Journal articles on the topic 'The platform of Multi-Launcher Rocket System'

Abstract The transient impact load during the launch of a rocket at sea threatens the safety of the launcher and the deck structure of the launch platform. In view of the impact resistance of the offshore rocket launcher system, this paper takes the real-scale rocket launcher system as the research object and establishes the analysis model of the fiber-reinforced composite rocket launcher based on the finite element method. Then, we explore the factors of the thickness by finite element simulation method and the angle and the position of IM7 fiber-reinforced composite, which influence the impact resistance property of the rocket launcher. The results show that the fiber-reinforced composite rocket launcher can effectively reduce the impact response of the structure and improve the impact resistance of the structure. The best laying scheme is to lay four layers of IM7 fiber material on both sides of the panels of the fixed bracket and the webs of the erector, respectively, with a single layer thickness of 0.75 mm and a laying angle of [90°/∓45°/90°].

This paper presents an integrated radar-based military security system with a projectile-based rocket launching mechanism. For real-time object detection and ranging, the system uses an Arduino-controlled radar unit with an ultrasonic sensor fixed on a servo motor. The radar finds targets within its operational range by scanning a predetermined area. Automatic acquisition and processing of detected objects enables the rocket launcher to modify its trajectory for increased accuracy. Realtime data collection, processing, and control are made possible by the Arduino platform, which allows for smooth communication between the radar and launcher. The launching system's effectiveness is greatly increased in a variety of operational scenarios thanks to this automated integration, which enables dynamic target locking and trajectory correction.

The guidance system of the NERVA small space launcher is based on the six degrees-of-freedom information delivered by an inertial platform. Due to the main scope of the project sponsored by the Romanian Ministry of Education, Research, Youth and Sports to build a cost-effective space launcher, the inertial platform was built with extensive use of on-the-shelf, low cost inertial sensors and equipment. Concerns regarding the behavior and reliability of the sensing block were solved during the first flight experiment in June 2010, on-board the military, unguided drone missile RT-759-01 NERVA-1 and the results are described. The behavior of the electronics under the dynamical loads of the rocket flight, involving overloads of more than 20 g-s and the level of vibration during the real flight was the focus of the flight test, the first ever performed in Romania. The data were broadcast through a eight channel telemetry chain and received on the ground in two different locations for reliability enhancement. The data acquisition performed very well and supplied the basis for further development of the more accurate orbital injection guidance system of the NERVA launcher of small satellites in LEO.

Today, in the conditions of russia's open armed aggression against Ukraine and the intense multi-faceted struggle against it - armed, informational, economic, the Armed Forces of Ukraine have to create combat-ready groups of troops (forces) that must be able to ensure the fulfillment of the tasks assigned to them at a given level. Based on the experience of conducting hostilities starting from February 24, 2022, it becomes clear that one of the important components of the effective conduct of hostilities by troops (forces) is the timely and reasonable use of missile forces and artillery.
 One of the common effective and promising fire means of the field artillery of the ground forces is the reactive system of volley fire. Shelling from such systems not only destroys manpower and equipment, but also creates a powerful psychological impact on the enemy's personnel. So, despite the appearance of new modern means of destruction, rocket launcher systems will continue to play the role of a strong argument on the battlefield for a long time, and designers will continue to work on their further improvement.
 Today, systems of volley fire represent combat platforms that are widely used by the Ground Forces in conducting all forms and types of combat operations. Development of new, improvement of existing systems of volley fire, improvement of their combat effectiveness is an important scientific and technical task.
 The most important advantages of reactive systems of volley fire are the surprise of the attack and the high density of fire, which is carried out in a very short time on site targets with a high degree of damage, both offensively and defensively, in any weather, both day and night.
 In a number of modern local conflicts, aviation units for unguided air missiles of the S-5 and S-8 types installed on various self-propelled chassis were used as improvised systems of volley fire.
 But the lack of developed special sights and sufficient stabilization of unguided aircraft missiles during launch gives low accuracy. Therefore, the issue of increasing the accuracy and efficiency of the use of unguided air missiles from a wheeled (tracked) chassis requires further development.
 The article substantiates the need to create a light fire module for the use of unguided aircraft missiles from wheeled (tracked) chassis instead of using standard aviation units of unguided missile weapons, proposed solutions to improve the accuracy and efficiency of application.

In this paper, a PUU parallel machine tool with three translational degrees of freedom (DOF) is designed which is usually used in the complex grain machining of the solid rocket engine.， and its numerical control system is described in detail. The so-called “PC+PMAC” is used as the hardware platform, and Windows as the software one, the parallel machine tool NC system is built. The features, such as multi-axis motion control and fast real time communication of PMAC, software resources and efficient data processing of PC are utilized such that Man Machine Interface, position servo control, real time measurement of cutter configuration and closed loop control of the parallel machine tool are realized.

The input module of the NERVA space launcher guidance system consisting of the inertial and sensor platform is responsible for the basic accuracy if the ascent trajectory and injection efficiency. The sample rate magnitude and data filtering along the real time trajectory are the only tools available for improving the guidance accuracy up to the level of requirements to secure admissible orbital injection error and the subsequent flight corridor during the orbital ascent. Analysis of the NERVA-1 flight telemetry flow from the onboard inertial platform raises the problem of the optimal selection of the onboard sample rate and of the rate of telemetry, which are not identical. The orbit injection errors are chosen from the orbit altitude constraints and subsequent accuracy requirements for the inertial sensors are derived. They show that the accuracy requirements are moderate and may be covered with almost conventional sensors. To improve the flight guidance accuracy the rocket motor chamber pressure and thrust are measured and observation of the preflight zero drift, recording noise and of the high level of embedded noise during both powered and coast atmospheric flight is performed. Simple filtering based on frequency Fourier analysis is delivered with conclusions regarding the intelligent algorithm enhancement that are developed and implemented on the next generation of flight research drone missiles RT-759M NERVA-2, right in preparation. The main rationale of that algorithm stands in the method of discriminating between false and true information on each measuring point immediately after the data are delivered by the sensors. Learning procedure from previous preflight recordings and from gradual accumulation of concurrent data streams subjected to FF spectral analysis are combined to improve data filtering, for immediate release to the next module of the autopilot. The rate of sampling is optimized from the analysis of the previous flight, inertial data records and test stand pressure and thrust records that show the level of noise. The behavior of the electronics under the dynamical loads of the rocket flight, involving overloads of more than 20 g-s and the level of vibration during the real flight and other sources of measuring errors are also focused in the research. During simulated work of the sensor platform the algorithm has been acceptably validated and prepared for real flight test performance. Information important for the NERVA autopilot design activity is structured through the multiple variance approach.

The main issues associated with the development of two-phase mechanically pumped loops (2-MPL) for thermal control systems of spacecraft with large heat dissipation were formulated back in the early 80s. They have undeniable advantages over single-phase loops with mechanical pumping and two-phase capillary pumped loops at power more than 6 kW and heat transfer distance more than 10 meters. Intensive research and development of such systems started in the USA together with European, Canadian and Japanese specialists due to plans to build new high-power spacecraft and the Space Station Freedom project. In the 90's, S. P. Korolev Rocket and Space Corporation Energia (Russia) was developing a 2-MPL for the Russian segment of the International Space Station with the capacity of 20...30 kW. For this purpose, leading research organizations of the former Soviet Union were involved. In the last two decades, interest in two-phase heat transfer loops has significantly increased because of high-power stationary communications satellites and autonomous spacecraft for Lunar and Martian missions. The paper presents a retrospective review of worldwide developments of 2-MPLs for thermal control systems of spacecraft with large heat dissipation from the early 80's to the present. The participation of scientists and engineers of the Ukrainian National Aerospace University "KhAI" and the Center of Technical Physics is considered. The main directions of research, development results, and scientific and technical problems on the way to the practical implementation of such system are considered. Despite a large amount of research and development work done, there were no practically implemented projects of spacecraft with the high-power thermal control system until recent days. The first powerful stationary satellite with the 2-MPL was SES-17 satellite on the NEOSAT platform by Thales Alenia Space - France. The satellite was successfully launched into space on October 24, 2021 by onboard Ariane 5 launcher operated by Arianespace from the Europe’s Spaceport in Kourou, French Guiana.

Abstract In the case of a multiple-launch rocket system firing in salvo, the rocket gas jet with different spacing will have different effects on the launch box. In this paper, the multi-barrel rocket launcher launch box was taken as the research object, and the development process of the double-launched and four-launched rocket gas jet impinging launch box under different spacing was numerically simulated. The results showed that under the double salvo, with the increase of the emission spacing, the speed of the gas jet increased, the degree of mutual interference decreased, and the surface pressure on the launch box gradually decreased. A smaller emission spacing would form a stronger airflow interference. The change trend of the four-shot salvo was similar to that of the double-shot salvo, and the change of the phenomenon is more obvious. This study provides a useful reference for further understanding the salvo law of rocket launcher and provides strong support for improving the performance of rocket launcher.

Cansat is a CAN shaped satellite integrated within the quantity and shape of small can. It consists of multi disciplinary work including electronic circuit, design control and programming. Cansat is a payload whose body will consist of sensors and power sub system. In this project we use the cansat to study atmospheric parameters such as temperature and pressure using RF sensor and BMP180 respectively, which are embedded in Arduino and the data transferring is ensured by wireless communication module. The parachute is made using polythene material which consumes minimal weight within the cansat body. It is used to deploy cansat using the hydro rocket and launcher system. the hydro rocket is designed using optimization tools to deploy cansat at desired altitude to collect atmospheric parameters. Once the data analysis is done it can be used to determine the atmospheric parameters and its variations with respect to altitude.

