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Stein, Lynn Andrea, and Leora Morgenstern. "Motivated action theory: a formal theory of causal reasoning." Artificial Intelligence 71, no. 1 (November 1994): 1–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0004-3702(94)90061-2.
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Poletiek, Fenna H. "You can't have your hypothesis and test it: The importance of utilities in theories of reasoning." Behavioral and Brain Sciences 34, no. 2 (March 29, 2011): 87–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0140525x10002980.
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AbstractMercier and Sperber's (M&S's) theory of reasoning cannot predict reasoning in the absence of an argumentative context. Applying the theory to hypothesis testing behavior, I propose that hypothesis testing is often motivated by determining the true inference and that reasoning models should account for utilities (affected by various motives, including the wish to convince) of reasoning outcomes.
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Koch, Christopher, and Steven E. Salterio. "The Effects of Auditor Affinity for Client and Perceived Client Pressure on Auditor Proposed Adjustments." Accounting Review 92, no. 5 (February 1, 2017): 117–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.2308/accr-51703.
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ABSTRACT This paper examines how auditors' judgments about accounting policies may differ when experiencing different levels of affinity for client management and facing different levels of pressure from client management. The theory of motivated reasoning is employed to analyze the effects of these two factors that should lead individual auditors to adopt as a directional goal the acceptance of client management's aggressive accounting. Accordingly, we predict and find that auditors experiencing greater client affinity and facing explicit client pressure suggest lower adjustments to clients' aggressive accounting, consistent with motivated reasoning's goal-related predictions. But our study goes further and investigates also how auditors react when motivated reasoning theory's “reasonableness constraint” is potentially violated by auditors who perceive excessive client pressure. We predict and find, consistent with the individual auditor's “reasonable constraint” being triggered in at least some auditors, that perception of client pressure intensity leads those auditors to propose larger adjustments to client accounting. To support our findings, we re-analyze the data from a prior motivated reasoning audit experiment, replicate that study's reported directional goal results employing methods used in this study and, in addition, find similar results to those found in this study for increased client pressure intensity on auditor judgment.
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Laar, Jan Albert van. "Motivated Doubts: A Comment on Walton’S Theory of Criticism." Studies in Logic, Grammar and Rhetoric 36, no. 1 (March 1, 2014): 221–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/slgr-2014-0011.
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Abstract In his theory of criticism, D. N. Walton presupposes that an opponent either critically questions an argument, without supplementing this questioning with any reasoning of her own, or that she puts forward a critical question and supplements it with a counterargument, that is, with reasoning in defense of an opposite position of her own. In this paper, I show that there is a kind of in-between critical option for the opponent that needs to be taken into account in any classification of types of criticism, and that should not be overlooked in a system of dialogue norms, nor in a procedure for developing a strategically expedient critique. In this third option, an opponent questions and overtly doubts a statement of the proponent and supplements her doubts with a counterconsideration that explains and motivates her position of critical doubt, yet without supporting any opposite thesis, thereby assisting, as it were, the proponent in his attempt to develop a responsive argumentation, tailor-made to convince this particular opponent. First, I elaborate on the notion of an explanatory counterconsideration. Second, I discuss Walton’s distinction between premises that can be challenged by mere questioning (“ordinary premises” and “assumptions”) and premises that must be challenged by incurring the obligation to offer counter-argumentation (somewhat confusingly labeled “exceptions”). I contend that the latter type of premises, that I would label “normality premises,” can be attacked without incurring a genuine burden of proof. Instead, it can be attacked by means of incurring a burden of criticism (Van Laar and Krabbe, 2013) that amounts to the obligation to offer an explanatory counterconsideration, rather than a convincing ex concessis argument. Of course, providing the opponent with the right to discharge her burden of criticism with explanatory counterconsiderations brings a clear strategic ad- vantage to her. It is much less demanding to motivate one’s doubts regarding proposition P, than to convince the proponent of not-P. If we want to encourage opponents to act critically, and proponents to develop responsive arguments, the importance of the notions of an explanatory counterconsideration and of a motivated doubt should be emphasized in the theory of criticism.
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Camaj, Lindita. "From Selective Exposure to Selective Information Processing: A Motivated Reasoning Approach." Media and Communication 7, no. 3 (July 30, 2019): 8–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.17645/mac.v7i3.2289.
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Literature suggests that while without doubt people engage in selective exposure to information, this does not entail that they also engage in selective avoidance of opinion-challenging information<em>.</em> However, cross-cutting exposure does not always lead to dispassionate deliberation. In this commentary I explore psychological conditions as they apply to attitude-based selection and make an argument that selectivity does not stop at exposure but continues as audiences engage with information they encounter and incorporate in their decision-making. I propose the theory of motivated reasoning as a rich theoretical underpinning that helps us understand selective exposure and selective information processing.
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Mercier, Hugo, and Dan Sperber. "Why do humans reason? Arguments for an argumentative theory." Behavioral and Brain Sciences 34, no. 2 (March 29, 2011): 57–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0140525x10000968.
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AbstractReasoning is generally seen as a means to improve knowledge and make better decisions. However, much evidence shows that reasoning often leads to epistemic distortions and poor decisions. This suggests that the function of reasoning should be rethought. Our hypothesis is that the function of reasoning is argumentative. It is to devise and evaluate arguments intended to persuade. Reasoning so conceived is adaptive given the exceptional dependence of humans on communication and their vulnerability to misinformation. A wide range of evidence in the psychology of reasoning and decision making can be reinterpreted and better explained in the light of this hypothesis. Poor performance in standard reasoning tasks is explained by the lack of argumentative context. When the same problems are placed in a proper argumentative setting, people turn out to be skilled arguers. Skilled arguers, however, are not after the truth but after arguments supporting their views. This explains the notorious confirmation bias. This bias is apparent not only when people are actually arguing, but also when they are reasoning proactively from the perspective of having to defend their opinions. Reasoning so motivated can distort evaluations and attitudes and allow erroneous beliefs to persist. Proactively used reasoning also favors decisions that are easy to justify but not necessarily better. In all these instances traditionally described as failures or flaws, reasoning does exactly what can be expected of an argumentative device: Look for arguments that support a given conclusion, and, ceteris paribus, favor conclusions for which arguments can be found.
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Herrmann, Richard K. "How Attachments to the Nation Shape Beliefs About the World: A Theory of Motivated Reasoning." International Organization 71, S1 (April 2017): S61—S84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020818316000382.
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AbstractIf competing beliefs about political events in the world stem largely from information asymmetries, then more information and knowledge should reduce the gap in competing perceptions. Empirical studies of decision making, however, often find just the reverse: as knowledge and the stakes in play go up, the beliefs about what is happening polarize rather than converge. The theory proposed here attributes this to motivated reasoning. Emotions inside the observer shape beliefs along with information coming from the outside world. A series of experiments embedded in a national survey of Americans finds that a primary driver of the beliefs someone forms about globalization, other countries, and the politics in the Middle East is how strongly they attach their social identity to the United States. Attachment produces more intense positive and negative emotions that in turn shape the interpretation of unfolding events and lead norms to be applied in an inconsistent fashion. People, in effect, rewrite reality around their favored course of action, marrying the logic of appropriateness to their own preferences. Beliefs, consequently, are not independent of preferences but related to them. Motivated reasoning, while not consistent with rational models, is predictable and can lead to expensive mistakes and double standards that undermine liberal internationalism.
