse the changes in the methods of calculating the initial (maximum) contract price (IMCP) through the introduction of reference prices and the analysis of the possibility of using reference pricing in the residential real estate market in the construction of social housing by the state. For reference pricing, prices for similar products are used for comparison. To achieve the given goal, there was carried an analysis of the legal act in the healthcare sector, which entered into force in October 2017 (Order of the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation dated 26.10.2017 No. 871n “On approval of the procedure for determining the initial (maximum price) contract, the price of the contract concluded with a single supplier (contractor, performer), in the procurement of medicines for medical use”) and for the first time containing the concept of “reference price”, and also there were identified the main shortcomings of the existing unified state information system in the field of healthcare, which is proposed to be used as a basis for calculating reference prices and to other areas of procurement activities, in addition to healthcare. As a result of the conducted study, the methodology of reference pricing in the housing market was presented, and a proposal was made to attract evaluating companies and the institute of evaluation in general to carry out calculations on the economic value formation of different housing types for a particular segment of consumers. Transfer to the institute of evaluation of all issues, concerning reference pricing in the public housing construction market will enable to improve the level and quality of life of the population and to minimize the budget due to the increase in the price reliability level.
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Wang, Xue Wu, and Xiao Xin Zang. "Cooperative Pricing Decision Model in Supply Chain." Advanced Materials Research 228-229 (April 2011): 789–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.228-229.789.
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This paper considers a retailer who wishes to procure a kind of product to meet customer’s demand and shows that the supplier and the retailer’s cooperetive pricing decision . We gives the prices of Pareto optimal equlibrium and compares the prices with that of cooperative supply chain and find that noncooperative system profit is less than cooperative system profit. Furthermore, we shows that on some assumption, Pareto optimal price policy is equivalent to jointly decision policy, i.e., Pareto optimal price policy can reach the whole system maximum profit, and the numerical example indicates that with the retailer operating cost increasing, the total profit of supply chain is decreasing.
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Kiiver, Philipp, and Jakub Kodym. "Price-quality ratios in value-for-money awards." Journal of Public Procurement 15, no. 3 (March 1, 2015): 275–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jopp-15-03-2015-b001.
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This article presents a simple and objective formula to determine a tender's price-quality ratio, for the purpose of value-for-money awards, which is literally quality divided by price (Q/P). Most formulas used in public procurement today first translate prices into points, in a process which has several flaws, and in the end they do not produce any actual ratios, a fact which makes them less objective. To adjust the proposed Q/P formula to the relative weight of the price criterion from the buyer's point of view, all tenders start out with a fixed quality score to compress or expand quality differences between them. Tenders then compete for the remaining range of quality points up to the maximum, and in the end have their quality score divided by the price that they offer.
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Srivastava, Rohan, and Naresh D. Kantharia. "Analysis of price variation of some commonly used antibacterial agents." International Journal of Basic & Clinical Pharmacology 8, no. 7 (June 24, 2019): 1567. http://dx.doi.org/10.18203/2319-2003.ijbcp20192651.
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Background: Antimicrobial resistance is a serious problem. Resistance may develop due to irrational use including poor patient compliance due to prescription of expensive drugs. In present study, the variation in the price of commonly used antibacterial was analysed.Methods: The price of commonly used antibacterial agents listed in recent issues of CIMS and MIMS was analysed in respect of number of brands available, price range (10 tablets or capsules) and 1 ampoule or vial (parenteral preparation) i.e. minimum, maximum and average price and price ratio (maximum/minimum). FDCs and formulation with only 1-2 brands were excluded.Results: The number of brands of oral antibacterial agents varied from 3 (faropenem 200 mg) to 90 (azithromycin 500 mg). The maximum price variation amongst different brands was 21.64 for levofloxacin 500 mg followed by 14.28 and 11.26 for linezolid 600 mg and moxifloxacin 400 mg respectively. For parenteral preparations, the number of brands varied from 2 (gentamicin 80 mg) to 57 (ceftriaxone 1 g). The maximum price variation was 5.05 for meropenem 1 g followed by 3.69 and 2.63 for meropenem 500 mg and ceftriaxone 1 g respectively.Conclusions: A very wide price variation was observed amongst different brands of both oral and parenteral formulations of antibacterial agents. Prescribing expensive brands may lead to resistance due to poor patient compliance.
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Chai, Shanglei, Mo Du, Xi Chen, and Wenjun Chu. "A Hybrid Forecasting Model for Nonstationary and Nonlinear Time Series in the Stochastic Process of CO2 Emission Trading Price Fluctuation." Mathematical Problems in Engineering 2020 (August 4, 2020): 1–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2020/8978504.
