Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'The Protection and Preservation of the Marine Environment'

Kyoto University (京都大学)
0048
新制・課程博士
博士(農学)
甲第22513号
農博第2417号
新制||農||1078(附属図書館)
学位論文||R2||N5293(農学部図書室)
京都大学大学院農学研究科応用生命科学専攻
(主査)教授 植田 充美, 教授 渡邊 隆司, 教授 小川 順
学位規則第4条第1項該当

The marine environment is under stress from marine pollution, over-exploitation of marine living resources and over-exploitation of the coastal zones caused by the ever intensifying human activities in the sea. Perceiving the problem of the degradation ofthe marine environment, international society has established a variety of international legal regimes with a view to resolving this problem. Since the United Nations Convention on the Law ofthe Sea (the 1982 UNCLOS) is internationally recognized as the international basis for the protection and sustainable development of the marine and coastal environment and its resources, the regime for the protection of the marine environment established thereunder constitutes a frameworkfor different international regimes for the protection of the marine environment. In analyzing international regimes, regime theory can be used as a theoretical tool. A regime is a norm-based institution composed of a set of substantives norms, procedural rules and behavioural aspects (convergent expectations and compliance) in a given issue area. Since any legal regime evolves with the passage of time, a theory of evolution of legal regimes can be built up by identifying different mechanisms of evolution, such as amendments, additional agreements, evolutionary interpretation, rules of reference, sub-regimes. With these two sets of theoretical tools, the regime for the protection of the marine environment under the 1982 UNCLOS is analyzed in this thesis, by reviewing its components and their relations with those in other regimes. Chapter 1 presents the nature of the issue-area of the protection of the marine environment. Chapter 2 presents regime theory with a view to applying it to the analysis of the regime for the protection of the marine environment under the 1982 UNCLOS. In Chapter 3, evolutionary mechanisms of the regime under the 1982 UNCLOS are examined. In Chapters 4 and 5, substantive norms of the regime (principles and rules) are examined in the light of the theory of evolution of legal regimes. In Chapter 6, procedural and behavioural aspects, i.e., decision-making procedures, convergent expectations, and compliance system under the regime are examined also in the light of the theory ofevolution oflegal regimes.

Le retentissement des catastrophes maritimes de ces dernières années, Erika, Prestige, Deepwater Horizon, a confirmé l’importance des enjeux de pollution marine, tant auprès du grand public que des décideurs politiques. Aucune leçon n’aurait-elle été tirée de ces précédents? Les appels à une prise en compte accrue de la protection de l’environnement n’auraient eu que peu d’impact sur les pratiques des transporteurs et armateurs. Les atteintes à l’environnement marin doivent être au plus vite jugulées et ce grâce à des outils adaptés et efficaces. Or, le droit maritime, droit relatif à la navigation qui se fait sur la mer, ne serait plus en mesure de protéger correctement son environnement car fondé sur des principes de responsabilité civile. L’évolution des nécessités recommanderait que lui soient substitués les principes issus du droit commun de l’environnement, fondé sur la responsabilité pénale. Dans un premier temps, l’identification des risques maritimes, anciens comme contemporains, démontre que malgré une évolution certaine des technologies et un accroissement de leur complexité, ceux-ci demeurent fondamentalement identiques, avec en toile de fond le marin, le naviguant agissant dans le cadre d’une organisation. Dans un second temps, l’analyse du traitement des risques techniques démontre, en premier lieu, la capacité du droit maritime à se réformer en s’inspirant des bonnes pratiques issues de l’industrie offshore., L’analyse des risques juridiques confirme, en second lieu, que le droit maritime, malgré ses imperfections, possède les ressources pour se réformer et répondre aux attentes contemporaines en matière environnementale
The impact of the maritime catastrophes of recent years such as Erika, Prestige, and Deepwater Horizon, has confirmed the concerns regarding marine pollution, both with the general public and political decision-makers. Has no lesson been learned from these events? Calls for greater awareness for environmental protection have had little impact on the practices of transporters and shipowners. Violations of the marine environment must be halted as soon as possible, using suitable and effective methods. Maritime law, which relates to navigation by sea, is no longer able to protect the environment because it is based on principles of civil responsibility. Changes in obligations suggest that this should be replaced by principles derived from common law on the environment, based on criminal responsibility. In the first part, the identification of maritime risks, both old and contemporary, demonstrates that in spite of some developments in technology and an increase in its complexity, it remains fundamentally identical, with the backdrop of the sailor, the navigator, acting within the framework of an organization. In the second part, the analysis of the treatment of technical risks demonstrates, firstly, the capacity of maritime law to reform, taking the lead from good practice derived from the offshore industry. Secondly, the analysis of legal risks confirms that maritime law, in spite of its imperfections, has the resources to reform and respond to contemporary expectations in environmental matters

La géographie de la mer Noire n’a jamais été favorable à l’application sans condition du principe de la liberté de la navigation. Durant des siècles, elle fut, et elle reste encore, l’objet de la réglementation spéciale qui tient à cette particularité et à l’importance géopolitique de la région. Le régime de la navigation dans cette région est donc l’adaptation du principe de la liberté de la navigation à ses particularités, ce qui explique la révision quasi permanente du régime établi. Parmi plusieurs accords internationaux, seule la Convention de Montreux s’est avérée intangible, mais là encore, il semble que la géographie de la région et à présent la nécessité du respect de l’environnement la fragilisent aujourd’hui. La thèse dévoile cette fragilité et montre que la navigation dans la mer Noire se heurte elle aussi au même problème. Cette thèse évoque donc la nécessité de combler le vide juridique laissé par l’absence des règles de la sécurité de la navigation et de la protection de l’environnement marin dans la Convention de Montreux, ainsi que dans le régime juridique de la mer Noire. L’étude comparée des droits internes des États riverains et des textes à vocation régionale montre également les mesures prises par les États concernés, mais aussi le problème de l’adaptation du régime de la navigation dans cette région aux exigences d’aujourd’hui du droit international de la mer, notamment en matière de sécurité de la navigation et de la protection de l’environnement maritime
The geography of the Black Sea never was the most suitable to apply unconditionally the principle of free navigation. During centuries, it was, and still remains, under specific rules due to the particular strategic geopolitical importance of this region. So the navigation regime in this region is the adaptation of the principle of free navigation to it s specifics, which explains the almost permanent reviewing of the established regime. Among several international agreements, only the Convention of Montreux appeared to be most sustainable, but even in this case the geography of the region seems to weaken it nowadays. The Thesis reveals this frailty and shows that navigation on the Black Sea encounters the same problem. Consequently it shows the need to fill the juridical gap coming from the lack of rules of security and of environment protection in the Convention of Montreux, as in the regime of navigation of the Black Sea. The comparative study of the internal law of each of the waterfronts States and of the texts with regional focus points out as well the measures taken by the concerned States, but also the problem of adaptation of the regime of navigation in this region according to the current requirements of international law of the sea, especially concerning the security of navigation and the protection of marine environment

Marine pollution is currently a major and pressing issue, as the world strives to reduce the associated risks and to develop effective and appropriate solutions. Moreover, oil pollution is a major and hazardous source of pollution in the waters of the Arabian Gulf. It is an indisputable fact that the marine environment of the region has suffered greatly since the export of oil began, as a result of the multiple harmful activities associated with that trade, such as the loading of oil, the emptying of contaminated ballast tanks, the various exploration, prospecting and manufacturing processes, in addition to oil pollution incidents resulting from collisions between ships or from fires and explosions that affect ships and marine oil installations. Further environmental damage has been caused by deliberate attacks related to armed conflict in the region during the past few years.