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Kertzer, Joshua D., Brian C. Rathbun, and Nina Srinivasan Rathbun. "The Price of Peace: Motivated Reasoning and Costly Signaling in International Relations." International Organization 74, no. 1 (November 5, 2019): 95–118. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020818319000328.
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AbstractCanonical models of costly signaling in international relations (IR) tend to assume costly signals speak for themselves: a signal's costliness is typically understood to be a function of the signal, not the perceptions of the recipient. Integrating the study of signaling in IR with research on motivated skepticism and asymmetric updating from political psychology, we show that individuals’ tendencies to embrace information consistent with their overarching belief systems (and dismiss information inconsistent with it) has important implications for how signals are interpreted. We test our theory in the context of the 2015 Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) on Iran, combining two survey experiments fielded on members of the American mass public. We find patterns consistent with motivated skepticism: the individuals most likely to update their beliefs are those who need reassurance the least, such that costly signals cause polarization rather than convergence. Successful signaling therefore requires knowing something about the orientations of the signal's recipient.
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Baekgaard, Martin, Julian Christensen, Casper Mondrup Dahlmann, Asbjørn Mathiasen, and Niels Bjørn Grund Petersen. "The Role of Evidence in Politics: Motivated Reasoning and Persuasion among Politicians." British Journal of Political Science 49, no. 3 (August 18, 2017): 1117–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0007123417000084.
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Does evidence help politicians make informed decisions even if it is at odds with their prior beliefs? And does providing more evidence increase the likelihood that politicians will be enlightened by the information? Based on the literature on motivated political reasoning and the theory about affective tipping points, this article hypothesizes that politicians tend to reject evidence that contradicts their prior attitudes, but that increasing the amount of evidence will reduce the impact of prior attitudes and strengthen their ability to interpret the information correctly. These hypotheses are examined using randomized survey experiments with responses from 954 Danish politicians, and results from this sample are compared to responses from similar survey experiments with Danish citizens. The experimental findings strongly support the hypothesis that politicians are biased by prior attitudes when interpreting information. However, in contrast to expectations, the findings show that the impact of prior attitudes increases when more evidence is provided.
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Switzer, David, and Arnold Vedlitz. "Green Colored Lenses: Worldviews and Motivated Reasoning in the Case of Local Water Scarcity." Environment and Behavior 49, no. 7 (September 28, 2016): 719–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0013916516669391.
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Studies linking local issue severity to public opinion often treat the effect as homogeneous, suggesting a straightforward relationship between issue exposure and policy opinions. It is more likely that individuals perceive local issues in conditional ways. We advance a theory of motivated reasoning whereby worldviews act as a lens through which individuals interpret the world around them. When the observed environment conforms to individuals’ prior beliefs, they will be even more likely to perceive risk and call for policy action. When the information presented to them is incongruent with their worldview, increasing issue severity will have a minimal effect. We test our theory by combining an indicator of water scarcity with data from two nationally representative, probability-based panel surveys about water issues in the United States. Analyzing interactive models predicting risk perception and policy preferences, we find that water scarcity drives individuals with opposing environmental worldviews even further apart.
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Saunders, Kyle L. "The impact of elite frames and motivated reasoning on beliefs in a global warming conspiracy: The promise and limits of trust." Research & Politics 4, no. 3 (July 2017): 205316801771760. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2053168017717602.
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Given the potential attitudinal and behavioral impact of Anthropogenic Global Warming (AGW) conspiracy beliefs, it is important to understand their causes and moderators. Here, two explanations for the variation in these beliefs are engaged: the first is the choice among elites to frame AGW using the phrase ‘global warming’ (GW) as opposed to ‘climate change’ (CC); the second is partisan motivated reasoning. A theory is then developed about the role of trust in moderating the impact of the two frames on AGW conspiracy beliefs. In the case of CC, which is perceived as less severe than GW (and is therefore less identity threatening among Republicans), it is hypothesized that trust will moderate hoax beliefs among Republicans. In the case of GW, where the implications of existence beliefs have policy consequences that are more unpleasant, motivated reasoning will ‘win out’, and trust will not moderate conspiracy endorsement among Republicans. The results from an original question framing experiment are consistent with the author’s hypotheses. Whilst trust is a welcome commodity to those looking to persuade citizens to support AGW-ameliorating policies, it is not a cure-all, especially in the face of elite partisan cues that edify pre-existing attitudes/identities and arouse a strong desire to engage in motivated reasoning.
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Klaczynski, Paul A. "Motivated Scientific Reasoning Biases, Epistemological Beliefs, and Theory Polarization: A Two-Process Approach to Adolescent Cognition." Child Development 71, no. 5 (September 2000): 1347–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00232.
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Lando, Henrik. "Why do business losses cause conflict?" Journal of Strategic Contracting and Negotiation 4, no. 4 (December 2018): 219–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2055563620925060.
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Evidence suggests that conflicts between contracting parties are more prone to occur when a party has suffered a significant loss. It is argued that the phenomenon is difficult to understand within conventional contract theory, which assumes full rationality, while behavioral theories based on the concepts of motivated reasoning and reciprocity provide interesting explanations. Thus, losses can trigger motivated, self-serving perceptions and beliefs, which in turn are likely to induce negative reciprocity as well as counter-productive acts aimed at bolstering self-image. These explanations are demonstrated to be well supported by experiments.
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Kartikasari, Nungki, Bambang Subroto, and Aulia Fuad Rahman. "PERBEDAAN TUJUAN AUDITOR ATAS TINGKAT OVERCONFIDENCE PERTIMBANGAN AUDITOR (STUDI EKSPERIMENTAL)." EKUITAS (Jurnal Ekonomi dan Keuangan) 17, no. 2 (September 7, 2018): 234–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.24034/j25485024.y2013.v17.i2.163.
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Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menguji dan mendapatkan bukti empiris mengenai adanya perbedaan tingkat overconfidence pertimbangan auditor ketika auditor bertujuan akurasi, direksional, dan kombinasi. Penelitian ini merupakan salah satu bentuk pengujian motivated reasoning theory pada bidang audit. Pengukuran tingkat overconfidence pertimbangan auditor dilakukan menggunakan metode kalibrasi. Metode kalibrasi dilakukan dengan mengukur tingkat keyakinan dan keakurasian pertimbangan auditor pada kasus persediaan usang perusahaan. Pengujian hipotesis pada penelitian ini menggunakan eksperimen laboratorium. Eksperimen laboratorium dilakukan dengan partisipan auditor yang menjadi mahasiswa join program Fakultas Ekonomi dan Bisnis Universitas Brawijaya. Desain eksperimen yang digunakan pada penelitian ini adalah repeated measure design, yaitu dilakukan dengan memberikan perlakuan tujuan akurasi (menghindari adanya risiko hukum dan sanksi), direksional (mempertahankan hubungan baik dengan klien) dan kombinasi (menghindari adanya risiko hukum dan mempertahankan hubungan baik dengan klien) pada masing-masing partisipan, kemudian dilanjutkan dengan mengukur tingkat overconfidence pada masing-masing tujuan. Pengujian statistik non-parametrik yang digunakan dalam pengujian hipotesis penelitian ini adalah tes cochran. Hasil pengujian menunjukkan bahwa auditor melakukan pertimbangan dengan tingkat overconfidence yang tidak berbeda pada ketiga tujuan (akurasi, direksional dan kombinasi). Penelitian ini menunjukkan adanya ketidakkonsistenan hasil penelitian dengan motivated reasoning theory.