This paper presents a servo control method for the multiple launch rocket system (MLRS) launcher during marching fire operations. The MLRS, being a complex nonlinear system, presents challenges in designing its servo controller. To address this, we introduce the fuzzy adaptive sliding mode control (FASMC) approach. The permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) and controller of the MLRS were simulated in the MATLAB/Simulink environment. The dynamic model of the MLRS during marching fire was established using multi-body system theory, vehicle mechanics, and launch dynamics. The dynamic model was then integrated with the FASMC-based controller using the Adams/View module. Numerical calculations were performed to demonstrate the control performance and the effectiveness and applicability of the proposed approach were validated through a comparison experiment between FASMC and other common control methods.

The purpose of this paper is to present some aspects regarding the computational model and technical solutions for multistage suborbital launcher for testing (SLT) used to test spatial equipment and scientific measurements. The computational model consists in numerical simulation of SLT evolution for different start conditions. The launcher model presented will be with six degrees of freedom (6DOF) and variable mass. The results analysed will be the flight parameters and ballistic performances. The discussions area will focus around the technical possibility to realize a small multi-stage launcher, by recycling military rocket motors. From technical point of view, the paper is focused on national project “Suborbital Launcher for Testing” (SLT), which is based on hybrid propulsion and control systems, obtained through an original design. Therefore, while classical suborbital sounding rockets are unguided and they use as propulsion solid fuel motor having an uncontrolled ballistic flight, SLT project is introducing a different approach, by proposing the creation of a guided suborbital launcher, which is basically a satellite launcher at a smaller scale, containing its main subsystems. This is why the project itself can be considered an intermediary step in the development of a wider range of launching systems based on hybrid propulsion technology, which may have a major impact in the future European launchers programs. SLT project, as it is shown in the title, has two major objectives: first, a short term objective, which consists in obtaining a suborbital launching system which will be able to go into service in a predictable period of time, and a long term objective that consists in the development and testing of some unconventional sub-systems which will be integrated later in the satellite launcher as a part of the European space program. This is why the technical content of the project must be carried out beyond the range of the existing suborbital vehicle programs towards the current technological necessities in the space field, especially the European one.

The development of modern reusable launchers, such as the Themis project with its LOX/LCH4 Prometheus engine, CALLISTO—a reusable VTVL-launcher first-stage demonstrator with a LOX/LH2 RSR2 engine, and SpaceX’s Falcon 9 with its Merlin 1D engine, underscores the need for advanced control algorithms to ensure reliable engine operation. The multi-restart capability of these engines imposes additional requirements for throttling, necessitating an extended controller-validity domain to safely achieve low thrust levels across various operating regimes. This capability also increases the risk of component failure, especially as engine parameters evolve with mission profiles. To address this, our study evaluates the dynamic reliability of reusable rocket engines (RREs) and their subcomponents under different failure modes using multi-physics system-level modelling and simulation, with a particular focus on turbopump components. Transient condition modelling and performance analysis, conducted using EcosimPro-ESPSS software (version 6.4.34), revealed that turbopump components maintain high reliability under nominal conditions, with turbine blades demonstrating significant fatigue life even under varying thermal and mechanical loads. Additionally, the proposed predictive model estimates the remaining useful life of critical components, offering valuable insights for improving the longevity and reliability of turbopumps in reusable rocket engines. This study employs deterministic, thermally dependent structural simulations, with key control objectives including end-state tracking of combustion chamber pressure and mixture ratios and the verification of operational constraints, exemplified by the LUMEN demonstrator engine and the LE-5B-2 engine class.

Abstract The HYDRA facility is a very large 6-Degrees-of-Freedom (DoF) hydraulic shaker located in the European Space Research and Technology Centre of ESA in The Netherlands. It has been recently used as test platform to perform a number of innovative, 6-DoF experimental vibration runs with the aim of assessing more flight-representative ways to dynamically qualify a spacecraft, hence reducing the level of conservatism. This paper focuses on the methodology behind the definition of the injected profiles computed by launcher/spacecraft coupled loads analysis, the performance achieved by HYDRA and its state-of-the-art MIMO control system, how the experimental data compare to the simulation ones, and aims also at defining success criteria for 6-DoF transient testing.

This paper proposes an improved wavelet neural network-internal model controller (WNN-IMC) for the rocket launcher position servo system. Due to complex nonlinearities and uncertainties of external disturbances in the rocket launcher position servo system, it is vitally challenging to establish its accurate model by the mechanical modeling technique. A wavelet neural network (WNN) identification method is proposed to determine the system mathematical model through test datum, which optimized by the hybrid algorithm of differential evolution (DE) and particle swarm optimization (PSO). Then, the proposed method is applied to identify the semi-physical simulation platform of the rocket launcher velocity servo system. The results demonstrate that the validity of the DEPSO-WNN method is better than that of the WNN and PSO-WNN methods. Finally, compared with the WNN-IMC controller and the ADRC controller, the effectiveness of the improved WNN-IMC controller is verified by the semi-physical simulation experiments.

This paper presents the system identification by physical-s law method and designs the controller for the Azimuth Angle Control of the Platform of the Multi-Launcher Rocket System (MLRS) by Root Locus technique. The plant mathematical model was approximated using MATLAB for simulation and analyze the system. The controller proposes the implementation of PID Controller using Programmable Logic Control (PLC) for control the plant. PID Controllers are widely applicable in industrial sectors and can be set up easily and operate optimally for enhanced productivity, improved quality and reduce maintenance requirement. The results from simulation and experiments show that the proposed a PID Controller to control the elevation angle that has superior control performance by the setting time less than 12 sec, the rise time less than 1.6 sec., and zero steady state. Furthermore, the system has a high over shoot that will be continue development.

Purpose The purpose of this study was to analyze the possibility of using combat aircraft including decommissioned as a platform for launching and carrying space rockets with satellites (nano and microsatellites). Thus, an airborne-launcher-to-space-system may be attractive to countries without ground-based space rocket launch sites. Design/methodology/approach For considered launch-to-orbit system configurations, simulations of space rocket effects on aerodynamic characteristics were performed using computational fluid dynamics (CFD ANSYS Fluent) methods. In addition, experimental studies were performed in a wind tunnel to verify the numerical simulations. Discrete models of the aircraft structure were developed for analysis using finite element method (FEM). The analysis of simulated structural properties of the models was carried out to test its stiffness and mass characteristics important for solving the static and dynamic problems of the structure. The validation analyses of aircraft models were based on mass distribution estimation and matching the stiffness properties of the individual airframe structural assemblies. Findings The results of numerical analyses and tunnel tests indicate that the influence of carrier rockets on the change of aerodynamic and strength characteristics of the airframe is rather negligible. The aircraft can be used as launching platforms for space rockets. Simulations have indicated that the aircraft will successfully perform a mission of taking away and launching a rocket of at least about 1,000 kg total weight with a 10 kg space payload included. Practical implications The combat aircraft can be used as launch platforms for space rockets, and the air/rocket set can become the equivalent of responsive space assets for countries with small space budgets. Originality/value The work presents original results obtained by the authors during a preliminary design of a low-cost satellite launch system consisting of a carrier aircraft and a space rocket orbiter. The possibility of using decommissioned combat aircraft as air-launch-to-orbit platforms was taken into consideration. In the absence of aircraft design documentation, reverse engineering methods and techniques were used to develop aircraft geometry and airframe strength structure. Use of CFD, FEM and simulation methods to evaluate system capabilities was demonstrated. Numerical results from CFD simulations were finally verified in experimental tests.

SummaryThis paper proposes a new algorithm to model and characterize an autonomous high‐power rocket using an indigenously developed graphical user interface (GUI) platform. This platform features a newly devised app, termed as THIEC Rocketry App which embeds the simulation based analysis to determine the design parameters of the rocket, required for a vertical flight. A solid propellant using potassium nitrate and sucrose, also known as rocket‐candy, is considered for the GUI development. The GUI facilitates the designer to specify the desired flight parameters for the rocket propulsion system. Various characteristic plots for visualization and analysis are made available in GUI. The obtained parameters from the GUI are then utilized in computer‐aided designing (CAD) for further identification of geometrical parameters like inertia tensor, center of gravity (CG) and center of pressure (CP). The mathematical control amenable model of the rocket is then developed using first principles so as to achieve an altitude up to 3 km. The overall system represents a complex nonlinear multi‐input multi‐output (MIMO) dynamics, having six degrees of freedom. The Newton‐Euler formulation is employed to develop the equations of motion. The attitude control using canards is analyzed via simulations for the complete flight path ‐ the boost and coast flights. Finally, the developed GUI based model is validated by practically manufacturing the components of the propulsion system for the small‐scale high‐power rocket. The proposed model will create the pathway for the development of some robust model‐based control schemes for such autonomous rockets in future.

AbstractThe SpaceLiner ultra-high-speed rocket-propelled passenger transport is in Phase A conceptual design. The ongoing concept evolution is addressing system aspects of the next configuration release 8. The space transportation role of the SpaceLiner concept as a TSTO-launcher is further refined and suitable precursor steps with expendable upper stages are investigated. In the central part of the paper, the separation of the passenger cabin and rescue capsule and its subsystems is systematically investigated for relevant emergency conditions. The separation process is studied taking into account multi-body dynamics of the up to three vehicles. A critical assessment of the baseline procedure and potential improvements of components’ design and sequences are discussed.