Thesis (M.S.)--Kutztown University of Pennsylvania, 1991.
Source: Masters Abstracts International, Volume: 45-06, page: 2705. Abstract precedes thesis as 2 preliminary leaves. Typescript. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 47-48).

L'influence de la pollution atmosphérique sur la mer Baltique a longtemps été sous-estimée. La prise de conscience de l'ampleur du problème s'est faite au début des années 70. Plus tard, les politiciens se sont également rendus compte que les changements climatiques avaient eux aussi un impact important sur la mer Baltique et qu'une coopération purement régionale ne suffisait plus. La coopération régionale à l'échelle de la Baltique existait déjà avant les bouleversements politiques survenus au début des années 1990. Les divergences politiques, sociales et économiques subsistent encore, mais la coopération continue à s'élargir et connaît un nouvel élan grâce à l'entrée d'une grande partie des Etats riverains dans la Communauté européenne. La Baltique est également exemplaire pour l'intégrité du régime sous lequel elle est gérée. La quasi-totalité des sources de pollution marine sont couvertes par la Convention d'Helsinki de 1992 qui a été ratifiée et appliquée par tous les Etats. La Commission d'Helsinki participe à la plupart des actions soit en tant qu'organe principal, soit en tant que partenaire. Aucune action de grande envergure ne peut être réalisée sans son aval. Les Etats s'efforcent d'appliquer ses nombreuses recommandations même si elles ne sont pas obligatoires du point de vue juridique. Ces recommandations de la Commission forment un cadre réglementaire unique. Ainsi, malgré une vie très riche des associations et des ONG, et la multitude d'actions et de programmes, ils forment plus ou moins un ensemble cohérent. La Convention internationale sur la pollution atmosphérique transfrontière a été adaptée au niveau régional, en partie grâce à son programme de surveillance. Ce dernier est parfaitement intégré dans le régime baltique et constitue la base de donnée de référence. Il faudrait qu'un jour il en soit de même pour le protocole de Kyoto sur les changements climatiques, entré en vigueur en 2005 : un défi bien plus difficile à réaliser. .
The influence of atmospheric pollution on the Baltic Sea was underestimated until the beginning of the 1970s. Later, it was realized that climate change also has an important effect on the sea and that cooperation at a purely regional level was no longer sufficient. There was cooperation in the Baltic Sea region, even before the political changes at the beginning of 1990s. Political, social and economic divergences remain, but cooperation continues to increase with new momentum thanks to the accession of most Baltic States to the European Community. The Baltic Sea region regime is exemplary. Most of the sources of marine pollution are covered by the Convention of Helsinki of 1992, ratified and applied by all Baltic States. The Commission of Helsinki participates in most of these actions, either as main actor, or as one of the partners ; no important action can proceed without it. The whole Baltic Sea region does attempt to comply with the numerous recommandations of the Commission ; although they are non-obligatory, they form a unique regulation frame. Although the schedules of the associations and NGOs are very full and despite the multitude of actions and programs, the regime remains more or less united. The international convention on trans-boundary air pollution was adapted on a regional level, along with its monitoring program EMEP. This program is perfectly incorporated into the Baltic regime and constitutes the principle database. One day it should be the same for the Kyoto protocol on climate change, entered into force in 2005 : a challenge not without obstacles

Chargé depuis 1975 de mener une politique foncière de protection et de valorisation des espaces naturels littoraux français en concertation et en partenariat avec les collectivités, le Conservatoire du littoral est un établissement public d’État singulier, qui a fait d’une faiblesse apparente (ne pouvoir décider ni agir seul) une force. À travers l’analyse du processus d’élaboration de sa nouvelle stratégie d’intervention 2015-2050 et six études de cas, ce travail étudie la trajectoire de l’établissement durant ces quarante ans et les perspectives d’action qui s’offrent à lui. Le Conservatoire pèse de plus en plus dans les dynamiques des territoires littoraux. Ce travail met en exergue notamment comment l’établissement a endossé, dans le cadre de l’élaboration de sa nouvelle stratégie, un rôle de « cheville ouvrière » d’une stratégie multi-acteurs de préservation des espaces naturels côtiers et de gestion durable du littoral. Plus fort par bien des aspects, le Conservatoire est toutefois confronté à une série d’enjeux qui nécessitent qu’il s’adapte. Sa légitimité est suspendue à sa capacité à assurer la préservation et la valorisation d’un patrimoine croissant, dans un contexte de tension budgétaire partagé avec les gestionnaires de sites. Afin de poursuivre ses missions et de répondre aux défis actuels de gestion intégrée des zones côtières et d’adaptation au changement climatique, l’établissement est soumis à la nécessité d’une « bonne » territorialisation de son action à différentes échelles
Since 1975, the « Conservatoire du littoral » (Coastal Conservation Authority) has been tasked with leading land acquisition policy to preserve and valorize French natural coastlines through cooperation and in partnership with local communities. This state agency has been able to transform an apparent weakness (the inability to act on its own) into strength. Through the analysis of the elaboration of its new intervention strategy for 2015-2050 and six case studies, this dissertation studies the direction taken by this institution over forty years and its perspectives for further actions. The Conservatoire du littoral is an increasingly influential player in the dynamics of coastal territory planning. This work particularly highlights how the institution has become the mainstay in a multi-actor strategy to preserve natural coastal spaces and sustainably manage coastlines. Though in many ways stronger than before, the Conservatoire du littoral is nevertheless facing several issues to which it has to adapt. Its legitimacy rests in its ability to ensure the preservation and the promotion of a growing patrimony in a context of budgetary constraints shared with site managers. In order to pursue its missions and face the contemporary challenges of integrated management of coastal areas and adaptation to climate change, the institution has to develop a « good » territorial multi-scale approach for its actions

Le littoral algérien est caractérisé par une grande richesse en ressources naturelles et offre d’importantes potentialités économiques. Néanmoins, cette portion du territoire est victime de son succès et se trouve confrontée, par conséquent, à une multitude de problèmes tels que la surexploitation de ses ressources amplifiés par une urbanisation massive qui s'accélère de plus en plus mais également par une pollution et une dégradation des zones côtières. Afin de répondre au mieux aux nombreuses incohérences résultant de ces divers problèmes qui frappent le littoral algérien, l’État doit veiller à mettre en place les mesures nécessaires pour trouver un juste équilibre entre l’utilisation de cet espace et sa préservation. L’analyse approfondie du dispositif institutionnel et législatif mis en place par les pouvoirs publics algériens démontre qu’il y a une réelle insuffisance en matière de gouvernance côtière et que les textes juridiques sont lacunaires en ce qui concerne la préservation et l’aménagement du littoral. Le principal défi de l’État est de pallier ces carences en mettant en place une politique de gestion intégrée et globale du littoral qui en permettrait un développement équilibré et durable
The Algerian coastline is characterized by rich natural resources which offer important economic potential. Nonetheless, this part of the country finds itself victim of its own success and have to face a multitude of problems, especially the over-exploitation of its resources which have been amplified by a massive urbanization that is accelerated more and more, but also by pollution and a deterioration of the coastal areas. Moreover, and to best answer the numerous incoherencies that result from these multiple problems that hit the Algerian coastline, the state has to take necessary measures to find a right balance between the use of this space and its preservation. The thorough analysis of the institutional and legal framework put in place by the Algerian public authorities, proves the existence of a real inadequacy in terms of coastal governance, as well as incomplete judicial texts with regards to coastal preservation and development. The primary challenge of the government is to redress these shortcomings, by putting in place an integrated and global management policy of the coast that will allow a balanced and sustained development of this space