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Kartikasari, Nungki, Bambang Subroto, and Aulia Fuad Rahman. "PERBEDAAN TUJUAN AUDITOR ATAS TINGKAT OVERCONFIDENCE PERTIMBANGAN AUDITOR (STUDI EKSPERIMENTAL)." EKUITAS (Jurnal Ekonomi dan Keuangan) 17, no. 2 (February 7, 2017): 234. http://dx.doi.org/10.24034/j25485024.y2013.v17.i2.2251.
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The purpose of this study is to investigate and provide empirical finding about the effect of accuracy, directional and combined goals on overconfidence level in auditors judgments. This study tested the motivated reasoning theory in audit context. Overconfidence level in auditor judgments was measured by calibration method. Calibration method is used by measures the level of accuracy and confidence in auditor judgments in the obsolescence inventory case. This experiment used repeated measure design. The design of this experiment was conducted by given the treatment of accuracy (a condition to avoid the legal risks and sanctions), directional (a condition to emphasizing the importance of good client relations) and combination (a condition to combining get along and accuracy goals) goal to the participants and measuring the overconfidence level in every goal. The hypothesis testing in this study used cochran test. This study used laboratory experiment with participants auditor from join program students of Economics and Business Faculty, University of Brawijaya. The result of this study shows that auditors judgments are overconfidence in all goals (accuracy, directional and combined). The result of this study was inconsistent with motivated reasoning theory.
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Han, Jiyoung, and Yungwook Kim. "Defeating Merchants of Doubt: Subjective certainty and self-affirmation ameliorate attitude polarization via partisan motivated reasoning." Public Understanding of Science 29, no. 7 (July 6, 2020): 729–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0963662520939315.
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Informed by uncertainty–identity theory, this study tested the polarizing effect of partisan-led politicization of science and ways to combat it. Using a national sample of South Koreans ( N = 840), our online experiment found that when partisan elites, as opposed to scientists (or civic activists), spearheaded politicization, attitude polarization emerged via partisan motivated reasoning. Such polarizing effects of party cues did not persist when subjective certainty and self-affirmation enhanced the level of certainty partisans felt about their surroundings and themselves. These patterns proved consistent across multiple scientific issues, including climate change, genetically modified foods, and algae blooms. The implications of the findings are discussed in light of how to attenuate the polarizing effect of partisan-led politicization through the lens of social identity approaches. Given that this study provides one of the first pieces of evidence on the topic outside the Western context, the advantages of using a South Korean sample are noted.
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Jardina, Ashley, and Michael Traugott. "The Genesis of the Birther Rumor: Partisanship, Racial Attitudes, and Political Knowledge." Journal of Race, Ethnicity, and Politics 4, no. 1 (November 20, 2018): 60–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/rep.2018.25.
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AbstractA growing body of work has examined the psychological underpinnings of conspiracy theory endorsement, arguing that the propensity to believe in conspiracy theories and political rumors is a function of underlying predispositions and motivated reasoning. We show, like others, that rumor endorsement can also be a function of individuals’ group attitudes. In particular, among white Americans, birther beliefs are uniquely associated with racial animus. We merge this finding with other work which shows that rumors are more strongly endorsed by the individuals most motivated and capable of integrating them among their pre-existing attitudes and beliefs. We find, therefore, that it is white Republicans who are both racially conservative and highly knowledgeable who possess the most skepticism about Obama's birthplace.
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Lavis, Catherine. "Enhancing Horticulture Students' Reasoning and Thinking Skills: Applying the Perry Theory to Horticulture." HortScience 40, no. 4 (July 2005): 1138A—1138. http://dx.doi.org/10.21273/hortsci.40.4.1138a.
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This study explored students' cognitive complexity as defined by William Perry (1970) as influenced by teaching methods promoting active involvement at a higher level of interchange than traditional lecture. Two components of this research are: 1) an understanding of Perry's theory to serve as a guide for curricula development incorporating activities to influence intellectual growth by considering the student's current Perry positions in order to encourage upward movement according to Perry's Scheme; and 2) to investigate the reliability of using the student's Learning Environment Preference Inventory (LEP) (Moore, 1987) as a tool to understand the student's cognitive growth. The qualitative portion of this research examined cognitive complexity using the LEP instrument. LEP would give instructors an approximate idea of how to construct their courses to deliver information encouraging higher-order thinking. It is a mistake to assume students in upper division courses are all operating in upper Perry positions. It is difficult to make significant gains in intellectual development during one semester, but it is particularly challenging if instructors are unaware of where students are initially in respect to cognitive complexity. The utilization of a reliable instrument may also help explain some perplexing incidents that occur in classrooms. Instructors can be comforted knowing that what frequently transpires in a class might be motivated more by where students are in their cognitive development than by what is said or done by the instructor.
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Wojcieszak, Magdalena, Erik C. Nisbet, Lea Kremer, Golnoosh Behrouzian, and Carroll Glynn. "What Drives Media Use in Authoritarian Regimes? Extending Selective Exposure Theory to Iran." International Journal of Press/Politics 24, no. 1 (November 7, 2018): 69–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1940161218808372.
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Most work on selective exposure comes from the United States or other western democracies and typically examines partisan attitudes as the cognitive or motivational drivers of selectivity. This study extends the boundary conditions of existing literature by studying the factors affecting media choice in the Islamic Republic of Iran, a drastically understudied context. Within the overarching framework of motivated reasoning, we propose two theoretically relevant factors that should drive selective exposure into regime media or non-regime alternatives in authoritarian contexts: (1) system-justifying attitudes and (2) regime-sanctioned identities, here religiosity. Relying on two different surveys conducted within Iran in 2012 and 2016, we find that religiosity strongly predicts the reliance on non-regime media in both studies, whereas system-justifying attitudes predict selectivity in Study 2. Theoretical implications for the selectivity literature are discussed.
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LADYMAN, JAMES, and STUART PRESNELL. "UNIVERSES AND UNIVALENCE IN HOMOTOPY TYPE THEORY." Review of Symbolic Logic 12, no. 3 (July 15, 2019): 426–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1755020316000460.
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AbstractThe Univalence axiom, due to Vladimir Voevodsky, is often taken to be one of the most important discoveries arising from the Homotopy Type Theory (HoTT) research programme. It is said by Steve Awodey that Univalence embodies mathematical structuralism, and that Univalence may be regarded as ‘expanding the notion of identity to that of equivalence’. This article explores the conceptual, foundational and philosophical status of Univalence in Homotopy Type Theory. It extends our Types-as-Concepts interpretation of HoTT to Universes, and offers an account of the Univalence axiom in such terms. We consider Awodey’s informal argument that Univalence is motivated by the principle that reasoning should be invariant under isomorphism, and we examine whether an autonomous and rigorous justification along these lines can be given. We consider two problems facing such a justification. First, there is a difference between equivalence and isomorphism and Univalence must be formulated in terms of the former. Second, the argument as presented cannot establish Univalence itself but only a weaker version of it, and must be supplemented by an additional principle. The article argues that the prospects for an autonomous justification of Univalence are promising.