AbstractThe recognition of cutting state of coal-rock is the key technology to realize “unmanned” mining in coal face. In order to realized real-time perception and accurate judgment of coal-rock cutting state information, this paper combined the field test sampling, construction technology of complex coal seam, virtual prototype technology, bidirectional coupling technology, data processing theory, image fusion method, and deep learning theory to carry out multi domain deep fusion experimental research on multi-source heterogeneous data of coal and rock cutting state. The typical complex coal seam containing gangue, inclusion, and minor fault in Yangcun mine of Yanzhou mining area was taken as the engineering object. The high-precision three-dimensional simulation model of the complex coal seam that can update and replace particles was constructed. Based on the simulation results of Discrete Element Method-Multi Flexible Body Dynamics (DEM-MFBD), the one-dimensional original vibration acceleration signals of the key components of the shearer cutting part were determined, including spiral drum, rocker arm shell, and square head. After transforming one-dimensional original signal data into two-dimensional time–frequency images by Short-time Fourier Transform, morphological wavelet image fusion technology was used to realize the effective fusion of characteristic information of spiral drum, rocker arm shell, and square head under different working conditions. Based on the deep learning theory, the DCGAN-RFCNN (Deep Convolutional Generative Adversarial Networks-Random Forest Convolutional Neural Networks) coal and rock cutting state recognition network model was constructed. Combining convolution neural network with random forest recognition classifier, RFCNN coal and rock cutting state recognition classification model was constructed, and the recognition network model was trained to obtain the model recognition results. Through the comparative experimental analysis of the RFCNN network model with different recognition network models and different synthetic sample numbers in the recognition network, the effectiveness of the recognition network model was verified. The results show that: When synthetic samples are not included in each working condition in the RFCNN model, the average recognition rate is 90.641%. With the increase of the number of synthetic samples, the recognition rate of coal and rock cutting state increases. When the number of synthetic samples added to each working condition reaches 5000, the recognition effect is the best, and the average recognition rate reaches 98.344%, which verifies the superiority of enriching the data set by using the improved DCGAN network. Also, the RFCNN outperformed the other variants: it obtained higher recognition accuracy by 25.085, 21.925 and 19.337%, respectively, over SVW, CNN, and AlexNet. Also, the experimental platform of shearer cutting coal and rock was built, where the coal and rock cutting state recognition network was trained and tested based on the migration learning theory. Through the statistical test results, the accuracy of coal and rock cutting state recognition is 98.64%, which realizes the accurate recognition of coal and rock cutting state.

In the era of modern warfare, urban defense is a very important aspect to maintain the security and stability of a country. Because modern war is a non-military war in which developed countries and foreign countries try to destroy a country through ideological, political, social, cultural and security defense. To protect the territory with effective air defense, it takes a strong and sophisticated defense resources with a reliable range of surveillance and agility to destroy any effort that threatens the security and sovereignty of the country. To achieve the objective of building a more efficient air defense system and functioning alongside other air defense platforms, new ideas and thinking are needed for program planning and the requirements of medium-range missile systems when building an air defense system. The research method used in this research is descriptive qualitative through a literature study. In the literature review, it is necessary to conduct a thorough search to ensure that the literature sources used are truly relevant to the research topic and a comparative analysis approach is used. In the realm of analyzing layered weapon systems, such as Hisar O, Hisar A, Korkut Gun System, Iron Dome, and NASAMS, it becomes imperative to delve into the comparative analysis and interpret the implications of their similarities and differences. Hisar O, a sophisticated air defense system, showcases advanced capabilities designed to counter aerial threats. Its cutting-edge technology and robust infrastructure provide a formidable defense mechanism. On the other hand, Hisar A, another component of the layered defense, excels in short-range air defense, ensuring effective protection against low-altitude aerial targets. Korkut Gun System, presents a unique blend of artillery and air defense capabilities. Its adaptable nature allows it to provide ground forces with enhanced protection against a wide range of threats. Iron Dome system has gained international recognition for its exceptional performance in countering short-range rocket threats. This innovative system incorporates advanced tracking and interception technologies, enabling it to neutralize incoming projectiles with a high success rate. NASAMS (Nationals Advanced Surface-to-Air Missile System) stands out as a versatile air defense solution. Its state-of-the-art radar and missile technologies ensure reliable protection against a variety of airborne threats, including aircraft, helicopters, and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). Now, let's delve into the implications of these comparative analyses for Indonesia. By understanding the strengths and weaknesses of each system, Indonesian defense strategists can make informed decisions regarding their defense capabilities. This analysis assists in identifying potential gaps in the country's air defense network and formulating strategies to address them effectively. In conclusion, through a comparative analysis of layered weapon systems such as Hisar O, Hisar A, Korkut Gun System, Iron Dome, and NASAMS, we gain valuable insights into their capabilities and implications. evaluating differences and similarities, can help Indonesian defense planners make informed decisions to strengthen city air defense systems in the modern warfare.

Bearing is an important rotating support part of tyre unloader, and its fatigue reliability is an important part of the whole system reliability. Because of the huge alternating stress, the support bearing is required to have high fatigue life and reliability. In this paper, combined with stress-strength interference model and statistical theory, the life distribution of bearing steel material is predicted by using group test data; Based on the multi-rigid body dynamics and finite element numerical simulation platform, the reliability of the bearing of tyre unloader under different operating years was predicted by using the different dimensional interference model. The results show that the maximum resultant force of the bearing at the bottom rocker arm of the tyre unloader can reach 150kN, and the maximum transverse and longitudinal forces can reach 108kN and 78kN. When bearing the weight of the whole tyre and turning, the inertia force is the largest, the maximum stress value is 1316.2MPa, which occurs in the bearing inner ring and ball contact part. After the statistics, the stress amplitude distribution of the bearing conforms to Weibull distribution, and the life of the bearing follows lognormal distribution. After 105 tyre unloading, the fatigue reliability of the bearing is lower than 0.82, which is consistent with the actual working condition. Therefore, this model can be used to calculate the fatigue reliability of bearings conveniently and quickly, and provide certain theoretical support for the safety and fatigue reliability prediction of bearings.