Débutée par l’étude des règles communautaires engendrées par le naufrage de l’Erika, la présente recherche s’est affinée autour de la relation entre sécurité maritime et protection du milieu marin tout en s’enrichissant de l’observation des règles internationales. Dès lors, l’idée retenue fut d’étudier la collision entre deux éléments ni équivalents, ni complètement différents et de voir ce que ce « big-bang » juridique avait pu provoquer.La première partie envisagera le renouvellement de la fonction de sécurité maritime autour de la finalité de protection du milieu marin. En effet, vers le milieu du XXème siècle, l’apparition des préoccupations environnementales vient déséquilibrer la répartition classique des compétences entre l’Etat du pavillon et l’Etat côtier. La liberté, principe fondateur de l’ordre des mers, se transforme pour s’adapter aux réalités de la protection du milieu marin. Elle devient alors le principe d’utilisation durable de la mer, nouvelle clé de la répartition des souverainetés en mer. Une forme de gouvernance environnementale de la sécurité maritime paraît se constituer autour de l’Organisation maritime internationale et de l’Union européenneLa seconde partie permettra de mettre en lumière la redéfinition de l’espace normatif de sécurité maritime au prisme de l’objectif de prévention des pollutions. A l’origine, les règles de sécurité maritime avaient pour but de protéger l’entreprise maritime contre les dangers de la mer. Désormais, il s’agit de protéger la biosphère pour sauvegarder l’humanité et ses générations futures. C’est pourquoi la sécurité maritime classique, devenue insuffisante, évolue vers une notion plus moderne, « environnementale »
Begun with the study of the European Union rules engendered by the wreck of Erika, the present research was refined around the relation between marine safety and marine environment protection while growing rich of the observation of the international rules. From then on, the idea was to study the collision between two elements neither equivalents, nor completely different and to see what this legal "big-bang" had provoke.The first part will envisage the renewal of the function of marine safety around the purpose of marine environment protection. Indeed, by the middle of the XXth century, the appearance of the environmental concerns comes to destabilize the classic distribution of the skills between the flag State and the coastal State. The freedom, founding principle of the order of seas, has been transformed to adapt itself to the realities of the marine environment protection. It becomes then the principle of sustainable use of the sea, the new key of the distribution of sovereignties on the sea. A shape of environmental governance of the maritime safety appears to establish around the International Maritime Organization and the European Union.The second part will allow to bring to light the redefining of the normative space of maritime safety in the prism of the objective of prevention of the pollutions. Originally, the regulations of marine safety aimed at protecting the sailormen against the dangers of the sea. Henceforth, it is today a question of protecting the biosphere, the humanity and its future generations. That is why the classic marine safety, become insufficient, evolves towards a more modern, " environmental " notion

The Oil Pollution Act of 1990 requires the development of Regional and Area Contingency Plans. For more than 20 years, the State of Florida, under both the Department of Environmental Protection and the Florida Fish and Wildlife Commission, has worked closely with the U.S. Coast Guard and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration to develop these plans for coastal and marine oil spill response. Current plans, developed with local, state and federal stakeholder input, use geographic information systems (GIS) data such as location and extent of sensitive ecological, wildlife, and human-use features (termed Environmental Sensitivity Index data), pre-defined protection priorities, and spatially explicit protection strategies to support decision-making by responders (termed Geographic Response Plans). However, they are long overdue for improvements that incorporate modern oceanographic modeling techniques and integrated data from coastal ocean observing systems. Better understanding of circulation in nearshore and estuarine waters, at a scale consistent with other spatial data, is especially lacking in Area Contingency Plans. This paper identifies the gaps in readily available information on the circulation-driven causes and effects missing in current oil spill contingency planning and describes a sample methodology whereby multiple coastal and ocean spatial science disciplines are used to answer questions that no single, non-integrated discipline can answer by itself. A path forward for further integration and development of more comprehensive plans to better support coastal protection in Florida is proposed. The advances made here are applicable to other coastal regions of the world.

L’environnement marin et côtier de la Région de la Grande Caraïbe est un trésor naturel. Il offre d’importantes opportunités de subsistance et de commerce aux populations côtières, et, en même temps, il offre des possibilités de développent aux États qui bordent cette Région. Néanmoins, toute cette richesse se trouve confrontée à de nombreux problèmes : érosion, surexploitation, pollution et instrumentalisation politique. Le défi se trouve donc dans la conservation optimale de cet environnement et dans la garantie d’une exploitation dans le cadre du développement durable. L’analyse de la normativité internationale et régionale mise en place pour tenter de relever ledit défi reste aujourd’hui plurielle et insuffisante. Le corpus normatif doit encore être amélioré et donc, le défi sera pour la communauté internationale, de créer un cadre global de gouvernance capable d’articuler les règles internationales avec celles de l’ordre régional et local pour trouver des actions pertinentes et efficaces
The marine and coastal environment of the Caribe’s region contains important natural resources. It offers significant opportunities to the coastal population and to the border Stats in terms of subsistence and development. However, this environment is confronted to many problems: erosion, overexploitation, pollution and political manipulation. The key challenge that lies the region is to ensure the optimal preservation of this environment and to guarantee a sustainable exploitation of the resources. The analysis of the international and regional normativity put in place for ensure that challenge remains plural and insufficient. The institutional corpus must be improved and the new challenge for the international community is to create a global governance framework able to articulate the international rules with the regional and local rules to find and implement pertinent and effective activities
El medio ambiente marino y costero de la Región del Gran Caribe es un tesoro natural que ofrece importantes oportunidades de supervivencia y de comercio a las poblaciones costeras y que ofrece, al mismo tiempo, posibilidades de desarrollo a los Estados ribereños de esta Región. Sin embargo, toda esta riqueza se ve expuesta a diferentes problemas: erosión, sobreexplotación, polución e instrumentalización política. El desafío reside entonces en el equilibrio entre la conservación optima del medio ambiente y la garantía de la explotación del mismo en el marco del desarrollo sustentable y sostenible. El análisis de la reglamentación internacional y regional implementada para tratar de superar dicho desafío es sin embargo plural e insuficiente. El corpus normativo debe ser objeto de mejoras y en ese entendido, el desafío para la comunidad internacional será crear un marco global de gobernanza capaz de articular las reglas internacionales con las reglas regionales y locales para implementar entonces acciones pertinentes y eficaces