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Fairfield, Tasha, and Andrew Charman. "A Dialogue with the Data: The Bayesian Foundations of Iterative Research in Qualitative Social Science." Perspectives on Politics 17, no. 1 (February 13, 2019): 154–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1537592718002177.
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We advance efforts to explicate and improve inference in qualitative research that iterates between theory development, data collection, and data analysis, rather than proceeding linearly from hypothesizing to testing. We draw on the school of Bayesian “probability as extended logic,” where probabilities represent rational degrees of belief in propositions given limited information, to provide a solid foundation for iterative research that has been lacking in the qualitative methods literature. We argue that mechanisms for distinguishing exploratory from confirmatory stages of analysis that have been suggested in the context of APSA’s DA-RT transparency initiative are unnecessary for qualitative research that is guided by logical Bayesianism, because new evidence has no special status relative to old evidence for testing hypotheses within this inferential framework. Bayesian probability not only fits naturally with how we intuitively move back and forth between theory and data, but also provides a framework for rational reasoning that mitigates confirmation bias and ad-hoc hypothesizing—two common problems associated with iterative research. Moreover, logical Bayesianism facilitates scrutiny of findings by the academic community for signs of sloppy or motivated reasoning. We illustrate these points with an application to recent research on state building.
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Bagg, Samuel. "Can deliberation neutralise power?" European Journal of Political Theory 17, no. 3 (October 20, 2015): 257–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1474885115610542.
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Most democratic theorists agree that concentrations of wealth and power tend to distort the functioning of democracy and ought to be countered wherever possible. Deliberative democrats are no exception: though not its only potential value, the capacity of deliberation to ‘neutralise power’ is often regarded as ‘fundamental’ to deliberative theory. Power may be neutralised, according to many deliberative democrats, if citizens can be induced to commit more fully to the deliberative resolution of common problems. If they do, they will be unable to get away with inconsistencies and bad or private reasons, thereby mitigating the illegitimate influence of power. I argue, however, that the means by which power inflects political disagreement is far more subtle than this model suggests and cannot be countered so simply. As a wealth of recent research in political psychology demonstrates, human beings persistently exhibit ‘motivated reasoning’, meaning that even when we are sincerely committed to the deliberative resolution of common problems, and even when we are exposed to the same reasons and evidence, we still disagree strongly about what ‘fair cooperation’ entails. Motivated reasoning can be counteracted, but only under exceptional circumstances such as those that enable modern science, which cannot be reliably replicated in our society at large. My analysis suggests that in democratic politics – which rules out the kind of anti-democratic practices available to scientists – we should not expect deliberation to reliably neutralise power.
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Camaj, Lindita. "Motivational Theories of Agenda-Setting Effects: An Information Selection and Processing Model of Attribute Agenda-Setting." International Journal of Public Opinion Research 31, no. 3 (July 18, 2018): 441–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edy016.
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Abstract This study explores how agenda-setting theory works in a fragmented media environment while examining psychological motivations that drive selective exposure and information processing in an electoral context. The data suggest that regardless of motivational goals, people with a moderate active need for orientation (NFO) spent more time engaged in cross-network exposure to news media than the other groups. However, driven by directional goals, they were more apt to engage in biased information processing that increased agenda-setting outcomes on candidate attributes. Overall, this study suggests that NFO predicts information-seeking behavior, while motivated reasoning explains how people processed information. Exposure to partisan news reporting on cable television exhibited the strongest agenda-setting associations on candidate attributes.
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Hatfield, Richard C., Scott B. Jackson, and Scott D. Vandervelde. "The Effects of Prior Auditor Involvement and Client Pressure on Proposed Audit Adjustments." Behavioral Research in Accounting 23, no. 2 (November 1, 2011): 117–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.2308/bria-10064.
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ABSTRACT This study draws upon research on escalation of commitment, motivated reasoning, and prior involvement to formulate hypotheses about the effects of prior auditor involvement and client pressure on the magnitude of proposed audit adjustments. Consistent with theory, our experimental results reveal that auditors who have no involvement in waiving a prior period audit adjustment propose current period audit adjustments that are significantly larger than auditors who have involvement in waiving a prior period audit adjustment. Further, we find that client pressure significantly reduces the magnitude of proposed audit adjustments, although the effect of client pressure does not vary across levels of prior involvement. This suggests that client pressure continues to exert a meaningful influence on auditor judgments in the post-SOX environment.
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Wang, Ye, and Lotfollah Najjar. "Factor Neural Network Theory and Its Applications." International Journal of Information Technology & Decision Making 14, no. 02 (March 2015): 239–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0219622015500042.
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This paper presents constructive methods of factor neural network (FNN) and their applications to the study of intelligent computation. Liu Zengliang is the first to apply this theory it to intelligent computation, it allows describing numerically and simulating such intelligence problems as knowledge representation, fuzzy reasoning and intelligent learning. It provides a unified description framework for logical and visual (intelligent) thinking. This theory makes significant progress in exhibiting the intelligence science theorem, the academic view and the research approach of FNN. It motivates the development of intelligence science and other related fields. It also helps the development of the nation's economy.
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Pothos, Emmanuel M. "The rules versus similarity distinction." Behavioral and Brain Sciences 28, no. 1 (February 2005): 1–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0140525x05000014.
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The distinction between rules and similarity is central to our understanding of much of cognitive psychology. Two aspects of existing research have motivated the present work. First, in different cognitive psychology areas we typically see different conceptions of rules and similarity; for example, rules in language appear to be of a different kind compared to rules in categorization. Second, rules processes are typically modeled as separate from similarity ones; for example, in a learning experiment, rules and similarity influences would be described on the basis of separate models. In the present article, I assume that the rules versus similarity distinction can be understood in the same way in learning, reasoning, categorization, and language, and that a unified model for rules and similarity is appropriate. A rules process is considered to be a similarity one where only a single or a small subset of an object's properties are involved. Hence, rules and overall similarity operations are extremes in a single continuum of similarity operations. It is argued that this viewpoint allows adequate coverage of theory and empirical findings in learning, reasoning, categorization, and language, and also a reassessment of the objectives in research on rules versus similarity.
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Häggström, Olle. "Challenges to the Omohundro–Bostrom framework for AI motivations." foresight 21, no. 1 (March 11, 2019): 153–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/fs-04-2018-0039.
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PurposeThis paper aims to contribute to the futurology of a possible artificial intelligence (AI) breakthrough, by reexamining the Omohundro–Bostrom theory for instrumental vs final AI goals. Does that theory, along with its predictions for what a superintelligent AI would be motivated to do, hold water?Design/methodology/approachThe standard tools of systematic reasoning and analytic philosophy are used to probe possible weaknesses of Omohundro–Bostrom theory from four different directions: self-referential contradictions, Tegmark’s physics challenge, moral realism and the messy case of human motivations.FindingsThe two cornerstones of Omohundro–Bostrom theory – the orthogonality thesis and the instrumental convergence thesis – are both open to various criticisms that question their validity and scope. These criticisms are however far from conclusive: while they do suggest that a reasonable amount of caution and epistemic humility is attached to predictions derived from the theory, further work will be needed to clarify its scope and to put it on more rigorous foundations.Originality/valueThe practical value of being able to predict AI goals and motivations under various circumstances cannot be overstated: the future of humanity may depend on it. Currently, the only framework available for making such predictions is Omohundro–Bostrom theory, and the value of the present paper is to demonstrate its tentative nature and the need for further scrutiny.