Authors: Priyanka Sharma, V Bhalla, E Senthil Prasad, V Dravid, G Shekhawat & C. Raman Suri ### Abstract This protocol describes an optimized signal amplification strategy to develop an ultra-sensitive magneto-electrochemical biosensing platform. The new protocol combines the advantages of carbon nanotube (CNT) and reduced graphene oxide (rGO) together with electrochemical bursting of magnetic nanoparticles. The method involves synthesis of gold-iron (Au/Fe) nano-structures functionalized with specific antibodies to be used as nanobioprobes (Ab-Au/Fe). The next step requires the precise designing of the rGO/CNT nanohybrid sensing platform. The combined system offers the enhanced electrochemical properties giving a synergistic effect in electroanalytical performance of the resulting electrode material along with a large number of metal ions (Fe2+) available on electrode demonstrating ultra-high sensitivity of developed assay. This method provides a promising biosensing platform for environmental or clinical applications where sensitivity is a major issue. ### Introduction Graphene-based nanocomposite films have recently been used as enhanced sensing platform for the development of electrochemical sensors and biosensors because of their unique facile surface modification characteristics and high charge mobility (1-3). Zhang et al., have recently reported a hybrid film consisting of graphene oxide (GO) nanosheets together with the prussian blue films for electrochemical sensing applications (4). In a different approach, an in-situ chemical synthesis approach has been developed to prepare graphene-gold nanoparticles based nanocomposite, demonstrating its good potential as a highly sensitive electrochemical sensing platform (5). A GO sheet consists of two randomly distributed regions namely, aromatic regions with unoxidised benzene rings and regions with aliphatic six-membered rings making it to behave like an amphiphilic molecule (6). The oxygen containing groups render GO sheets hydrophilic and highly dispersible in water, whereas the aromatic regions offer active sites to make it possible to interact with other aromatic molecules through supramolecular interactions. This chemical nature makes GO a unique dispersant to suspend CNTs in water and to develop a new strategy for making graphene/CNT hybrids (7,8). Similarities in structure and physical properties between CNTs and graphene, their hybridization would presumably have useful synergistic effects in biosensing applications (9-11). Nanometer-sized magnetic particles of iron are potential candidates in catalysis, magnetic separation and biomedical applications (12). However, pure iron nanoparticles are chemically unstable and easily oxidize, which limits their utility in biosensing and other applications. These particles are therefore coated with another inert layer such as metal-oxide (iron oxide), inorganic material (SiO2), and noble metals (gold and silver), thereby making a core–shell nano-structure showing favorable magnetic properties of metal iron while preventing them from oxidation (13). Gold has been one of the potential coating materials owing to its chemical inertness, biocompatibility, non-toxic, and diverse cluster geometries (14). Very recently, inorganic or semiconductor nanoparticles tagged with receptor molecules has generated good interest for electrochemical detection of analyte (15,16). Anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV) has proved to be a very sensitive method for trace determination of metal ions liberated from nanoparticles. Recently, Liu developed multi-QDs functionalized silica nanoparticles based electrochemical amplification platform which dramatically enhanced the intensity of the signal and led to ultrasensitive detection (17). Our previous study reported the use of gold nanoparticles mediated ASV technique based upon oxidative gold nanoparticles dissolution in an acidic solution. The consequent release of large amount of gold (Au) metal ions after dissolution leads to the development of sensitive stripping voltammetry based immunoassay (18). However, it suffers from the use of strongly corrosive and hazardous agents such as HBr/Br2 for the oxidation of gold nanoparticles, which minimizes it’s usage in common lab practices. Although significant achievements have been obtained in this field, the finding of more sensitive, environment friendly convenient assay still attracts increasing interest where sensitivity is a major cause of concern, such as clinically important biomarkers or assaying environmental pollutants. In this protocol, we present a detailed and proven procedure based on metal ions derivatized electrochemical immunoassay format using specific antibody tagged gold-iron (Au/Fe) nanoparticles on reduced graphene oxide-carbon nanotubes (rGO/CNT) modified biosensing platform (19) (Fig. 1).  The use of core magnetic nanoparticles offers rapid immunocomplex formation on magneto-microtitre plates and their further electrochemical bursting into a large number of Fe2+ ions presented ultra-high sensitivity for diuron detection on SPE. Although this protocol has successfully been implemented for detection of herbicide diuron in environmental samples, yet the success of assay depends on the selection of bioreceptor (antibodies) used with respect to its specificity and sensitivity towards the target molecule. ### Reagents 1. Ferric chloride (FeCl3; Sigma Aldrich, cat. No. 451649) ! CAUTION Keep the container tightly closed and away from bright light; Corrosive to metals. - Ferrous Sulfate heptahydrate (FeSO4.7H2O; Sigma Aldrich, cat. No. F8048) ! CAUTION Skin irritant - Sodium Hydroxide pellets (NaOH; Himedia, cat. No. RM1183) ! CAUTION Highly corrosive and always store below 30 ºC. - Sodium citrate tribasic dehydrate 99% pure (Sigma, cat. No. S4641) - Potassium carbonate anhydrous (K2CO3; Qualigens, Product No. 19275) ! CAUTION Keep container tightly closed. - Sodium azide ! CAUTION Highly toxic - Gold chloride (Sigma, cat. No. G4022-1G) ! CAUTION Store in cool place. Keep container tightly closed in a dry and well-ventilated place. It is light sensitive and moisture sensitive - CRITICAL Prepare gold chloride solution in ultra-pure Milli-Q water (Millipore, India) having a resistivity > 18 MΩ-cm. - 3-glycidoxypropyltrimethoxysilane (GOPS) (Sigma, India) CRITICAL All glassware used for synthesizing gold nanoparticles were thoroughly cleaned and siliconized with GOPS solution. - Graphite Flakes (Reinste, Noida) CRITICAL Use 99% or analytical grade graphite flakes as their impurities may affect the subsequent formation of GO. - Sodium Nitrate (NaNO3) Fischer Scientific ! CAUTION Keep away from sources of ignition and keep the container tightly closed. - Potassium permanganate (KMnO4; Merck B. No. QK1Q612321) ! CAUTION It may cause fire when comes in contact with combustible materials. - Multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs); Nanoshel, India ! CAUTION Avoid breathing of its dust/ fume/ gas/ mist/ vapours/ spray. - Dimethyl formamide (DMF) Fluka ! CAUTION Harmful in contact with skin. - Skimmed Milk (Difco, cat. No. 232100) ! CAUTION Hygroscopic, keep container tightly closed. CRITICAL Always prepare fresh skimmed milk solution in 1 X phosphate buffer saline (PBS; see REAGENT SETUP). - Anti-diuron antibodies (generated in house) The specific anti-diuron antibodies were generated by immunizing New Zealand white rabbits (4-6 months old) with well characterized hapten-protein conjugate (23). ! CAUTION Always store antibody stock solutions at concentration >1 mg/ml in PBS buffer with 0.01% sodium azide at -20ºC. However, for short term storage, 4ºC is recommended. Avoid frequent freeze and thaw, make aliquots. ### Equipment 1. Freezer (− 70 °C, operating range − 60 to − 80 °C; New Brunswick USA) - Refrigerator (2–8 °C; Samsung, India) - Magnetic stirrer with hot plate Remi, India - Rocker Shaker (Genei, India) - Bar magnet (Dimension: 6” x 6”; 10 Tesla) - ELISA Plate washer (Biotek, Finland) - ELISA plate reader, multimode (Biotek, Finland) - Flat bottom microtiter plates (C96), Nunc, USA - Screen printed electrodes (TE 100), CH Instruments, USA - Electrochemical workstation (600D), CH Instruments, USA - Eppendorf microtubes (0.5 and 1.5 ml), Tarson, India - Micro-refrigerated centrifuge (SVI, Germany) - Incubator (Labtech, Korea) - Fume hood for chemical synthesis (Labguard, India) - Vaccum concentrator (Eppendorf, Germany) - Vaccum Oven (IEC, India) - pH meter (Century, India) - UV-vis spectrophotometer (Schimadzu, Japan) - FTIR spectrophotometer (Brucker, USA) - Dynamic light scattering (DLS) system (Malvern, USA) - Transmission electron microscope (TEM-Hitachi HD 2300A STEM) operating at 200 kV accelerating voltage - Scanning Transmission Electron Microscope, Atomic Resolution (A STAR) (JEOL JEM-2100F) equipped with Oxford EDS and Gatan GIF system for the atomic resolution Z-contrast imaging at sub-nanoscale resolution in point mapping and line scanning analysis - Atomic Force Microscope used in non-contact mode (Veeco, USA) - Contact angle measurements by Sessile drop method, DSA 100, DSA/V 1.9, Kruss Gmbh Hamburg - Raman Spectrometer (785-HP-NIR laser-1.58 eV), (Renishaw Invia, UK) - (SQUID), Quantum Design (MPMS, USA) - Microcal Origin software version 8.0 for detailed assay analysis - ChemDraw Ultra 11.0 for chemical structural drawing ### Procedure **Experimental design** **Ab-Au/Fe synthesis**. The Au/Fe nanoparticles were first synthesized by preparing Fe3O4 seeds using modified co-precipitation method20 which were further oxidized to encapsulate with Au shells. Various parameters such as Au/Fe salt concentration and time kinetics of the reaction were optimized to have monodispersed nanoparticles. These gold coated iron oxide particles were separated out from the solutions by using a lab magnet (10 Tesla). High resolution transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM) was carried out to characterize the surface morphology and elemental mapping of synthesized nanobioprobes. The line mapping and elemental composition studies of the selected nanoparticles confirmed the formation of Fe core and Au shell as single Au/Fe nanostructure (Fig. 2).  