This thesis seeks to systematically examine the contributions made by the dispute settlement bodies established under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) to the development of the law of the sea. The two main research questions to be answered are: (i) what kind of contribution have UNCLOS dispute settlement bodies made to the development of the law of the sea? and (ii) what are the factors that impact the performance of UNCLOS dispute settlement bodies in developing the law of the sea? To that end, Chapter 1 provides a working definition for the concept of 'judicial development of international law' in order to establish a framework for an assessment of the contributions of UNCLOS tribunals. Based on this working definition, Chapters 2, 3 and 4 examine the significance of UNCLOS tribunals' decisions in the development of three main areas of the law of the sea, respectively the law on fisheries, the law on the outer continental shelf and the law on marine environmental protection. Based on the findings of these chapters, Chapter 5 analyses the factors that help explain the contributions of UNCLOS tribunals to the law of the sea as identified in the preceding chapters. These factors include: (i) the jurisdictional scope of UNCLOS tribunals, (ii) the institutional design of UNCLOS, (iii) the interpretative method employed by UNCLOS tribunals in deciding their cases and (iv) the perception that UNCLOS tribunals hold regarding their roles. Chapter 6 concludes by taking stock of the contribution of UNCLOS tribunal in these areas and offering some final observations on the role of UNCLOS tribunals in the development of the law of the sea.

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Finding a balance between the environmental and economic development is on of the most difficult tasks that will have to be made through the public politics, mainly applying the Tax Law as an equilibrium this conflict. The tribute appears of efficient form, mainly in its extrafiscal meaning, as viabilizador on instrument of the ambient balance and one better quality of life next to the balanced economic development. The tax incentive gera the precaution and the ambient prevention in the economic development. The Brazilian Constitution of the 1988 say on the necessity to preserve the environment for the future generations, so called sustainable development. It is in this context that the IPVA enters the Brazilian legal-constitutional order in the attempt to contribute as a coactive mechanism of reduction of greenhouse effects in atmosphere. The present article intends to demonstrate like the promotion of public tax politics can be oriented to the environmental protection. This focuses on the contribution of the Tax on the Property of Vehicles (IPVA) in the protection in the preservation of the environment, making a parallel between articles 170 and 225 of the Federal Constitution.
Encontrar um equilíbrio entre o desenvolvimento ambiental e econômico é a das tarefas mais difíceis que terão de ser feitas através de políticas públicas, aplicando-se, principalmente, o Direito Tributário como um equilíbrio desse conflito. O tributo aparece de forma eficiente, principalmente na sua acepção extrafiscal, como viabilizador de instrumento do equilíbrio ambiental e uma melhor qualidade de vida ao lado do desenvolvimento econômico equilibrado. O incentivo fiscal gera a precaução e prevenção ambiental no desenvolvimento econômico. A Constituição brasileira de 1988 diz sobre a necessidade de preservar o meio ambiente para as futuras gerações, assim chamado desenvolvimento sustentável. É neste contexto que o IPVA entra na ordem jurídico-constitucional brasileira, na tentativa de contribuir como um mecanismo coercitivo de redução do efeito estufa na atmosfera. O presente artigo pretende demonstrar como a promoção de políticas fiscais públicas podem ser orientadas para a proteção ambiental. Este centra-se na contribuição do Imposto sobre a Propriedade de Veículos (IPVA) na proteção da preservação do meio ambiente, fazendo um paralelo entre os artigos 170 e 225 da Constituição Federal.

L’évolution du droit international contemporain conduit souvent à poser la question de sa fragmentation. L’existence, dans le droit de la mer, d’une double approche, universelle et régionale, contribue à alimenter ce débat.La présente recherche s’intéresse aux relations, en termes d’interactions, que l’universalisme et le régionalisme entretiennent dans le droit de la mer. Elle tente plus précisément d’en comprendre les mécanismes et les enjeux.Dans un premier temps, l’étude est consacrée à l’analyse des interactions normatives et institutionnelles. Il est observé que le dédoublement de l’ordre des mers est plus apparent que réel, universalisme et régionalisme étant engagés dans des relations montrant leur entrelacement.Dans une seconde phase, l’analyse se tourne vers l’impact de ces interactions, non seulement sur les approches universelle et régionale, mais également sur l’ordre des mers. Il apparaît, en effet, que les relations entre ces deux dynamiques influencent décisivement la gouvernance des espaces marins dans leur ensemble. C’est ce dont rendent compte tant la création que l’application effective des règles chargées d'assurer cette gouvernance internationale
The evolution of contemporary international law often leads to the question of its fragmentation. The presence, in the Law of the Sea, of both a universal and a regional approach contributes towards nourishing this debate.The present research focuses on the relationships, in terms of interaction, between universalism and regionalism within the Law of the Sea. It attempts especially to understand the mechanisms of these interactions and their stakes.At first, the study is devoted to the analysis of normative and institutional interactions. One can observes that the cleavage of the legal order of the seas is more apparent than real, since universalism and regionalism are engaged in relationships showing their intertwining nature.Secondly, the study is turned towards the impact of these interactions, not only on the universal and regional approaches, but also on the legal order of the Sea. Indeed, it appears that the relations between these two components of the Law of the Sea, influence in a decisive way the governance of the oceans as a whole. This influence can be seen in the creation as well as in the effective application of the rules of this international governance