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Joslyn, Mark R., and Steven M. Sylvester. "The Determinants and Consequences of Accurate Beliefs About Childhood Vaccinations." American Politics Research 47, no. 3 (December 19, 2017): 628–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1532673x17745342.
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In this article, we examine the individual predictors that are responsible for accurate beliefs about the link between vaccinations and autism. We then show how these beliefs affect policy preferences about vaccines. We derive two hypotheses from motivated reasoning theory and test these on national survey data from Gallup and CBS News. Republicans were less likely to report accurate beliefs than Democrats. In addition, educational attainment modified the impact of party identification. The gap between Republicans and Democrats in likelihood of reporting accurate beliefs was largest among the most educated portion of the public. Finally, we show that accurate beliefs about vaccines, independent of statistical controls, are important predictors of policy attitudes about unvaccinated children attending public school and parental choice about the decision to vaccinate. We discuss the theoretical and practical significance of these findings.
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Wonneberger, Anke, Marijn H. C. Meijers, and Andreas R. T. Schuck. "Shifting public engagement: How media coverage of climate change conferences affects climate change audience segments." Public Understanding of Science 29, no. 2 (November 11, 2019): 176–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0963662519886474.
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While it is often assumed that media attention for events, such as international climate change conferences, can influence public opinion, research studying changes in public opinion concerning climate change is scarce. Research on climate change audience segments and the theory of motivated reasoning suggest that media effects depend on the level of audience engagement with climate change. We analyze how exposure to media coverage of the COP21 affected public opinion in the Netherlands. Based on a two-wave online panel survey ( N = 876), we identified five audience segments that varied in their degree of climate change beliefs, involvement, policy preferences, and behavioral intentions. Different media effects across segments were found indicating (dis)confirmation bias, specifically, for medium levels of positive and negative engagement. The findings indicate that important events may cause limited changes in public opinion and emphasize the importance of studying segment-specific and content-specific media effects.
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Kadous, Kathryn, S. Jane Kennedy, and Mark E. Peecher. "The Effect of Quality Assessment and Directional Goal Commitment on Auditors' Acceptance of Client-Preferred Accounting Methods." Accounting Review 78, no. 3 (July 1, 2003): 759–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.2308/accr.2003.78.3.759.
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Previous research demonstrates that auditors' directional goals influence their reporting decisions. For example, when auditors have goals of accepting client-preferred accounting methods, they tend to exploit ambiguity in reporting standards to justify those methods, even when they are aggressive (Hackenbrack and Nelson 1996). We report an experimental investigation of the likely effectiveness of regulation designed to curb this tendency. Specifically, regulators suggest that having auditors identify benchmarks or assess the quality of various methods will “raise the bar” for method acceptability, thereby reducing auditor acceptance of aggressive reporting methods. However, this reasoning ignores the fact that ambiguity typically surrounds quality assessment. Following motivated reasoning theory, we argue that, in order to meet the increased standard for acceptability, auditors with high commitment to directional goals will exploit the ambiguity surrounding the quality of various methods when making quality assessments, with the result that the client-preferred method will be deemed best, or at least of high enough relative quality to be used. This theory suggests that auditor acceptance will increase with goal commitment, and that the increase will be most dramatic when quality assessment is performed. Results of our experiment support our hypotheses that performing a quality assessment amplifies the effects of auditors' directional goals on their acceptance of client-preferred methods and on their ratings of the quality of that method. Moreover, auditors making quality assessments are more likely to identify the client's method as the most appropriate method when they are more committed to their directional goals. An implication of our theory and results is that regulation (such as SAS No. 90) that requires auditors to make quality assessments may decrease auditors' objectivity when auditors have directional goals to accept client methods.
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Tong, Jordan, Daniel Feiler, and Anastasia Ivantsova. "Good Choice, Bad Judgment: How Choice Under Uncertainty Generates Overoptimism." Psychological Science 29, no. 2 (December 28, 2017): 254–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956797617731637.
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We examine a fundamental feature of choice under uncertainty: Overestimating an alternative makes one more likely to choose it. If people are naive to this structural feature, then they will tend to have erroneously inflated expectations for the alternatives they choose. In contrast to theories of motivated reasoning, this theory suggests that individuals will overestimate chosen alternatives even before they make their choice. In four studies, we found that students and managers exhibited behavior consistent with naïveté toward this relationship between estimation error and choice, leaving them overoptimistic about their chosen alternatives. This overoptimism from choosing positive error is exacerbated when the true values of the alternatives are close together, when there is more uncertainty about the values of alternatives, and when there are many alternatives to choose from. Our results illustrate how readily overoptimism emerges as a result of statistical naïveté, even in the absence of a desire to justify one’s decision after the choice.
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Colombo, Céline. "Hearing the Other Side? – Debiasing Political Opinions in the Case of the Scottish Independence Referendum." Political Studies 66, no. 1 (September 27, 2017): 23–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0032321717723486.
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This study reports the effects of two debiasing strategies on the complexity of people’s thinking on a controversial policy issue – the question of Scottish independence. I start from the well-researched assumptions of motivated reasoning theory that individuals tend to protect their beliefs, are often not willing to hear the other side and fail to integrate contrasting arguments and different perspectives in their political considerations – although considering different viewpoints is a fundamental normative requirement for democratic decision-making. Two different debiasing techniques, which are meant to counteract this tendency and to evoke more integrative and complex thinking, were tested experimentally: a cognitive and a motivational strategy. The experiment was situated in the context of the Scottish independence referendum. The expectation of accountability – having to justify one’s opinion in front of unknown others – significantly enhanced integrative complexity of thinking about the issue, while inducing subjects to consider the opposite had no significant effect. Opinion strength and political knowledge did not affect the treatment effects significantly.
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Misra, Fauzan, Slamet Sugiri, Eko Suwardi, and Ertambang Nahartyo. "INFORMATION SEARCH BEHAVIOR AND TAX CONSULTANTS’ RECOMMENDATION: EXPERIMENTAL EXAMINATION ON THE ROLE OF SOCIAL NORMS." Journal of Business Economics and Management 21, no. 1 (January 3, 2020): 115–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.3846/jbem.2020.11406.
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This study examines the influence of client preference with respect to information search behavior and subsequent tax recommendation. Prior studies have identified that tax consultants exhibit confirmation bias in their information search processes, which is explained by the theory of motivated reasoning (Kunda, 1990). However, that theory does not take into consideration responses of tax consultant that are attributable to the way clients present their preferences. This study fills the gap by proposing a social norm activation model which can help to foster a better understanding of the nature of the confirmatory behavior. To accomplish this purpose, study participants role-played as advisors on a tax compliance task. The experiment used aweb-based instrument that involved 82 tax professionals. Results showed that tax consultants engaged inlower confirmation bias when they received an explicitly preference statement from their client than those who received an implicit statement. Furthermore, the former tax consultants recommended a more conservative tax position than the latter. These findings underscore the importance of social norm in a professional tax work environment. As a practical contribution, these findings suggest that the beliefs and norms of tax professionals influence the way they do their work.