Functionalization of synthesized Au/Fe nanoparticles with specific anti-diuron antibody is dependent mainly on pH, ionic strength and hydrophobic attractions besides covalent binding between the gold and sulfur atoms. The ionic strength of antibody solution was kept minimum (10 mM) since the increase in ionic strength effects the reduction of the thickness of the electric double layer over charged surfaces, thus decreasing the electrostatic interactions between antibodies and nanoparticles accompanied by coagulation (21). The minimum amount of protein required to stabilize the nanoparticles was optimized by employing flocculation assay (22). The concentration of protein has a marked tendency for flocculation of nanoparticles in solution. A flocculation assay was designed by taking different concentrations of antibody solutions (0.1–1 mg/ml). 100 μl of each dilution was added to 1 ml of as prepared Au/Fe nanoparticles. After 15 min, flocculation was induced by adding 100 μl of 10% NaCl and absorbance was measured at 580 nm. The characterization of nanobioprobes was done with Dynamic light scattering (DLS), Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Atomic force microscopy (AFM) and Superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID) (Supplementary Fig. S1 and S2). A fully optimized protocol, both for the Au/Fe nanoparticles synthesis and their functionalization with specific antibodies was developed in this study. **rGO/CNT nanocomposite based biosensing platform**. GO was synthesized by the oxidation of exfoliated graphite using modified Hummer’s method (6) requiring ice bath and sonicator (1h, 96% power). Oxidation of GO has marked tendency over single layer GO film formation. Filtrate through anodized aluminium oxide (AAO) membrane with a nominal pore size of 0.02 μm yielded single layer GO thin film. rGO/CNT nanocomposite was prepared using well optimized concentrations of multiwalled CNTs and GO suspension drop-casted on working area of SPE (Fig. 3).  A potential reductive scan from 0 to -1.5 V with the scan rate 0.1 V/s was applied for the electrochemical conversion of rGO/CNT nanocomposites (Supplementary Fig. S3). The thus formed nanohybrid was characterized by Raman spectroscopy and contact angle measurements (Supplementary Figs. S4 & S5). Raman spectroscopy investigated the structural aspects of rGO/CNT modification on SPE. The experimental data was fitted using Microcal Origin 6.1 in order to elucidate the peak position and full width of half-maxima (FWHM) of D, G, and 2D bands. The contact angle measurements further revealed the hydrophilic/hydrophobic character of the modified SPE surface due to the decrease in value of the contact angle after surface modification with rGO/CNT. A large number of hydrophilic (-COOH) groups present in rGO and CNT makes the surface more hydrophilic resulting in reduced contact angle value. **Magneto-immunoassay optimisation**. A competitive inhibition immunoassay format was developed on ELISA plates with in-house generated hapten-protein conjugate and specific bioreceptor (anti-diuron antibody) (23). Concentration of nanobioprobes in the reported ELISA procedure was optimized. Nanobioprobe mediated immunocomplex formed on the plates were washed and acid dissolved for the desorption of nanoparticles from the immobilized antibody by using a mild acid (1N HCl) followed by partial neutralization with 1N NaOH. The electrochemical bursting of Au/Fe nanoparticles to release large number of Fe ions on rGO/CNT modified biosensing platform was optimized in terms of reductive scan (0 to -1.5 V). (Supplementary Fig. 6) monitored by differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) technique. Liberation of the large number of (Fe2+) ions were detected by their oxidation response on rGO/CNT nanostructured electrodes, which possess the enhanced electrochemical response due to the oxygen containing groups leading to rapid electron transfer (24). **Results analysis**. Calibration curve for diuron (standard sample concentrations between (0.01 pg/ml to 1 μg/ml) was established based on a semi-log plot method. Data analysis was performed by normalizing the absorbance values using the following formula: % B/B0 = {(I – Iex) / (I0 – Iex)} Where I, I0, and Iex are the relative current intensities of the sample, hapten at zero concentration, and hapten at excess concentration, respectively. The cross reactivity of the generated antibody was calculated by determining half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) for diuron and other herbicides, atrazine, 2,4-D, fenuron and linuron (Supplementary Figs. S7 and S8). **Procedure** **Synthesis of Ab-Au/Fenanobioprobes ● TIMING ~3 h 30 min** 1. The Au/Fe nanoparticles were synthesized by first preparing Fe3O4 seeds using modified co-precipitation method25 which are further oxidized to encapsulate with gold shells by following the steps given in Box 1. The synthesized Au/Fe nanoparticles were labeled with anti-diuron antibodies23 (generated in-house) as per the steps followed in Box 2. Box 1 | SYNTHESIS OF Au/Fe NANOPARTICLES ● TIMING ~1 h 30 min 1. Dissolve FeCl3 (1.28 M) and FeSO4.7H2O (0.64 M) in 1:2 ratios in deoxygenated water under vigorous stirring in nitrogen environment. - CRITICAL STEP Oxygen-free environment protects the oxidation of iron nano particles/seeds. - Add a solution of 1.5 M NaOH dropwise into the mixture followed by stirring for 40 min. - Black precipitate of magnetite formed which is collected by a permanent magnet. Wash the precipitate with deionized water. CRITICAL STEP Thoroughly wash the precipitate formed to remove trace amount of NaOH (reducing agent). - ? TROUBLESHOOTING - Reconstitute the precipitate 1: 200 dilution in deionized water. - Add sodium citrate (155 mM) slowly to the boiling solution under constant stirring for 15 min. - CRITICAL STEP Boiling of magnetic seeds are important before addition of gold and sodium citrate for the efficient coating of gold over magnetic seeds/nanoparticles. - Add 10 ml of gold chloride (10 mM) immediately into the oxidized magnetic solution on a stirring sonicator to encapsulate the iron nanoparticles with gold shells. - CRITICAL STEP Increase in the Au concentration in the Au/Fe ratio will lead to thicker gold shells thereby affecting the magnetic properties of NPs. - Collect Au/Fe NPs by magnetic separation followed by washings with deionised water and finally reconstitute in 0.5 ml water. - CRITICAL STEP The water used for the synthesis should be de-ionised, pH ~7.0, and having resistivity >18 MΩ-cm to avoid flocculation. - Characterise the synthesised nanoparticles by TEM/EDX. The Figure 2 indicates the inclusion of Fe core and Au shell as single Au/Fe nanostructure on the basis of point and line mapping studies. Box 2 | LABELING OF Au/Fe NANOPARTICLES ● TIMING ~2h 1. Prepare antibody solution (1 mg/ml) in PB - Add 100 µl antibody solution in 1 ml Au/Fe solution under mild stirring conditions. - CRITICAL STEP The minimum amount of antibody required to stabilize the NPs is optimized by flocculation assay (see experimental design). - Maintain the pH of NPs solution at 7.4 by adding 0.1 M K2CO3 before adding antibody solution. - Incubate the solution at 37 °C for 2 h followed by centrifugation at 12,000 rpm for 30 min to remove traces of unconjugated antibody. - PAUSE POINT May also be incubated overnight at 4 °C. - Wash the pellet twice with 10 mM Tris (pH 8.0) containing 3% BSA. - CRITICAL STEP The addition of BSA will prevent the aggregation of nanoparticles and will eventually increase the stability of the nanobioprobes. - ? TROUBLESHOOTING - Resuspend the pellet in 1 ml of phosphate buffer (pH 7.4) and store at 4 °C. 2│The synthesized Ab-Au/Fenanobioprobes are characterized morphologically by Scanning Transmission Electron Microscope. Further, size profiling of antibody tagged nanoparticles by dynamic light scattering system confirms the binding of antibodies to NPs (Supplementary Fig. S1). SQUID analysis also demonstrates the change in magnetic properties of Au/Fe NPs and their subsequent functionalization with specific antibodies. CRITICAL STEP For SQUID analysis, the samples should be vacuum concentrated and completely dry. **Development of Magneto-electrochemical immunoassay ● TIMING ~3 h** 1. Coat the microtiter ELISA plates with 100 µl of hapten-protein conjugate (10 µg/ml) prepared in carbonate buffer. - Cover the plate with an adhesive plastic sheet and incubate at 37 ⁰C for 2 hours followed by washing with PBST (three times). - PAUSE POINT Incubation can be prolonged to overnight at 4 °C - Block the unbound protein binding sites with 10% defatted skimmed milk (prepared in PBS) for 1 h at 37 °C. - Wash the plates with PBST (three times). - A competitive inhibition immunoassay format is developed by coating the ELISA plates with DCPU–BSA conjugate by following the steps given in Box 3. **Synthesis of rGO/CNT nanohybrid ● TIMING ~1 h** 1. Synthesize GO by the oxidation of exfoliated graphite using modified Hummer’s method6 from graphite powders using NaNO3, H2SO4, and KMnO4 in an ice bath. - Filter GO through anodized aluminium oxide (AAO) membrane with a nominal pore size of 0.02 μm. - Peel off the thin GO film from the AAO filter after air drying. CRITICAL STEP Vaccum oven can be used for the complete drying of the nanocomposite. - For preparing rGO/CNT nanocomposite, high aspect ratio (length: 15–30 nm and diameter: ~30 nm) pristine multiwalled CNTs and the above prepared GO in step 5 are dissolved in (1:1) DMF and water. - Sonicate the mixture for 1h at 96% power. - Drop-caste the 5 µl of the suspension on the working area of SPEs followed by incubation in vacuum oven for 1 h at 60 °C. - CRITICAL STEP Optimise the concentration