Orientadores: Cristiana Simão Seixas, Célia Regina Tomiko Futemma
Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Filosofia e Ciências Humanas
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Resumo: Esta tese versa sobre o papel de pessoas-chave e inovações institucionais na governança, com efeitos na capacidade de governar (governabilidade) áreas marinhas protegidas. Apresentamos um estudo de caso empírico sobre o litoral centro-sul do Estado de Santa Catarina (Brasil) onde indicações preliminares (2007) apontavam que a governabilidade sobre o território se destacava nacionalmente, em parte pelo protagonismo de pessoas-chave em um sistema governante com jurisdição regional denominado Área de Proteção Ambiental da Baleia Franca (APA-BF; criada em 2000 abrangendo 156.000 hectares). Partimos assim da hipótese de que a agência de pessoas-chave em interações governantes (sensu Jan Kooiman) e contextos comunicativos (sensu Gregory Bateson) ligados à APA-BF aumentaram a governabilidade no território centro-sul do estado de Santa Catarina na última década. A pesquisa incluiu dados secundários e primários (entrevistas semi-estruturadas e observação participante). Análises foram feitas sobre a governabilidade estrutural e funcional geral e sobre questões específicas de governança com foco nas questões pesqueiras emergentes no Conselho Gestor da APA-BF (CONAPA-BF). A trajetória da APA-BF demonstrou um caso excepcional de experimentação institucional formal face às condições sociopolíticas operantes no Estado Brasileiro (que criam "problemas perversos", sensu Rittel e Weber, 1979). Observamos que os padrões de inovação são explicados a partir de mudanças na governabilidade em sete fases na trajetória do sistema governante da APA-BF. A identidade transgressiva do CONAPA-BF diferencia-se pela autoafirmação da busca pelo novo, pelo aprendizado e colaboração social gradativamente ampliada em um território em acelerada transformação socioambiental. Descrevemos o aumento gradativo de governabilidade que se iniciou desde o passo-zero (sensu Chuenpagdee et al., 2013) de criação da APA-BF, culminando em 2012 com a abertura de uma janela de oportunidade para inovação estrutural na governança costeira-marinha em nível nacional, i.e. com a designação oficial do processo de elaboração de um Plano de Manejo `Estratégico¿ para a APA-BF como um projeto-piloto para o Estado Brasileiro. Observamos as coerências e desafios surgidos no discurso de inovação e o relevante protagonismo desempenhado pelas pessoas-chave em cada uma das sete fases e em períodos críticos de estruturação e reorganização do sistema governante. As pessoas-chave foram importantes para o tamponamento de distúrbios (sensu Holling 2001) no sistema governante, bem como são responsáveis pela incidência e atração de novos enfoques de ação tendo em vista a colaboração e aprendizado interativo. Tais pessoas-chave tiveram papel fundamental desde a re-estruturação do sistema governante até a abertura de oportunidades para a inovação institucional e a navegação de períodos transformativos neste sistema. Seus atributos pessoais afetaram a capacidade de governanca do sistema, principalmente na melhor formulação da imagem dos problemas a serem enfrentados, contribuindo com as capacidades do sistema governante (governabilidade funcional) e na condutibilidade geral das interações governantes. Oferecemos algumas sugestões gerais para o aumento da governabilidade na APA-BF, incluindo: (i) melhor integração junto as redes sociais virtuais ligadas ao território; (ii) promoção de estruturas interinstitucionais sensíveis à diversidade política no território; (iii) melhor aproveitamento do potencial das artes e atividades lúdicas em interações formais e informais; (iv) emprego de imagens alternativas à da Baleia (como ícone) para a comunicação social relacionada ao sistema governante APA e; (v) reinvidicação de maior amparo do Estado Brasileiro para os processos de experimentação e inovação institucional. Algumas destas sugestões podem ser relevantes também para aumentar a governabilidade de outras áreas marinhas protegidas no Brasil. Por fim, mesmo diante de tantos desafios, concluimos que muitas pessoas-chave e outros atores já compartilham das imagens alternativas de governança necessárias para navegar a transformação rumo a um regime de maior governabilidade. Ao enfrentarem desafios de várias ordens, os atores poderão não apenas manter o desempenho até então alcançado, mas avançarem em padrões de interação criativos e sinérgicos para ampliar e conjugar o potencial contido nas capacidades pessoais, institucionais e políticas de cada um
Abstract: This thesis investigate the role of key-people in institutional innovations in governance systems, particularly their effects on the capacity to govern (governability) marine protected areas. We present an empirical study case on the central-southern coast of Santa Catarina state (Brazil) where preliminary indications (in 2007) signalled that governability over the territory was outstanding nationally, partly due to the agency of key-people in a governing system with regional jurisdiction, namely the Baleia Franca Environmental Protection Area (BF-EPA; designated in 200 encompassing 156.000 hectares). We departed from the hypothesis that the agency of key-people in governing interactions (sensu Jan Kooiman) and communicative contexts (sensu Gregory Bateson) linked to the BF-EPA raised the governability of the above mentioned territory in the past decade. Our research included secondary and primary data (semi-structured interviews and participant observation). Analyses were made over general structural and functional governability as well as on specific governing issues with a focus on emergent fishing issues at the BF-EPA Management Council (BF-EPA MC). The trajectory of BF-EPA demonstrated an exceptional case of formal institutional experimentation in face of the operating sociopolitical conditions of the Brazilian State (which poses "wicked-problems", sensu Rittel and Weber, 1979). We have observed that innovation patterns can be explained through changes in governability in seven phases of the focal governing system. The transgressive identity of the BF-EPA Management Council is differentiated by its self-affirmed search for the new, for learning and social collaboration gradually enhanced in a territory suffering from accelerated social-environmental transformation. We described the gradual governability increase starting from the step-zero (sensu Chuenpagdee et al., 2013) of the BF-EPA designation process, leading all the way to 2012 with the opening of a window of opportunity for structural innovation with potential changes spanning to a national level, i.e. official designation of the process of elaboration of a `Strategic¿ Management Plan for the BF-EPA as a pilot-project for the Brazilian state. We describe the coherence and challenges implicit in the innovation discourse and the relevant agency performed by key-persons in each of the seven phases and in critical periods of systemic structuring and reorganization. Key-people were important buffer of disturbances (sensu Holling, 2001) in the governing system, as well as responsible for the incidence and attraction of new frames for action regarding interactive learning and collaboration. They had a fundamental role from the re-structuring of the governing system until the opening of windows of opportunity for institutional innovation and navigation of systemic transformation periods. Their personal attributes affected governability, mainly in improving the formation of images of problems, contributing to the governing system capacity (functional governability) and general conduciveness of governing interactions. We offer some general suggestions for increasing governability at BF-EPA, including: (i) better integration with virtual social networks bonded to the territory; (ii) promotion of interinstitutional structures sensitive to the political diversity in the territory; (ii) better usage of the potential of arts and ludic activities in formal and informal interactions; (iv) application of alternative images than that of the whale (as an icon) for social communication related to the EPA governing system and; (v) improved support of the Brazilian State to institutional experimentation and innovation processes. Some of these suggestions can be also relevant to improve governability of other marine protected areas in Brazil. Finally, even with so many challenges, we suggest that key-person and other actors already share alternative governing images necessary to navigate transformation towards a higher governability regime. While facing obstacles and risks of various orders, the actors will be successful if they are able to maintain and improve the performance achieved so far while advancing in creative and synergic interaction patterns in order to amplify and conjugate the potential contained in individual, institutional and political capacities of each actor
Doutorado
Aspectos Biológicos de Sustentabilidade e Conservação
Doutor em Ambiente e Sociedade

La thèse aborde une question originale et d'actualité: l'extension artificielle des côtes. Afin de mieux comprendre ce phénomène dans son actualité, la thèse attache une importance à la description de la pratique des États en fournissant les informations aussi précises, aussi actuelles et aussi concrètes que possible. C'est à partir de cette pratique que la thèse répond à la question de savoir comment les règles de droit répondent aux exigences de la pratique.

En ce qui concerne la pratique des États, la thèse explique, dans une première partie, que l'extension artificielle des côtes est destinée, tantôt, à protéger les côtes contre l'élévation du niveau de la mer, tantôt à gagner des terres pour diverses fins: habitat humain, agricoles, développement des ports et de leurs infrastructures pour les besoins des navires modernes et du commerce international. Mais parallèlement, cette extension entraîne des effets négatifs pour l'écosystème côtier (chapitre I). Des travaux de ce genre ont été menés, ou vont l'être, en Europe (Pays-Bas, Allemagne, Belgique, France, R.-U. etc), aux États-Unis, en Asie (Bahreïn, Malaisie, Hong Kong, Singapour, Japon), en Australie, et sur certains archipels du Pacifique (chapitre II).

La seconde partie de la thèse examine le droit applicable au phénomène d'extension artificielle des côtes. Sont ainsi passées en revue: les règles relatives à la navigation (chapitre III), les règles relatives aux lignes de base (chapitre IV), les règles relatives aux hauts-fonds découvrants (chapitre V), les règles relatives aux îles et aux rochers (chapitre VI) et enfin les règles relatives à la protection de l'environnement marin (chapitre VII).