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Halder, Sharmistha Bhattacharya. "A Study on Bayesian Decision Theoretic Rough Set." International Journal of Rough Sets and Data Analysis 1, no. 1 (January 2014): 1–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/ijrsda.2014010101.
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The concept of rough set was first developed by Pawlak (1982). After that it has been successfully applied in many research fields, such as pattern recognition, machine learning, knowledge acquisition, economic forecasting and data mining. But the original rough set model cannot effectively deal with data sets which have noisy data and latent useful knowledge in the boundary region may not be fully captured. In order to overcome such limitations, some extended rough set models have been put forward which combine with other available soft computing technologies. Many researchers were motivated to investigate probabilistic approaches to rough set theory. Variable precision rough set model (VPRSM) is one of the most important extensions. Bayesian rough set model (BRSM) (Slezak & Ziarko, 2002), as the hybrid development between rough set theory and Bayesian reasoning, can deal with many practical problems which could not be effectively handled by original rough set model. Based on Bayesian decision procedure with minimum risk, Yao (1990) puts forward a new model called decision theoretic rough set model (DTRSM) which brings new insights into the probabilistic approaches to rough set theory. Throughout this paper, the concept of decision theoretic rough set is studied and also a new concept of Bayesian decision theoretic rough set is introduced. Lastly a comparative study is done between Bayesian decision theoretic rough set and Rough set defined by Pawlak (1982).
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Walton, Geoff. "Information literacy is a subversive activity: developing a research-based theory of information discernment." Journal of Information Literacy 11, no. 1 (June 5, 2017): 137. http://dx.doi.org/10.11645/11.1.2188.
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The theory of information discernment discussed here is firmly based on models, research and scholarship of information literacy coupled with theory and research in information behaviour. This paper will explore original research conducted by Walton and Hepworth and how it has developed over the last 10 years - the pilot study was reported in the very first edition of this journal in 2007. It will show that it has led to the emergence of the concept of information discernment and how Foucault’s discourse analysis theory has been used to further critically analyse its application. This paper will show how the research has been applied in a range of contexts, from enabling students in their first year of A-level study in the UK to carry out better research for their extended project qualification (EPQ), to teaching information literacy to undergraduates in various disciplines. This research will then be synthesised to create a new theory of information discernment summarised as: the ways in which social, psychological, behavioural and information source factors influence peoples’ judgements about information. I argue that information discernment should be included in future notions of information literacy and, in particular, informs the ACRL (2016) key threshold concept that authority is constructed and contextual. Attendant psychological notions of worldview, misinformation, confirmation bias, motivated reasoning and epistemic beliefs will be explored to determine how these articulate and enrich this new theory. The paper explores how this theory can be applied in practice beyond the learning environment, and argues that, ultimately, information literacy is a subversive activity which challenges received notions of the construction, communication and exchange of information and knowledge.
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Peytcheva, Marietta, and Peter R. Gillett. "How Partners' Views Influence Auditor Judgment." AUDITING: A Journal of Practice & Theory 30, no. 4 (November 1, 2011): 285–301. http://dx.doi.org/10.2308/ajpt-10170.
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SUMMARY Prior research has shown that auditors who learn superiors' views before making their own judgment are influenced by them (e.g., Peecher 1996; Tan et al. 1997; Cohen and Trompeter 1998; Brown et al. 1999; Wilks 2002). We use the theory of motivated reasoning (Kunda 1990, 1999) to examine the malleability of individual auditors' judgments after auditors have reached their own independent conclusions. In a between-subjects experiment with practicing auditors and audit students, we find that auditors who learn the views of their superiors after reaching their own judgment subsequently report that their original, independent judgment had been the same as that of their superiors. Our findings provide evidence that knowledge of superiors' views biases auditors' reports of their prior independent judgments, potentially inhibiting discussion and resolution of contrary views. Moreover, in our study this bias is not significantly different from the influence superiors' views have on auditors who learn those views prior to reaching their own conclusions. We discuss the implications of these findings for audit practice. Data Availability: Contact the first author.
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Schuldt, Jonathon P., Katherine A. McComas, and Sahara E. Byrne. "Communicating about ocean health: theoretical and practical considerations." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 371, no. 1689 (March 5, 2016): 20150214. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2015.0214.
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As anthropogenic stressors threaten the health of marine ecosystems, there is a need to better understand how the public processes and responds to information about ocean health. Recent studies of public perceptions about ocean issues report high concern but limited knowledge, prompting calls for information campaigns to mobilize public support for ocean restoration policy. Drawing on the literature from communication, psychology and related social science disciplines, we consider a set of social-cognitive challenges that researchers and advocates are likely to encounter when communicating with the public about ocean health and emerging marine diseases—namely, the psychological distance at which ocean issues are construed, the unfamiliarity of aquatic systems to many members of the public and the potential for marine health issues to be interpreted through politicized schemas that encourage motivated reasoning over the dispassionate consideration of scientific evidence. We offer theory-based strategies to help public outreach efforts address these challenges and present data from a recent experiment exploring the role of message framing (emphasizing the public health or environmental consequences of marine disease) in shaping public support for environmental policy.
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Yi, Li, Md Aftab Uddin, Anupam Kumar Das, Monowar Mahmood, and Shanewaz Mahmood Sohel. "Do Transformational Leaders Engage Employees in Sustainable Innovative Work Behaviour? Perspective from a Developing Country." Sustainability 11, no. 9 (April 28, 2019): 2485. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su11092485.
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Inadequate and inconclusive studies of the role of transformational leadership (TL) on employee creative process engagement (CPE) and sustainable innovative work behaviour (IWB) have motivated the authors to further advance knowledge in this aspect of the workplace. In doing so, the present study seeks to extend the understanding of innovative work behaviour by the involvement of TL and its subordinates through engaging employees in the creative process. The authors adopted the deductive reasoning approach to measure the observed relationships using structural equation modelling (SEM) through SmartPLS 2, a second-generation integrated regression model for statistical measurement. The results from self-report and others’ reported questionnaires reveal that transformational leaders can engage their subordinates in the creative process and sustainable innovative outcomes by influencing employee intrinsic motivation and proactive behaviour. However, the mediating effect of CPE on TL and IWB is not supported. Lastly, the authors discuss the findings and contributions of these empirical findings in theory and practice. In addition to the potential implications of the examined results, this study also recommends directions for further research in the light of its limitations.
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Lee, Joon Sung, Dae Hee Kwak, and Jessica R. Braunstein-Minkove. "Coping With Athlete Endorsers’ Immoral Behavior: Roles of Athlete Identification and Moral Emotions on Moral Reasoning Strategies." Journal of Sport Management 30, no. 2 (March 2016): 176–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jsm.2015-0341.
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Athlete endorsers’ transgressions pose a dilemma for loyal fans who have established emotional attachments toward the individual. However, little is known regarding how fans maintain their support for the wrongdoer. Drawing on moral psychology and social identity theory, the current study proposes and examines a conceptual model incorporating athlete identification, moral emotions, moral reasoning strategies, and consumer evaluations. By using an actual scandal involving an NFL player (i.e., Ray Rice), the results show that fan identification suppresses the experience of negative moral emotions but facilitates fans’ moral disengagement processes, which enables fans to support the wrongdoer. Moreover, negative moral emotions motivate the moral coupling process. Findings contribute to the sport consumer behavior literature that highly identified fans seem to regulate negative emotions but deliberately select moral disengagement reasoning strategies to maintain their positive stance toward the wrongdoer and associated brands.