of rGO/CNT nanocomposite on SPE on the basis of maximum current signal response using cyclic votammetry (CV) technique. - ? TROUBLESHOOTING - Apply a potential reductive scan from 0 to -1.5 V with the scan rate 0.1 V/s for the electrochemical conversion of rGO/CNT nanocomposites on SPE. - CRITICAL STEP Carefully observe the characteristic reduction peak of rGO/CNT at -0.5V (Supplementary Fig. S2). If the peak is not observed check the contacts with SPE and repeat the reduction scan. - Characterize the thus formed nanohybrid by TEM and Raman spectroscopy. For characterization, samples are prepared electrochemically on Indium tin oxide (ITO) coated glass by applying the potential between 0 to -1.5 V. - Raman spectra of first order scattering (D and G peaks) are observed around 1350 cm-1 and 1600 cm-1 respectively (Supplementary Fig. S4). - Completely dry the samples in vacuum oven for 1h at ~60 ºC. Scrap off the samples from the surface followed by TEM analysis on a carbon coated copper grid (#300 mesh) dropcasted with sample followed by drying in air for 15 min. The micrograph of the nanocomposite display a view of CNT bundles attached to GO layer indicating the formation of rGO/CNT nanocomposite (inset of Fig. 3a). - Use the characterized rGO/CNT modified SPE for DPV measurements in the development of immunoassay using varying concentrations of diuron. Box 3 | IMMUNOCOMPLEX FORMATION AND ASSAY DEVELOPMENT ● TIMING ~45 min 1. Mix as prepared Ab-Au/Fe nanobioprobes (1:5 dilution) with varying concentrations of diuron (0.01 pg/ml – 1 μg/ml); 50 µl of mixture added into each well of microtiter plate and subsequently incubated for 20 min at RT. - A strong magnet kept beneath the plate speed up the immunocomplex formation which is separated. - Wash the immunocomplex formed on the plates with PB. PAUSE POINT The plates can be stored at 4 ºC. - Dissociate the bound immobilized antibody complex from plate with 0.1N HCl followed by partial neutralization with 0.1 N NaOH to retain pH ~5.2. - Transfer the solution (50 µl) to rGO/CNT modified SPE surface, as prepared in steps 8-14. - Apply a reductive scan (0 to -1.5 V) which will eventually burst Fe2O3 nanoparticles into large number of metal ions (Fe2+) by applying a potential sweep between 0 to -1.6 V vs. Ag/AgCl. - CRITICAL STEP Observe a characteristic broad reductive peak at -0.75 V as shown in inset of supplementary fig. S6. - Use differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) at amplitude 50 mV, pulse width 0.2 s, pulse period 0.5 s. using the electrochemical workstation. ### Troubleshooting - Box 1 - Step 3 No black color precipitate formed Rusting of Magnetic seeds during reaction Carry out the synthesis of magnetic seeds in deoxygenated environmemt - Box 2 - Step 5 Aggregation of synthesized nanobioprobes Excessive concentration of antibody if added. Optimum concentration of antibody should be added into NPs solution after employing critical flocculation assay. - Step 13 Decreased current signal of rGO/CNT modified sensors than bare SPE The concentration of the nanocomposite on SPE may be too high or too low Varying concentrations of nanocomposite (0.1-10 µg/ml) can be used for optimization. ### Anticipated Results The developed sensing platform combines the advantages of GO and CNT nanohybrid offering enhanced electrochemical properties giving a synergistic effect in electroanalytical performance of the resulting electrode material along with a large number of metal ions (Fe2+) available on electrode which are detected by differential pulse voltammetry technique (Fig. 4a,b). This combined strategy successfully enhanced the immunoassay sensitivity, and thus provides a novel promising platform for environmental or clinical applications where sensitivity is a major issue.  ### References 1. 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Enhancing electrochemical detection on graphene oxide-CNT nanostructured electrodes using magneto-nanobioprobes. *Scientific Report* 2, 877 (2012). - Huang, C., Jiang, J., Muangphat, C., Sun, X. & Hao, Y. Trapping Iron Oxide into Hollow Gold Nanoparticles. *Nanoscale Res. Lett*. 6, 43 (2011). - Hainfeld, J. F. & Powell, R.D. New frontiers in gold labeling. *J. Histochem. Cytochem*. 48, 471–480 (2000). - Wangoo, N., Bhasin, K.K., Mehta, S.K., & Suri, C.R. Synthesis and capping of water-dispersed gold nanoparticles by an amino acid: bioconjugation and binding studies. *J. Colld. Inter. Sci*., 323(2), 247-254(2008). - Sharma, P. & Suri, C.R. Biotransformation and biomonitoring of phenylurea herbicide diuron. *Bioresource Tech*. 102, 3119-3125 (2011). - Wong, J.W.C., Fang, M., Zhao, Z. & Xing, B. Effect of surfactants on solubilisation and degradation of phenanthrene under thermophilic conditions. *J. Environ. Qual*. 33, 2015–2025 (2004). - Gupta, A.K. & Gupta, M. Synthesis and surface engineering of iron oxide nanoparticles for biomedical applications. *Biomaterials*, 26, 3995-4021 (2005). ### Acknowledgements The authors greatly acknowledge NUANCE, NWU, IL for carrying out TEM/EDX imaging. Authors also acknowledge Jiaxing Huang and Laura Cote, NWU, IL for valuable suggestions and discussions on GO synthesis. ### Figures **Figure 1: Schematic illustration of the optimised nanohybrid biosensing systems**  *Schematic illustration of the optimised nanohybrid biosensing systems. The method involves synthesis of Au/Fe nanoparticles functionalised with specific antibodies used as nanobioprobes and their subsequent metal ion sensing on rGO/CNT nanostructured electrodes. Microtiter ELISA plates were coated with 100 µl of hapten-protein conjugate (10 µg/ml) prepared in carbonate buffer and subsequently immunocomplex was formed with different concentrations of diuron sample in competitive ELISA approach. Electrochemical bursting of nanoparticles releasing large number of Fe2+ ions presented ultra-high sensitivity for diuron detection on SPE*. *Figure from reference 19: Sharma, P., Bhalla, V., Dravid, V., Shekhawat,G., Wu, J., Prasad, E. S., Suri, C. R. Enhancing electrochemical detection on graphene oxide-CNT nanostructured electrodes using magneto-nanobioprobes. Scientific Report 2, 877 (2012)*. **Figure 2: TEM micrographs of Au/Fe nanoparticles**  *(a) TEM micrograph of Au/Fe nanoparticles showing the morphology of the synthesized Au/Fe nanoparticles with an approximate dia of ~30 nm (b) The line map curve showing the ratio of Au:Fe found to be nearly 11:1 in a single selected nanoparticle (c) EDX spectra of the whole scan area showing Au LR, Au Lâ, Fe KR, and Fe Kâ lines at 9.8 keV, 11.6 keV, 6.4 keV, and 7.0 keV respectively (d) The whole area mapping analysis of nanoparticles in dark field showing the distribution of Fe and Au in the synthesized nanoparticles. In (e) and (f) pink and red dots represent Fe and Au respectively* *Figure from reference 19: Sharma, P., Bhalla, V., Dravid, V., Shekhawat,G., Wu, J., Prasad, E. S., Suri, C. R. Enhancing electrochemical detection on graphene oxide-CNT nanostructured electrodes using magneto-nanobioprobes. Scientific Report 2, 877 (2012)*. **Figure 3: Cyclic voltammograms of nanocomposite formed on SPE**  *(a) Cyclic voltammograms (CV) of rGO, CNT and rGO/CNT nanocomposite formed on SPE using 2.5 mM ferrocyanide solution prepared in PBS. Inset of the figure shows the TEM characterization of rGO/CNT nanocomposite. The corresponding CV scans recorded for the redox of small ion (Fe2+) for rGO/CNT showed maximum current signal for anodic and cathodic peak currents for the first reductive scan as compared to GO and CNTs dropcasted individually on separate electrodes and further reduced electrochemically. In figure b, CV scans recorded at different scan rates from 25 to 200 mV/s. The anodic potential shifts more towards the positive potential and the cathodic peak potential shifts in the reverse direction with increase in higher scan rate* *Figure from reference 19: Sharma, P., Bhalla, V., Dravid, V., Shekhawat,G., Wu, J., Prasad, E. S., Suri, C. R. Enhancing electrochemical detection on graphene oxide-CNT nanostructured electrodes using magneto-nanobioprobes. Scientific Report 2, 877 (2012)*. **Figure 4: Magneto-electrochemical immunoassay format using modified SPE**  *(a) Response curves of rGO/CNT modified SPE The signal response was measured by a differential pulse voltammetry technique at amplitude 50 mV, pulse width 0.2 s, pulse period 0.5 s. (b) Competitive inhibition response curve for diuron at different concentrations from 0.01 pg/ml to 1 µg/ml (a to h). Analysis of the competitive inhibition assay data was performed by normalizing the absorbance (Fig. 4ii). The developed immunoassay showed excellent sensitivity and specificity demonstrating detection limit upto 0.1 pg/ml (sub-ppt) for diuron samples with high degree of reproducibility (n=3)* *Figure from reference 19: Sharma, P., Bhalla, V., Dravid, V., Shekhawat,G., Wu, J., Prasad, E. S., Suri, C. R. Enhancing electrochemical detection on graphene oxide-CNT nanostructured electrodes using magneto-nanobioprobes. Scientific Report 2, 877 (2012)*. **Supplementary document: Supplementary document** [Download Supplementary document](http://www.nature.com/protocolexchange/system/uploads/2359/original/supporting_info.doc?1354775056) ### Associated Publications **Enhancing electrochemical detection on graphene oxide-CNT nanostructured electrodes using magneto-nanobioprobes**. Priyanka Sharma, Vijayender Bhalla, Vinayak Dravid, Gajendera Shekhawat, Jinsong-Wu, E. Senthil Prasad, and C. Raman Suri. *Scientific Reports* 2() 19/11/2012 [doi:10.1038/srep00877](http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/srep00877) ### Author information **Priyanka Sharma, V Bhalla, E Senthil Prasad & C. Raman Suri**, IMTECH V Dravid & G Shekhawat, NWU, IL Correspondence to: C. Raman Suri (raman@imtech.res.in) *Source: [Protocol Exchange](http://www.nature.com/protocolexchange/protocols/2535) (2012) doi:10.1038/protex.2012.059. Originally published online 6 December 2012*.