Doctorat en droit
info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Adopté par l’article 2 de la loi n°2016-1087 de reconquête de la biodiversité, de la nature et des paysages du 8 aout 2016, le principe de solidarité écologique appelle « à prendre en compte, dans toute prise de décision publique ayant une incidence notable sur l’environnement des territoires concernés, les interactions des écosystèmes, des êtres vivants et des milieux naturels ou aménagés ». Ce principe général du droit de l’environnement inscrit à l’article L110-1 du code de l’environnement est destiné à conserver les interactions écosystémiques et les processus écologiques ainsi qu’à améliorer la gestion environnementale des territoires. La dualité de son objet en fait un principe d’une grande richesse, qui devrait concerner de nombreuses décisions. Divers fondements supranationaux, au sein de la jurisprudence et dans les textes internationaux et européens peuvent ainsi lui être attribués. Dans un contexte d’interdépendance écologique, l’évolution de la dimension internationale et européenne du principe reste essentielle pour juger de ses effets au regard de la conservation de la biodiversité. Au niveau du droit interne, son ancrage au cœur de l’équilibre de l’environnement lui apporte un rayonnement particulier. Il conforte le droit à un environnement équilibré et prolonge les principes constitutionnels de prévention et de développement durable. Face à la crise d’extinction mondiale de la biodiversité menaçant notre survie, le principe de solidarité écologique se présente comme cette ultime chance de la conserver. Deux grands ensembles de dispositifs permettent de mesurer la dynamique du principe de solidarité écologique : la trame verte et bleue et la gestion intégrée de la mer et du littoral. Ils constituent une base pour concevoir la solidarité écologique et représentent ainsi le commencement d’un droit nouveau. Le principe de solidarité écologique appelle à les renforcer et, de manière plus générale, à faire évoluer l’ensemble des décisions concernées par le principe
Adopted by article 2 from act nr 2016-1087 concerning the reconquest of biodiversity, nature and landscape of August 8th 2016, the principle of ecological solidarity calls “for taking into consideration the interactions of ecosystems, living creatures and natural or developed environments in all public decisions having a notable impact on the environment of the territories concerned”.This general principle of environmental law inscribed in article L110 1 of the environmental code is designed to preserve the interactions of ecosystems and ecological processes as well as to improve the environmental management of the territories. The duality of its objective renders it a highly valuable principle which should be applied to numerous decisions. Various supranational foundations, within jurisprudence and in international and European laws, can thus be assigned to it. In the context of ecological interdependence the evolution of the international and European dimension of the principle remains essential in order to see the benefits concerning the safeguarding of biodiversity. It is greatly enhanced, as regards internal law, by the fact that it is at the very center of the environment's equilibrium. It justifies the right to a balanced environment and extends the constitutional principles of prevention and sustainable development. Confronted with the crisis of world-wide biodiversity extinction that threatens our survival, the principle of ecological solidarity emerges as the last chance to preserve it. Two major groups of systems allow us to measure the dynamics of the principle of ecological solidarity: the green and the blue line belt network and the Ocean and coastline Governance Framework. They constitute a basis on which to develop ecological solidarity and represent the beginnings of new legislation. The principle of ecological solidarity requires them to be reinforced and more generally to advance all decisions concerned by the principle

碩士
國立海洋大學
海洋法律研究所
90
The protection of marine environment is grate important in ROC (Taiwan island),this thesis focus on UN convention and legislation .some pollution such as oil, noxious liquid substances, sewage, garbage, anti-fouling paints or unwanted aquatic organisms, are released into the marine environment by ships or Land-based activities in the course of their routine operations, either as a result of accidents, or illegally around Taiwan island. As much oil spills involving tankers occur at the terminal during loading or unloading. UNCLOS regulates pollution from ships by requiring States, acting through the competent international organization or a general diplomatic conference, to establish international rules and standards to prevent, reduce and control the pollution of the marine environment from vessels and to reexamine them from time to time as necessary. For the flag State such global rules and standards constitute the minimum standard which it must adopt for vessels flying its flag. Coastal States can adopt stricter rules and standards than the generally accepted global standards for application in their territorial sea, so long as such standards do not apply to the design ,construction ,manning or equipment of foreign ships or hamper innocent passage. In the exclusive economic zone, the generally accepted international rules and standards apply.

博士
國立中山大學
海洋環境及工程學系研究所
101
In this study, we explore the correlation between marine environmental knowledge and the marine environmental protection attitudes and behaviors in sixth and twelfth grade students and average adults by using curricular and social involvement. We collected data by using a self-devised questionnaire and analyzed the results by using statistical methods including a t-test, one-way analysis of variance with independent samples, product-moment correlation analysis, regression analysis, path analysis, typical correlation analysis, and structural equation modeling. The results are as follows: (a) Sixth grade students did not achieve significant learning effectiveness in acquiring declarative marine environmental knowledge. These results were similar to those of the average adults who did not attend marine environmental classes. However, twelfth grade school students attained significant learning effectiveness in acquiring declarative marine environmental knowledge. (b) Marine environmental curricula in elementary and high schools did significantly promote student attitudes or behaviors toward marine environmental protection. (c) The low number of marine environmental educational excursions failed to affect the learning effectiveness of sixth and twelfth grade students with regard to marine environmental knowledge and their subsequent marine environmental protection attitudes and behavior. (d) In specific instances, regional situational differences directly prompted the participants to exhibit marine environmental protection behaviors by disregarding their influence of marine environmental protection knowledge and attitudes. (e) Situational factors regarding the promotion of marine environmental education curricula that differ among regions could influence the marine environmental knowledge and marine environmental protection attitudes and behaviors of students. (f) Regarding current marine environmental education, the marine environmental knowledge and marine environmental protection attitudes of sixth and twelfth grade students showed a low correlation with their marine environmental protection behaviors. (g) Regarding current marine environmental education, the marine environmental knowledge and marine environmental protection attitudes of sixth and twelfth grade students rendered low predictive power or influence on their marine environmental protection behaviors. (h) The structural equation modeling regarding marine environmental knowledge and marine environmental protection attitudes and behavior established in this study generated a poor fit. This could result from the exclusion of situational factors and latent constructs from the structural equation modeling. (i) Schools of all levels should confirm that the teaching hours for marine environmental education conform to the proportionality of land and ocean. (j) Marine environmental education curricula should emphasize engendering marine environmental protection behaviors, rather than purely communicating knowledge. Keywords: environmental education, marine environmental education, marine environmental knowledge, marine environmental protection attitudes, marine environmental protection behavior