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Stepukonienė, Inga. "Application of Thematic Text Tasks and Active Teaching Methods that Enable 12th Grade Students to Prepare for Writing a Reasoning Essay in Lithuanian Lessons." Pedagogika 118, no. 2 (June 10, 2015): 112–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.15823/p.2015.09.
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Students consider writing a reasoning essay as one of the most complex tasks. To perform such a task successfully one is required to have not only good knowledge of the Lithuanian literature and erudition but also creativity, one’s ability to think analytically, argumentative capacity as well as one’s mastery of the native language. Therefore, writing a reasoning essay requires not only critical thinking and an ability to express own opinion but also other important – literary and linguistic – competencies.
Providing learners (12th graders) with focused thematic text comprehension tasks as well as using active methods of teaching literature to them are a theoretical prerequisite to improve their skills in writing a reasoning essay, to deepen their subject knowledge and to develop their creative skills as well as teamwork, communication, abilities and public speaking competencies. Therefore, the object of the current research is the development of working activity by applying thematic tasks of text comprehension and active methods of teaching literature in order to enable learners to prepare for writing a reasoning essay in Lithuanian lessons. The research was carried out in one of the Year 12 classes at the X gymnasium. 22 students participated in the research, ten boys and twelve girls. These were good students, active and had good relationship among each other. The qualitative measure of the chosen educational activity was the written assignments of the students. The evaluation of the essays according to their contents, expression and language usage is the fundamental criterion proving the suitability of the method. The students were also offered to evaluate the acquired abilities themselves by writing a half-structured learning process and result reflection.
Having carried out the empirical research showed that applying focused thematic text comprehension tasks and active methods of teaching literature in literature classes helped the learners to prepare better for writing a reasoning essay. The presentation of thematic text comprehension tasks has improved the learners’ competencies in subject matter and comprehension, argumentation, statement grounding and paragraph writing according to the set criteria. The active methods have created an opportunity for learners to improve the knowledge of literary theory and history as well as text analysis and interpretation. The methods have also deepened the learners’ skills and abilities in information selection and systematization and public speaking. Individual and group work has enabled the students to uncover the “great discoveries” themselves. The students have become more independent, more creative, more motivated, developed broader literary understanding and could therefore describe in more precise detail the studied literary and cultural phenomena and processes and that has allowed them to achieve better results in creative writing.
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ZESE, RICCARDO, GIUSEPPE COTA, EVELINA LAMMA, ELENA BELLODI, and FABRIZIO RIGUZZI. "Probabilistic DL Reasoning with Pinpointing Formulas: A Prolog-based Approach." Theory and Practice of Logic Programming 19, no. 3 (January 14, 2019): 449–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1471068418000480.
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AbstractWhen modeling real-world domains, we have to deal with information that is incomplete or that comes from sources with different trust levels. This motivates the need for managing uncertainty in the Semantic Web. To this purpose, we introduced a probabilistic semantics, named DISPONTE, in order to combine description logics (DLs) with probability theory. The probability of a query can be then computed from the set of its explanations by building a Binary Decision Diagram (BDD). The set of explanations can be found using thetableau algorithm, which has to handle non-determinism. Prolog, with its efficient handling of non-determinism, is suitable for implementing the tableau algorithm. TRILL and TRILLPare systems offering a Prolog implementation of the tableau algorithm. TRILLPbuilds apinpointing formulathat compactly represents the set of explanations and can be directly translated into a BDD. Both reasoners were shown to outperform state-of-the-art DL reasoners. In this paper, we present an improvement of TRILLP, named TORNADO, in which the BDD is directly built during the construction of the tableau, further speeding up the overall inference process. An experimental comparison shows the effectiveness of TORNADO. All systems can be tried online in the TRILL on SWISH web application athttp://trill.ml.unife.it/.
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Modood, Tariq. "Intercultural Public Intellectual Engagement." Journal of Citizenship and Globalisation Studies 1, no. 1 (October 11, 2017): 36–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/jcgs-2017-0004.
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AbstractThe article firstly examines the different conceptions of dialogue and reason within political theory, especially in the work of Rawls. Secondly we explore multicultural political theorists who have been motivated less by abstract reasoning by a sole reasoner or identical identity-less individuals and more by dialogue. For such multiculturalists, the principles of social justice are not known in advance or simply by reason, but are arrived at by conflict and learning, by dialogue and negotiation in circumstances of inequality and minority-claims making. In response to the multiculturalists, interculturalists allege that multiculturalism is too focused on the macro and the conflictual, and dialogue should be redirected to the micro and the cooperative. Although I welcome the interculturalists’ focus on micro-relations, this does not require abandoning the idea of dialogue at the level of political controversies and public discourses. It is not an either–or choice because groups and intergroup problems exist in society and cannot be simply handled at a micro level of contact, interaction and sociability. The kind of macro-level dialogue that I am speaking of can also be understood as a form of public intellectual engagement that can contribute to societal dialogues.
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Becker Kane, Jenna. "Lobbying Justice(s)? Exploring the Nature of Amici Influence in State Supreme Court Decision Making." State Politics & Policy Quarterly 17, no. 3 (March 22, 2017): 251–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1532440017697174.
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Most studies of amicus influence in both federal and state courts assume that the information provided in these briefs is the mechanism through which amici influence court outcomes. However, the question of how individual state supreme court judges respond to this third-party information and whether or not judicial responses are conditioned by differing methods of judicial retention is rarely theorized. Using social-psychological theories of confirmation bias and motivated reasoning, this article investigates how ideological predispositions and electoral institutions structure the responsiveness of state high-court judges to amicus brief information. Utilizing an original dataset of more than 14,000 votes of state high-court judges across three distinct areas of law, this article tests competing theories of amicus influence to determine how state high-court judges utilize amicus information to render judicial decisions. Results are generally supportive of the informational theory of amicus influence in complex areas of law. However, a conditioning relationship of retention method suggests that competitive elections may alter the mechanism of amicus brief influence such that judicial responsiveness to third-party briefs is more closely tied to the reelection and campaign fundraising considerations of individual judges in politically contentious areas of law.
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Calvanese, Diego, Silvio Ghilardi, Alessandro Gianola, Marco Montali, and Andrey Rivkin. "Model Completeness, Uniform Interpolants and Superposition Calculus." Journal of Automated Reasoning 65, no. 7 (June 21, 2021): 941–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10817-021-09596-x.
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AbstractUniform interpolants have been largely studied in non-classical propositional logics since the nineties; a successive research line within the automated reasoning community investigated uniform quantifier-free interpolants (sometimes referred to as “covers”) in first-order theories. This further research line is motivated by the fact that uniform interpolants offer an effective solution to tackle quantifier elimination and symbol elimination problems, which are central in model checking infinite state systems. This was first pointed out in ESOP 2008 by Gulwani and Musuvathi, and then by the authors of the present contribution in the context of recent applications to the verification of data-aware processes. In this paper, we show how covers are strictly related to model completions, a well-known topic in model theory. We also investigate the computation of covers within the Superposition Calculus, by adopting a constrained version of the calculus and by defining appropriate settings and reduction strategies. In addition, we show that computing covers is computationally tractable for the fragment of the language used when tackling the verification of data-aware processes. This observation is confirmed by analyzing the preliminary results obtained using the mcmt tool to verify relevant examples of data-aware processes. These examples can be found in the last version of the tool distribution.