 
 
 On the morning of Thursday, 4 May 2006, the United States House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence held an open hearing entitled “Terrorist Use of the Internet.” The Intelligence committee meeting was scheduled to take place in Room 1302 of the Longworth Office Building, a Depression-era structure with a neoclassical façade. Because of a dysfunctional elevator, some of the congressional representatives were late to the meeting. During the testimony about the newest political applications for cutting-edge digital technology, the microphones periodically malfunctioned, and witnesses complained of “technical problems” several times. By the end of the day it seemed that what was to be remembered about the hearing was the shocking revelation that terrorists were using videogames to recruit young jihadists. The Associated Press wrote a short, restrained article about the hearing that only mentioned “computer games and recruitment videos” in passing. Eager to have their version of the news item picked up, Reuters made videogames the focus of their coverage with a headline that announced, “Islamists Using US Videogames in Youth Appeal.” Like a game of telephone, as the Reuters videogame story was quickly re-run by several Internet news services, each iteration of the title seemed less true to the exact language of the original. One Internet news service changed the headline to “Islamic militants recruit using U.S. video games.” Fox News re-titled the story again to emphasise that this alert about technological manipulation was coming from recognised specialists in the anti-terrorism surveillance field: “Experts: Islamic Militants Customizing Violent Video Games.” As the story circulated, the body of the article remained largely unchanged, in which the Reuters reporter described the digital materials from Islamic extremists that were shown at the congressional hearing. During the segment that apparently most captured the attention of the wire service reporters, eerie music played as an English-speaking narrator condemned the “infidel” and declared that he had “put a jihad” on them, as aerial shots moved over 3D computer-generated images of flaming oil facilities and mosques covered with geometric designs. Suddenly, this menacing voice-over was interrupted by an explosion, as a virtual rocket was launched into a simulated military helicopter. The Reuters reporter shared this dystopian vision from cyberspace with Western audiences by quoting directly from the chilling commentary and describing a dissonant montage of images and remixed sound. “I was just a boy when the infidels came to my village in Blackhawk helicopters,” a narrator’s voice said as the screen flashed between images of street-level gunfights, explosions and helicopter assaults. Then came a recording of President George W. Bush’s September 16, 2001, statement: “This crusade, this war on terrorism, is going to take a while.” It was edited to repeat the word “crusade,” which Muslims often define as an attack on Islam by Christianity. According to the news reports, the key piece of evidence before Congress seemed to be a film by “SonicJihad” of recorded videogame play, which – according to the experts – was widely distributed online. Much of the clip takes place from the point of view of a first-person shooter, seen as if through the eyes of an armed insurgent, but the viewer also periodically sees third-person action in which the player appears as a running figure wearing a red-and-white checked keffiyeh, who dashes toward the screen with a rocket launcher balanced on his shoulder. Significantly, another of the player’s hand-held weapons is a detonator that triggers remote blasts. As jaunty music plays, helicopters, tanks, and armoured vehicles burst into smoke and flame. Finally, at the triumphant ending of the video, a green and white flag bearing a crescent is hoisted aloft into the sky to signify victory by Islamic forces. To explain the existence of this digital alternative history in which jihadists could be conquerors, the Reuters story described the deviousness of the country’s terrorist opponents, who were now apparently modifying popular videogames through their wizardry and inserting anti-American, pro-insurgency content into U.S.-made consumer technology. One of the latest video games modified by militants is the popular “Battlefield 2” from leading video game publisher, Electronic Arts Inc of Redwood City, California. Jeff Brown, a spokesman for Electronic Arts, said enthusiasts often write software modifications, known as “mods,” to video games. “Millions of people create mods on games around the world,” he said. “We have absolutely no control over them. It’s like drawing a mustache on a picture.” Although the Electronic Arts executive dismissed the activities of modders as a “mustache on a picture” that could only be considered little more than childish vandalism of their off-the-shelf corporate product, others saw a more serious form of criminality at work. Testifying experts and the legislators listening on the committee used the video to call for greater Internet surveillance efforts and electronic counter-measures. Within twenty-four hours of the sensationalistic news breaking, however, a group of Battlefield 2 fans was crowing about the idiocy of reporters. The game play footage wasn’t from a high-tech modification of the software by Islamic extremists; it had been posted on a Planet Battlefield forum the previous December of 2005 by a game fan who had cut together regular game play with a Bush remix and a parody snippet of the soundtrack from the 2004 hit comedy film Team America. The voice describing the Black Hawk helicopters was the voice of Trey Parker of South Park cartoon fame, and – much to Parker’s amusement – even the mention of “goats screaming” did not clue spectators in to the fact of a comic source. Ironically, the moment in the movie from which the sound clip is excerpted is one about intelligence gathering. As an agent of Team America, a fictional elite U.S. commando squad, the hero of the film’s all-puppet cast, Gary Johnston, is impersonating a jihadist radical inside a hostile Egyptian tavern that is modelled on the cantina scene from Star Wars. Additional laughs come from the fact that agent Johnston is accepted by the menacing terrorist cell as “Hakmed,” despite the fact that he utters a series of improbable clichés made up of incoherent stereotypes about life in the Middle East while dressed up in a disguise made up of shoe polish and a turban from a bathroom towel. The man behind the “SonicJihad” pseudonym turned out to be a twenty-five-year-old hospital administrator named Samir, and what reporters and representatives saw was nothing more exotic than game play from an add-on expansion pack of Battlefield 2, which – like other versions of the game – allows first-person shooter play from the position of the opponent as a standard feature. While SonicJihad initially joined his fellow gamers in ridiculing the mainstream media, he also expressed astonishment and outrage about a larger politics of reception. In one interview he argued that the media illiteracy of Reuters potentially enabled a whole series of category errors, in which harmless gamers could be demonised as terrorists. It wasn’t intended for the purpose what it was portrayed to be by the media. So no I don’t regret making a funny video . . . why should I? The only thing I regret is thinking that news from Reuters was objective and always right. The least they could do is some online research before publishing this. If they label me al-Qaeda just for making this silly video, that makes you think, what is this al-Qaeda? And is everything al-Qaeda? Although Sonic Jihad dismissed his own work as “silly” or “funny,” he expected considerably more from a credible news agency like Reuters: “objective” reporting, “online research,” and fact-checking before “publishing.” Within the week, almost all of the salient details in the Reuters story were revealed to be incorrect. SonicJihad’s film was not made by terrorists or for terrorists: it was not created by “Islamic militants” for “Muslim youths.” The videogame it depicted had not been modified by a “tech-savvy militant” with advanced programming skills. Of course, what is most extraordinary about this story isn’t just that Reuters merely got its facts wrong; it is that a self-identified “parody” video was shown to the august House Intelligence Committee by a team of well-paid “experts” from the Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC), a major contractor with the federal government, as key evidence of terrorist recruitment techniques and abuse of digital networks. Moreover, this story of media illiteracy unfolded in the context of a fundamental Constitutional debate about domestic surveillance via communications technology and the further regulation of digital content by lawmakers. Furthermore, the transcripts of the actual hearing showed that much more than simple gullibility or technological ignorance was in play. Based on their exchanges in the public record, elected representatives and government experts appear to be keenly aware that the digital discourses of an emerging information culture might be challenging their authority and that of the longstanding institutions of knowledge and power with which they are affiliated. These hearings can be seen as representative of a larger historical moment in which emphatic declarations about prohibiting specific practices in digital culture have come to occupy a prominent place at the podium, news desk, or official Web portal. This environment of cultural reaction can be used to explain why policy makers’ reaction to terrorists’ use of networked communication and digital media actually tells us more about our own American ideologies about technology and rhetoric in a contemporary information environment. When the experts come forward at the Sonic Jihad hearing to “walk us through the media and some of the products,” they present digital artefacts of an information economy that mirrors many of the features of our own consumption of objects of electronic discourse, which seem dangerously easy to copy and distribute and thus also create confusion about their intended meanings, audiences, and purposes. From this one hearing we can see how the reception of many new digital genres plays out in the public sphere of legislative discourse. Web pages, videogames, and Weblogs are mentioned specifically in the transcript. The main architecture of the witnesses’ presentation to the committee is organised according to the rhetorical conventions of a PowerPoint presentation. Moreover, the arguments made by expert witnesses about the relationship of orality to literacy or of public to private communications in new media are highly relevant to how we might understand other important digital genres, such as electronic mail or text messaging. The hearing also invites consideration of privacy, intellectual property, and digital “rights,” because moral values about freedom and ownership are alluded to by many of the elected representatives present, albeit often through the looking glass of user behaviours imagined as radically Other. For example, terrorists are described as “modders” and “hackers” who subvert those who properly create, own, legitimate, and regulate intellectual property. To explain embarrassing leaks of infinitely replicable digital files, witness Ron Roughead says, “We’re not even sure that they don’t even hack into the kinds of spaces that hold photographs in order to get pictures that our forces have taken.” Another witness, Undersecretary of Defense for Policy and International Affairs, Peter Rodman claims that “any video game that comes out, as soon as the code is released, they will modify it and change the game for their needs.” Thus, the implication of these witnesses’ testimony is that the release of code into the public domain can contribute to political subversion, much as covert intrusion into computer networks by stealthy hackers can. However, the witnesses from the Pentagon and from the government contractor SAIC often present a contradictory image of the supposed terrorists in the hearing transcripts. Sometimes the enemy is depicted as an organisation of technological masterminds, capable of manipulating the computer code of unwitting Americans and snatching their rightful intellectual property away; sometimes those from the opposing forces are depicted as pre-modern and even sub-literate political innocents. In contrast, the congressional representatives seem to focus on similarities when comparing the work of “terrorists” to the everyday digital practices of their constituents and even of themselves. According to the transcripts of this open hearing, legislators on both sides of the aisle express anxiety about domestic patterns of Internet reception. Even the legislators’ own Web pages are potentially disruptive electronic artefacts, particularly when the demands of digital labour interfere with their duties as lawmakers. Although the subject of the hearing is ostensibly terrorist Websites, Representative Anna Eshoo (D-California) bemoans the difficulty of maintaining her own official congressional site. As she observes, “So we are – as members, I think we’re very sensitive about what’s on our Website, and if I retained what I had on my Website three years ago, I’d be out of business. So we know that they have to be renewed. They go up, they go down, they’re rebuilt, they’re – you know, the message is targeted to the future.” In their questions, lawmakers identify Weblogs (blogs) as a particular area of concern as a destabilising alternative to authoritative print sources of information from established institutions. Representative Alcee Hastings (D-Florida) compares the polluting power of insurgent bloggers to that of influential online muckrakers from the American political Right. Hastings complains of “garbage on our regular mainstream news that comes from blog sites.” Representative Heather Wilson (R-New Mexico) attempts to project a media-savvy persona by bringing up the “phenomenon of blogging” in conjunction with her questions about jihadist Websites in which she notes how Internet traffic can be magnified by cooperative ventures among groups of ideologically like-minded content-providers: “These Websites, and particularly the most active ones, are they cross-linked? And do they have kind of hot links to your other favorite sites on them?” At one point Representative Wilson asks witness Rodman if he knows “of your 100 hottest sites where the Webmasters are educated? What nationality they are? Where