碩士
國立臺灣海洋大學
教育研究所
100
An Action Research was applied for promoting students’ abilities of marine environment protection by fables. The experimented students were third graders from an elementary school located in Ruifang District in the second semester of 2009. The researcher generalized the performance of students’ abilities of marine environment protection and explored the methods to promote middle graders’ abilities of marine environment protection at elementary school after analyzing the teaching process and results. The study used action research, undertaken by the researcher and guided by professional teachers, with the aim of improving fables teaching practices. Data was gathered and analyzed by the researcher through collecting, observations, assisted with audio or video recordings, note-taking and interviews, and then documented into the word-by-word transcripts and coded. Each fable curriculum design was reflected and interpreted based on the purpose and methods of the research. The major conclusions drawn from this research are as follows: Ⅰ.Marine environment protection incorporated into fables curriculum design. 1. Students’ abilities of marine environment protection were emerged gradually guided by the values. 2. Fables curriculum design and implementation were necessarily connected with students’ life experience 3. The quality of students’ abilities of marine environment protection was better promoted and comprehended through the application of the open-ended questions. 4. Learning topic of marine environment protection was enhanced by practical experience activities designed for students. 5. Spiral curriculum design supported complete learning process. Ⅱ.Marine environment protection incorporated into fables teaching process. 1. Students’ interests toward the ocean were raised through fables teaching. 2. Students’ imagination and affection were strengthened through fables teaching. 3. Cognition and comprehension of marine environment were accumulated through the exploration of marine issues. 4. Students’ abilities of marine environment protection were reinforced with experience activities. 5. Definite teaching procedures from Flow Learning Method significantly promoted the learning effectiveness. 6. Students’ abilities of marine environment protection represented a significant progress through curriculum.

碩士
國立臺灣大學
國家發展研究所
99
Marine biological resource is abundant with circulating and reproducible aspects. However, human being took advantage of the reproducibility of ocean and now we are suffering the bitterness from the overdevelopment, which has damaged the marine ecological balance. Many countries have begun making efforts on researches of marine resource protection. The most common problem that the entire global society faces today is how to find the solution to achieve the most development without damaging the marine’s ability of reproduction. Most countries and organizations have made international and regional laws on the issues of global marine environment and expect that everyone can support and obey them. This study adopts methods of literature review and comparison. We will first focus on the lawmaking of marine environmental protection and pollution control and then discuss the lawmaking trend in both Taiwan and China through United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. Through comparison, we can learn the difference between the laws made by china, a member nation of international convention, and the laws made by Taiwan. We will be able to determine the standards of each environment pollution between cross-Straits based on the basis of law extracted from both international common law and international statutory law. While observing the cross-Straits marine environmental protection law, we learned that although the Marine Pollution Control Act in Taiwan has consulted to United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, our government does not have a complete mechanism to integrate the acts into government’s administration and legislature. In addition, not many people paid much attention to the marine protection department in Taiwan; thus there is so much more we can do on this matter. On the other hand, “The Marine Environmental Protection Law of the People’s S Republic of China” shows that Chinese government has been making a lot of efforts on the matter of marine environment. However, the country is focusing on their economic development right now and the matter of environmental protection has been compromised during the process of development. Chinese government should take a serious consideration on how to make a balance between economic development and environmental protection.

Recent concerns about the health of marine environments have led to the worldwide creation of new marine conservation initiatives. Multiple-use marine protected areas (MPAs) are one potential solution; however, they may be perceived by some as 'economic sterilizers' and threats to certain livelihoods, such as marine tourism or aquaculture. For instance, shellfish growers may perceive MPAs as favouring tourism as an economic activity, attracting recreational boaters who may inflict a negative impact on shellfish health through sewage or chemical discharge. Conversely, recreational boaters may perceive shellfish aquaculture as a threat to safe navigation and desirable anchorages. One significant challenge for resource managers then, is to design MPAs in ways that are acceptable to different stakeholder groups. This research, a partial application of the "Limits of Acceptable Change" (LAC) visitor management framework, examines acceptability of recreational boating and shellfish aquaculture within a proposed MPA from a community stakeholder perspective. This study examined Gulf Islands residents’ attitudes, perceptions and values towards the Gulf Islands marine environment. Gaining a clear understanding of the views of stakeholders is key in allowing coastal planners and marine resource managers to proceed effectively towards achieving their mandates. Specifically, this knowledge allows them to (1) identify what is important to different users; (2) determine public relations needs; (3) justify management decisions; (4) promote resource protection; (5) identify potential conflict areas; and (6) address negative concerns and build on positive perceptions. This project samples the views of a random selection of residents (n = 302) from Thetis. Salt Spring and Saturna Islands during the summer of 2004. This research applies respondents' values towards the marine environment as an independent variable in the analysis of (1) perceptions of threats towards the marine environment; (2) attitudes towards recreational boating and sewage from boating; (3) attitudes towards shellfish aquaculture: and (4) attitudes towards different strategies for zoning the marine environment.

碩士
國立高雄海洋科技大學
海事資訊科技研究所
102
In order to enhance the operation efficiency and navigation safety for the fishing-protection missions by the Coast Guard Administration, this study aims at analyzing the marine environments in the Bashi Channel. The NCEP-CFSR reanalysis data from 2001 to 2010 and Jason-2 satellite data from June 2009 to June 2012 are used to examine the wind and wave characteristics in the Channel. Analysis results show that, in the Bashi Channel, the major winds during the southwest monsoon season (Jun.-Aug.) are in the Beaufort wind scale of 3-4 levels, while major waves are in the 4-5 levels. During the northeast monsoon season (Oct.-Apr.), the major winds are in the 4-6 levels, while major waves are in the 4-6 levels. Marine environments become more dangerous during the northeast monsoon season, with increasing intensity in wind and wave by 1-2 levels than the southwest monsoon season. For the whole Bashi Channel throughout the entire year, the probability of waves weaker than level 5 is about 70%. This situation is suitable for the missions carried out by a ship between 500-1000 tonnages. The probability of waves smaller than level 6 is about 95%, which is suitable for the missions by a ship larger than 1000 tonnages. Inside the Bashi Channel, winds and waves are stronger in the northwestern and southwestern sections than the northeastern and southeastern sections. Temporally, their intensity reaches the maximum phase from November to January. As such, it requires a larger ship (more than 1000 tonnages) for the missions in the western section of the Bashi Channel during the Nov.-Jan. season.

碩士
國立臺灣海洋大學
海洋法律研究所
96
As the military strategy and transportation area of South China Sea, Dongsha archipelago, which is under Taiwan’s dominion, is shorn to be an important site for the protection of fishery resources and the health of ecosystem. In regard to abundance of living and non-living resources, especially, the rare atoll, the ecosystem around Dongsha is conferred one of the most important world natural heritage, and needs to be protected. The 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea emphasized the protection and management of ocean creature and environment, that are also called upon in the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity. Therefore, the protection and the sustainable development of marine resources have gradually becomed an important role for all people related activitues. The Costal Guard Ministry had taken over the management and defense role of Dongsha since February, 2000. After announcing and establishing the first marine park “Dongsha Marine National Park” according to “Dongsha Atoll National Park Project,” the Ministry of the Interior simultaneously planed to apply for making Dongsha as world heritage to UNECO. Dongsha was also placed under the jurisdiction of Kaoshiung City on October 4, 2007. Consequently, this research project report attempts to study the way to manage or maintain natural or cultural heritages in the surrounding waters and the legal bases and practices about setting up a marine park.