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McAdams, Dan P. "Three Lines of Personality Development." European Psychologist 20, no. 4 (October 2015): 252–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040/a000236.
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Abstract. The paper outlines a new and broadly inclusive conceptual itinerary for the scientific study of personality development across the human life course. From the standpoint of the person as a social actor, a first line of development runs from the temperament dimensions observed in infancy through the establishment of adult personality traits, tracking a movement toward greater elaboration and regulation of the person’s socio-emotional performance style. A second line of development traces continuity and change in the motivated agent, running from the child’s consolidation of theory of mind, through an age 5–7 shift, to the articulation in adolescence and adulthood of life goals and values. From the perspective of the autobiographical author, a third line of personality development runs from the sharing of episodic memories between preschool children and their parents to the emergence of autobiographical reasoning skills in adolescence, ultimately resulting in the construction of an integrative life story, or narrative identity. The itinerary expands the purview of personality development beyond the canonical trait concept to encompass contemporary theories and findings in evolutionary psychology, sociology, and motivational psychology, as well as the study of cognitive development in children, moral development, political orientations, religious attitudes and practices, autobiographical memory, and the master narratives of culture.
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LE, VAN HUNG, FEI LIU, and DINH KHANG TRAN. "Fuzzy linguistic logic programming and its applications." Theory and Practice of Logic Programming 9, no. 3 (May 2009): 309–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1471068409003779.
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AbstractThe paper introduces fuzzy linguistic logic programming, which is a combination of fuzzy logic programming, introduced by P. Vojtáš, and hedge algebras in order to facilitate the representation and reasoning on human knowledge expressed in natural languages. In fuzzy linguistic logic programming, truth values are linguistic ones, e.g., VeryTrue, VeryProbablyTrue and LittleFalse, taken from a hedge algebra of a linguistic truth variable, and linguistic hedges (modifiers) can be used as unary connectives in formulae. This is motivated by the fact that humans reason mostly in terms of linguistic terms rather than in terms of numbers, and linguistic hedges are often used in natural languages to express different levels of emphasis. The paper presents: (a) the language of fuzzy linguistic logic programming; (b) a declarative semantics in terms of Herbrand interpretations and models; (c) a procedural semantics which directly manipulates linguistic terms to compute a lower bound to the truth value of a query, and proves its soundness; (d) a fixpoint semantics of logic programs, and based on it, proves the completeness of the procedural semantics; (e) several applications of fuzzy linguistic logic programming; and (f) an idea of implementing a system to execute fuzzy linguistic logic programs.
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Krynicki, Michał. "A Note on Rough Concepts Logic." Fundamenta Informaticae 13, no. 2 (April 1, 1990): 227–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.3233/fi-1990-13206.
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In papers [4,5] Pawlak introduced the notion of a rough set and approximation space. In [6] Pawlak formulated some concept of rough logic. The notion of the approximate truth was considered by many philosophers and logicians and in the last time by computer scientists. This was motivated by some research in artificial intelligence as for example expert systems, approximate reasoning methods and information system with imprecise information. The concept of rough logic introduced in [6] based on the notion of approximate truth determined by rough sets. Following these ideas Rasiowa and Skowron in [7] proposed the apropriate first order logic for concepts of rough definability. We denote this logic by LR. In [9] Szczerba proposed some logic with additional quantifier as rough concepts logic. We denote this logic by L(QR). The aim of this paper is a comparizing of these two logics with respect to their expressive power and giving some propositions of some modificated versions of rough concepts logics. We use more or less standard notation. By [a]R we denote the equivalence class of the element a with respect to the equivalence relation R. We write L ⩽ L ′ if expressive power of the logic L is weaker then t.he expressive power of the logic L ′ (i.e. each class of models definable by a sentence from L is also definable by a sentence from L ′ ). If L ⩽ L ′ and L ′ ⩽ L then we say that L and L ′ are equivalent and denote this by L ≡ L ′ . If L ⩽ L ′ but L ≢ L ′ then we write L < L ′ .
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Jilke, Sebastian, and Martin Baekgaard. "The Political Psychology of Citizen Satisfaction: Does Functional Responsibility Matter?" Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 30, no. 1 (July 3, 2019): 130–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jopart/muz012.
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Abstract The provision of public services is a key responsibility of elected politicians. Research suggests that citizens’ satisfaction evaluations of public services are incomplete representations of service quality and performance. However, little attention has been given to the political nature of service evaluations. Based on the theory of (partisan) motivated reasoning and the literature on responsibility attribution, we argue that citizens provide more favorable evaluations of municipal services when the responsibility for these services is vested in political principals with matching partisanship. Drawing on original data from a two-wave pre-post panel survey of Danish voters in the 2017 municipal elections, we employ a difference-in-differences estimator to identify the effect of a partisan match between voters and elected municipal leaders on citizen satisfaction with municipal services. We furthermore nest a survey experiment in the panel survey to test whether partisan bias in citizen satisfaction emerges when the line of functional responsibility between political principals and public services is clear and not dispersed across multiple actors. Our findings provide support for the hypothesis of partisan bias in satisfaction evaluations. We further demonstrate the importance of clarity of responsibility; partisan bias seems to come into being when the functional responsibility of municipal leaders for public services is clear and not dispersed across multiple actors, pointing toward a possible mechanism of partisan bias in citizen satisfaction.
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Leviton, Alan. "Motivated reasoning." Acta Paediatrica 96, no. 7 (May 24, 2007): 949. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1651-2227.2007.00343.x.
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Williams, Bernard. "Left-Wing Wittgenstein." Common Knowledge 25, no. 1-3 (April 1, 2019): 321–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/0961754x-7299402.
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Writing in the wake of the breakup of the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia, the moral philosopher Bernard Williams considers the opposing claims of Rawlsian liberalism, with its emphasis on pluralism and procedural fairness, and communitarianism, which instead promotes more or less culturally homogeneous societies formed around shared values. Williams shares the communitarians’ critique of Rawls’s theory as excessively abstract, questioning whether a rational commitment to pluralism as the most just social arrangement can serve as a sufficiently binding social force. He simultaneously resists, however, the conservative tendencies of the communitarians, particularly their dismissal of ethically motivated social critique. Grounded in the late philosophy of Wittgenstein, communitarians reject foundationalism, the notion that beliefs can be philosophically justified, instead regarding ideologically driven social arrangements as the result of inherently particular historical and environmental conditions. This perspective precludes rational reevaluation of a society’s status quo; if a society’s adoption of values does not depend on philosophically grounded principles, neither can those values be altered through a process of collective moral reasoning. For Williams, however, because pluralism is a condition of modern life with which even culturally homogenous communities must contend, members of modern societies are aware of alternatives to their own social model, leaving a space for self-critical reassessment. Finally, Williams suggests that the desire of cultural minorities for separate states in the post-Soviet geopolitical landscape underscores the limits of both pluralism and communitarianism, limits that all of us will need to grapple with as we confront the immediate social and political realities of modernity.