they’re getting their money from?” In her questions, Wilson implicitly acknowledges that Web work reflects influences from pedagogical communities, economic networks of the exchange of capital, and even potentially the specific ideologies of nation-states. It is perhaps indicative of the government contractors’ anachronistic worldview that the witness is unable to answer Wilson’s question. He explains that his agency focuses on the physical location of the server or ISP rather than the social backgrounds of the individuals who might be manufacturing objectionable digital texts. The premise behind the contractors’ working method – surveilling the technical apparatus not the social network – may be related to other beliefs expressed by government witnesses, such as the supposition that jihadist Websites are collectively produced and spontaneously emerge from the indigenous, traditional, tribal culture, instead of assuming that Iraqi insurgents have analogous beliefs, practices, and technological awareness to those in first-world countries. The residual subtexts in the witnesses’ conjectures about competing cultures of orality and literacy may tell us something about a reactionary rhetoric around videogames and digital culture more generally. According to the experts before Congress, the Middle Eastern audience for these videogames and Websites is limited by its membership in a pre-literate society that is only capable of abortive cultural production without access to knowledge that is archived in printed codices. Sometimes the witnesses before Congress seem to be unintentionally channelling the ideas of the late literacy theorist Walter Ong about the “secondary orality” associated with talky electronic media such as television, radio, audio recording, or telephone communication. Later followers of Ong extend this concept of secondary orality to hypertext, hypermedia, e-mail, and blogs, because they similarly share features of both speech and written discourse. Although Ong’s disciples celebrate this vibrant reconnection to a mythic, communal past of what Kathleen Welch calls “electric rhetoric,” the defence industry consultants express their profound state of alarm at the potentially dangerous and subversive character of this hybrid form of communication. The concept of an “oral tradition” is first introduced by the expert witnesses in the context of modern marketing and product distribution: “The Internet is used for a variety of things – command and control,” one witness states. “One of the things that’s missed frequently is how and – how effective the adversary is at using the Internet to distribute product. They’re using that distribution network as a modern form of oral tradition, if you will.” Thus, although the Internet can be deployed for hierarchical “command and control” activities, it also functions as a highly efficient peer-to-peer distributed network for disseminating the commodity of information. Throughout the hearings, the witnesses imply that unregulated lateral communication among social actors who are not authorised to speak for nation-states or to produce legitimated expert discourses is potentially destabilising to political order. Witness Eric Michael describes the “oral tradition” and the conventions of communal life in the Middle East to emphasise the primacy of speech in the collective discursive practices of this alien population: “I’d like to point your attention to the media types and the fact that the oral tradition is listed as most important. The other media listed support that. And the significance of the oral tradition is more than just – it’s the medium by which, once it comes off the Internet, it is transferred.” The experts go on to claim that this “oral tradition” can contaminate other media because it functions as “rumor,” the traditional bane of the stately discourse of military leaders since the classical era. The oral tradition now also has an aspect of rumor. A[n] event takes place. There is an explosion in a city. Rumor is that the United States Air Force dropped a bomb and is doing indiscriminate killing. This ends up being discussed on the street. It ends up showing up in a Friday sermon in a mosque or in another religious institution. It then gets recycled into written materials. Media picks up the story and broadcasts it, at which point it’s now a fact. In this particular case that we were telling you about, it showed up on a network television, and their propaganda continues to go back to this false initial report on network television and continue to reiterate that it’s a fact, even though the United States government has proven that it was not a fact, even though the network has since recanted the broadcast. In this example, many-to-many discussion on the “street” is formalised into a one-to many “sermon” and then further stylised using technology in a one-to-many broadcast on “network television” in which “propaganda” that is “false” can no longer be disputed. This “oral tradition” is like digital media, because elements of discourse can be infinitely copied or “recycled,” and it is designed to “reiterate” content. In this hearing, the word “rhetoric” is associated with destructive counter-cultural forces by the witnesses who reiterate cultural truisms dating back to Plato and the Gorgias. For example, witness Eric Michael initially presents “rhetoric” as the use of culturally specific and hence untranslatable figures of speech, but he quickly moves to an outright castigation of the entire communicative mode. “Rhetoric,” he tells us, is designed to “distort the truth,” because it is a “selective” assembly or a “distortion.” Rhetoric is also at odds with reason, because it appeals to “emotion” and a romanticised Weltanschauung oriented around discourses of “struggle.” The film by SonicJihad is chosen as the final clip by the witnesses before Congress, because it allegedly combines many different types of emotional appeal, and thus it conveniently ties together all of the themes that the witnesses present to the legislators about unreliable oral or rhetorical sources in the Middle East: And there you see how all these products are linked together. And you can see where the games are set to psychologically condition you to go kill coalition forces. You can see how they use humor. You can see how the entire campaign is carefully crafted to first evoke an emotion and then to evoke a response and to direct that response in the direction that they want. Jihadist digital products, especially videogames, are effective means of manipulation, the witnesses argue, because they employ multiple channels of persuasion and carefully sequenced and integrated subliminal messages. To understand the larger cultural conversation of the hearing, it is important to keep in mind that the related argument that “games” can “psychologically condition” players to be predisposed to violence is one that was important in other congressional hearings of the period, as well one that played a role in bills and resolutions that were passed by the full body of the legislative branch. In the witness’s testimony an appeal to anti-game sympathies at home is combined with a critique of a closed anti-democratic system abroad in which the circuits of rhetorical production and their composite metonymic chains are described as those that command specific, unvarying, robotic responses. This sharp criticism of the artful use of a presentation style that is “crafted” is ironic, given that the witnesses’ “compilation” of jihadist digital material is staged in the form of a carefully structured PowerPoint presentation, one that is paced to a well-rehearsed rhythm of “slide, please” or “next slide” in the transcript. The transcript also reveals that the members of the House Intelligence Committee were not the original audience for the witnesses’ PowerPoint presentation. Rather, when it was first created by SAIC, this “expert” presentation was designed for training purposes for the troops on the ground, who would be facing the challenges of deployment in hostile terrain. According to the witnesses, having the slide show showcased before Congress was something of an afterthought. Nonetheless, Congressman Tiahrt (R-KN) is so impressed with the rhetorical mastery of the consultants that he tries to appropriate it. As Tiarht puts it, “I’d like to get a copy of that slide sometime.” From the hearing we also learn that the terrorists’ Websites are threatening precisely because they manifest a polymorphously perverse geometry of expansion. For example, one SAIC witness before the House Committee compares the replication and elaboration of digital material online to a “spiderweb.” Like Representative Eshoo’s site, he also notes that the terrorists’ sites go “up” and “down,” but the consultant is left to speculate about whether or not there is any “central coordination” to serve as an organising principle and to explain the persistence and consistency of messages despite the apparent lack of a single authorial ethos to offer a stable, humanised, point of reference. In the hearing, the oft-cited solution to the problem created by the hybridity and iterability of digital rhetoric appears to be “public diplomacy.” Both consultants and lawmakers seem to agree that the damaging messages of the insurgents must be countered with U.S. sanctioned information, and thus the phrase “public diplomacy” appears in the hearing seven times. However, witness Roughhead complains that the protean “oral tradition” and what Henry Jenkins has called the “transmedia” character of digital culture, which often crosses several platforms of traditional print, projection, or broadcast media, stymies their best rhetorical efforts: “I think the point that we’ve tried to make in the briefing is that wherever there’s Internet availability at all, they can then download these – these programs and put them onto compact discs, DVDs, or post them into posters, and provide them to a greater range of people in the oral tradition that they’ve grown up in. And so they only need a few Internet sites in order to distribute and disseminate the message.” Of course, to maintain their share of the government market, the Science Applications International Corporation also employs practices of publicity and promotion through the Internet and digital media. They use HTML Web pages for these purposes, as well as PowerPoint presentations and online video. The rhetoric of the Website of SAIC emphasises their motto “From Science to Solutions.” After a short Flash film about how SAIC scientists and engineers solve “complex technical problems,” the visitor is taken to the home page of the firm that re-emphasises their central message about expertise. The maps, uniforms, and specialised tools and equipment that are depicted in these opening Web pages reinforce an ethos of professional specialisation that is able to respond to multiple threats posed by the “global war on terror.” By 26 June 2006, the incident finally was being described as a “Pentagon Snafu” by ABC News. From the opening of reporter Jake Tapper’s investigative Webcast, established government institutions were put on the spot: “So, how much does the Pentagon know about videogames? Well, when it came to a recent appearance before Congress, apparently not enough.” Indeed, the very language about “experts” that was highlighted in the earlier coverage is repeated by Tapper in mockery, with the significant exception of “independent expert” Ian Bogost of the Georgia Institute of Technology. If the Pentagon and SAIC deride the legitimacy of rhetoric as a cultural practice, Bogost occupies himself with its defence. In his recent book Persuasive Games: The Expressive Power of Videogames, Bogost draws upon the authority of the “2,500 year history of rhetoric” to argue that videogames represent a significant development in that cultural narrative. Given that Bogost and his Watercooler Games Weblog co-editor Gonzalo Frasca were actively involved in the detective work that exposed the depth of professional incompetence involved in the government’s line-up of witnesses, it is appropriate that Bogost is given the final words in the ABC exposé. As Bogost says, “We should be deeply bothered by this. We should really be questioning the kind of advice that Congress is getting.” Bogost may be right that Congress received terrible counsel on that day, but a close reading of the transcript reveals that elected officials were much more than passive listeners: in fact they were lively participants in a cultural conversation about regulating digital media. After looking at the actual language of these exchanges, it seems that the persuasiveness of the misinformation from the Pentagon and SAIC had as much to do with lawmakers’ preconceived anxieties about practices of computer-mediated communication close to home as it did with the contradictory stereotypes that were presented to them about Internet practices abroad. In other words, lawmakers found themselves looking into a fun house mirror that distorted what should have been familiar artefacts of American popular culture because it was precisely what they wanted to see. 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Morgan, David. “Islamists Using U.S. Video Games in Youth Appeal.” Reuters online news service. 4 May 2006 http://today.reuters.com/news/ArticleNews.aspx?type=topNews &storyID=2006-05-04T215543Z_01_N04305973_RTRUKOC_0_US-SECURITY- VIDEOGAMES.xml&pageNumber=0&imageid=&cap=&sz=13&WTModLoc= NewsArt-C1-ArticlePage2>. Ong, Walter J. Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. London/New York: Methuen, 1982. Parker, Trey. Online posting. 7 May 2006. 9 May 2006 http://www.treyparker.com>. Plato. “Gorgias.” Plato: Collected Dialogues. Princeton: Princeton UP, 1961. Shrader, Katherine. “Pentagon Surfing Thousands of Jihad Sites.” Associated Press 4 May 2006. SonicJihad. “SonicJihad: A Day in the Life of a Resistance Fighter.” Online posting. 26 Dec. 2005. Planet Battlefield Forums. 9 May 2006 http://www.forumplanet.com/planetbattlefield/topic.asp?fid=13670&tid=1806909&p=1>. Tapper, Jake, and Audery Taylor. “Terrorist Video Game or Pentagon Snafu?” ABC News Nightline 21 June 2006. 30 June 2006 http://abcnews.go.com/Nightline/Technology/story?id=2105128&page=1>. U.S. Congressional Record. Panel I of the Hearing of the House Select Intelligence Committee, Subject: “Terrorist Use of the Internet for Communications.” Federal News Service. 4 May 2006. Welch, Kathleen E. Electric Rhetoric: Classical Rhetoric, Oralism, and the New Literacy. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1999. 
 
 
 
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