À l’heure actuelle, l’Arctique fait face à d’importantes menaces environnementales, qui risquent, en raison de sa précarité singulière, d’affecter son écosystème ainsi que ses communautés locales. Alors que ces problèmes posent des défis uniques de gestion, des solutions existent, mais sont peu efficaces. Aux échelles internationale, régionale, subrégionale, bilatérale ou nationale, le milieu marin arctique fait l’objet de plusieurs instruments de droit dur et de droit mou, qui présentent des lacunes. Face à ces enjeux, la question de la gouvernance du milieu marin arctique est devenue incontournable. Équilibrer le besoin de protéger le milieu marin arctique, son écosystème et ses habitants d’une part, et les impératifs économiques d’exploitation des ressources et d’augmentation du niveau de vie de l’autre, est nécessaire. Pour ce faire, la protection du milieu marin arctique doit (1) proposer un instrument qui inclut mécanismes de mise en œuvre et de conformité, flexibilité, précision et profondeur, et transparence et responsabilité ; (2) être pensée en terme de continuum et de complémentarité des différents niveaux de gouvernance plutôt qu’en isolant les différents paliers de gouvernance ; (3) privilégier un complexe de régimes internationaux ; (4) inclure une pléthore d’acteurs dans la gouvernance et (5) établir des aires marines protégées reconnaissant les concepts d’une gestion axée sur les écosystèmes en respectant des principes propres à la science environnementale. De cette façon, un équilibre entre les besoins environnementaux, sociaux et économiques et une gouvernance efficace pourront être atteints.
The Arctic is currently facing significant environmental threats. Yet, because of its particular precariousness, those threats will possibly impact its ecosystem and local communities. As those problems are posing unique management challenges, some solutions have been put in place, but are not really effective. In order to protect the arctic marine environment, several hard law and soft law instruments have been set at the international, regional, subregional, bilateral and national scales, but they are all facing serious shortcomings. The question of arctic marine environmental governance has therefore become inevitable in addressing those issues. The needs to protect the arctic marine environment, its ecosystem and inhabitants and the economic imperatives of resources exploitation and economic growth have to be balanced. Thus, arctic marine environmental protection has to (1) put forth an instrument with more implementation and conformity mechanisms, with more flexibility, more precision and depth, and more transparence and accountability; (2) be thought in terms of continuum and synergies of the different levels of governance instead of approaching them separately; (3) put forward an international regimes complex; (4) include a plethora of actors in the governance system and (5) establish marine protected areas that recognize the concepts of ecosystem-based management and respect some environmental principles. In this way, equilibrium between environmental, social and economical needs and effectiveness in governance will be reached.

The presented thesis focuses on marine environmental law. Aside from providing an overview of marine environmental law on both intenational and European Union (EU) level, the thesis aims to show through an analysis and comparison, what the European Union takes on in the marine environment protection. The thesis approaches the EU in two different aspects, first as an supranational entity and second as an international organisation. The thesis in detail compates the international and EU law on prevention of vessel source pollution or pollution from land-based sources. It also includes an analysis of the new Framework directives on marine straegy and maritime spatial planning. The thesis arrives at conclusion that the duality of the EU being a supranational organisation on the one hand and an international organisation on the other enables the EU to achieve more stringend protection of maritime environment of European seas and also gives the EU better negotiating position as an actor on the international level.

The oceans represent more than 70% of the Earth's surface, have enormous biodiversity, which concentrate an immense number of species, represent a vast stock of food for human beings and contain reserves of natural and mineral resources, which are extremely useful for development of human life. The resources and wealth to be exploited can and must be exploited by States, however, they must respect international standards, in particular, the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. Through the oceans, maritime transport is also carried out, which is the most used method of transport, representing 90% of international trade. The exploration of the sea generated an economic impact that contributed to the development of the global economy, through the transport of cargo and passengers. The oceans also connect the continents, which makes this space very valuable, disputed and with great opportunities for exploration, whether for public or private purposes. It so happens that with the increase in the exploration of the oceans, consequently, the pollution levels of the marine environment have increased, which threaten the lives of marine species, destroy ecosystems and end up impacting the health of humans. Taking into account that a large part of the populations is found in coastal regions, which use the sea, it is inevitable that for the well-being of these populations it is necessary that the marine environment is preserved and protected. It is a common good of all humanity, since all oceans are connected, and through sea currents and winds, debris and other waste can be taken to the other side of the world. With industrial and technological development, vessels have also evolved in the size and amount of cargo that can be transported. Thus, when a maritime accident involving, for example, a supertanker, the environmental damage caused is enormous and may result in irrecoverable damage.Given these circumstances, it was necessary to update international standards that regulate the preservation and protection of the marine environment. At the beginning of the 20th century, there were no major concerns about maritime pollution, it was believed in the absorption capacity of the oceans, however over the years it has been verified that this capacity is limited. Therefore, the adoption of international treaties was fundamental to establish parameters and to boost these norms in the domestic legislation of the States. The Conventions deal with different aspects of the law of the sea and the maritime sector, but all with the same objective of preserving and protecting the oceans.
Os oceanos representam mais de 70% da superfície terrestre, possuem uma biodiversidade enorme, concentram um imenso número de espécies, representam um vasto estoque de alimentos para os seres humanos e contêm reservas de recursos naturais e minerais, que são extremamente úteis ao desenvolvimento da vida humana. Os recursos e riquezas podem e devem ser explorados pelos Estados, que, entretanto, devem respeitar as normas internacionais, com destaque para a Convenção das Nações Unidas sobre Direito do Mar. Através dos oceanos também é realizado o transporte marítimo, método de transporte mais utilizado, representando 90% do comércio internacional. A exploração do mar, em razão da exploração do transporte de carga e de passageiros, gerou um impacto econômico que contribuiu para o desenvolvimento da economia global. Os oceanos também conectam os continentes, o que torna esse espaço muito valioso, disputado e com grandes oportunidades de exploração, seja para fins públicos ou privados. Ocorre que com o desenvolvimento da exploração dos oceanos, consequentemente aumentaram os índices de poluição do meio ambiente marinho, que ameaçam as vidas das espécies marinhas, destroem ecossistemas e acabam por impactar a saúde dos humanos. Levando-se em consideração que grande parte das populações se encontra em regiões costeiras e se beneficiam do mar, é inevitável que para o bem-estar destas populações o meio ambiente marinho seja preservado e protegido. Trata-se de um bem comum de toda humanidade, visto que todos os oceanos são conectados, e através de correntes marítimas e ventos, detritos, lixos e demais resíduos podem ser levados para o outro lado do mundo. Com o desenvolvimento industrial e tecnológico, as embarcações também evoluíram no tamanho e na quantidade de carga que pode ser transportada. Desta forma, quando ocorre um acidente marítimo envolvendo, por exemplo, um superpetroleiro, os danos ambientais causados são enormes, podendo resultar em prejuízos irrecuperáveis.Diante destas circunstâncias, foi preciso atualizar as normas internacionais que regulam a preservação e proteção do meio ambiente marinho. No início do século XX não havia maiores preocupações com a poluição marítima, acreditava-se na capacidade de absorção dos oceanos; porém, com o passar dos anos, verificou-se que essa capacidade é limitada. Assim, a adoção de tratados internacionais foi fundamental para estabelecer parâmetros e impulsionar essas normas na legislação interna dos Estados. As Convenções tratam de diversos aspectos do Direito do Mar e do setor marítimo, mas todas com o mesmo objetivo: preservação e proteção dos oceanos.