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Predicting CO2 emission prices is an important and challenging task for policy makers and market participants, as carbon prices follow a stochastic process of complex time series with nonstationary and nonlinear characteristics. Existing literature has focused on highly precise point forecasting, but it cannot correctly solve the uncertainties related to carbon price datasets in most cases. This study aims to develop a hybrid forecasting model to estimate in advance the maximum or minimum loss in the stochastic process of CO2 emission trading price fluctuation. This model can granulate raw data into fuzzy-information granular components with minimum (Low), average (R), and maximum (Up) values as changing space-description parameters. Furthermore, it can forecast carbon prices’ changing space with Low, R, and Up as inputs to support a vector regression. This method’s feasibility and effectiveness is examined using empirical experiments on European Union allowances’ spot and futures prices under the European Union’s Emissions Trading Scheme. The proposed FIG-SVM model exhibits fewer errors and superior performance than ARIMA, ARFIMA, and Markov-switching methods. This study provides several important implications for investors and risk managers involved in trading carbon financial products.
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Sanyal, Prabuddha, Leonard A. Malczynski, and Paul Kaplan. "Impact of Energy Price Variability on Global Fertilizer Price: Application of Alternative Volatility Models." Sustainable Agriculture Research 4, no. 4 (October 13, 2015): 132. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/sar.v4n4.
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This study evaluates the effects of volatility in crude oil and natural gas prices on fertilizer price variations. Specifically, the study looks at the mean and volatility effects of oil and natural gas prices on both mean and volatility changes in fertilizer prices. Both symmetric models [GARCH (1, 1)] and asymmetric models [GJR (1, 1)] were used to model volatility in fertilizer prices and to evaluate the effects of the volatility over different time periods using Bai-Perron structural break tests. The results show that changes in oil and natural gas prices increased fertilizer prices after the crisis period, during June 2007 to June 2008. Both the ARCH and GARCH had significant effects on fertilizer prices, suggesting that the volatility effects of oil and natural gas prices on fertilizer prices were also significant. Furthermore, the maximum impact of higher energy prices depends on triple superphosphate and diammonium phosphate (DAP) leading to higher production costs and consequent increase in total farm expenditures for crop producers. These higher production costs invariably have a negative effect on farm profitability, thus reducing the investment levels in the farm sector.
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Füss, Roland, Jan A. Koller, and Alois Weigand. "Determining Land Values from Residential Rents." Land 10, no. 4 (March 25, 2021): 336. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/land10040336.
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The value of land is determined by the locations’ attractiveness and the degree of direct land use regulation. When regulations are binding, e.g., when a restriction on the maximum floor area ratio exists, the land price can be directly expressed as a function of the maximum floor area ratio and local amenities. We show theoretically and empirically how this approach can be used to determine land values from rental prices of residential structures built upon that land. From our empirical results, we derive two main sources for a monocentric structure of land prices. First, the location attractiveness of centrally located dwellings makes land prices more expensive. Second, as the maximum floor area ratio is high in central areas, the regulation works as a multiplier for land prices and inflates prices accordingly. Our model gives insights into the determinants of urban land prices and provides a useful approach for land appraisal in regions where land transactions are scarce.
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Sayman, Serdar, and Stephen J. Hoch. "Dynamics of price premiums in loyalty programs." European Journal of Marketing 48, no. 3/4 (April 8, 2014): 617–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ejm-11-2011-0650.
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Purpose – A loyalty program might influence buyer behavior in several ways. Prior research offers evidence that buyers might increase the frequency of purchases and volume per occasion in a loyalty program; however, the effect on buyers' price tolerance has not been studied before. The aim of this paper is to examine buyers' willingness to pay a price premium for a firm offering a loyalty program reward. Design/methodology/approach – An analytical model of dynamic consumer choice is developed, where one of the two selling firms offers a reward for a certain number of purchases. The maximum price premium that a normatively rational buyer should be willing to pay at each level of accumulated purchases is obtained. A price tolerance in controlled settings is obtained and these are compared with normative solutions. Findings – Analytically, it is shown that the maximum price premium increases as purchases are accumulated; and the exact solutions can be found, given the price distributions and program design parameters. In the empirical studies it is found that individuals' maximum premiums are less than the normative levels. On the other hand, as buyers accumulate purchases from the reward offering firm, and get closer to the reward, maximum premiums paid increase – particularly when the reward is immediate. Originality/value – This paper contributes to the loyalty programs literature by examining the price premium, or switching barrier, aspect of buyer response. Furthermore, the paper not only models and solves the normative strategy, but also obtains actual price tolerance in laboratory settings.