Relevant bibliographies by topics / Thermal conductivity of soil

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Academic literature on the topic 'Thermal conductivity of soil'

Author: Grafiati
Published: 5 June 2025
Last updated: 16 July 2025

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Journal articles on the topic "Thermal conductivity of soil"

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Shiozawa, Sho, and Gaylon S. Campbell. "Soil thermal conductivity." Remote Sensing Reviews 5, no. 1 (1990): 301–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02757259009532137.

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Cui, Fu-Qing, Wei Zhang, Zhi-Yun Liu, et al. "Assessment for Thermal Conductivity of Frozen Soil Based on Nonlinear Regression and Support Vector Regression Methods." Advances in Civil Engineering 2020 (August 28, 2020): 1–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2020/8898126.

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The comprehensive understanding of the variation law of soil thermal conductivity is the prerequisite of design and construction of engineering applications in permafrost regions. Compared with the unfrozen soil, the specimen preparation and experimental procedures of frozen soil thermal conductivity testing are more complex and challengeable. In this work, considering for essentially multiphase and porous structural characteristic information reflection of unfrozen soil thermal conductivity, prediction models of frozen soil thermal conductivity using nonlinear regression and Support Vector Regression (SVR) methods have been developed. Thermal conductivity of multiple types of soil samples which are sampled from the Qinghai-Tibet Engineering Corridor (QTEC) are tested by the transient plane source (TPS) method. Correlations of thermal conductivity between unfrozen and frozen soil has been analyzed and recognized. Based on the measurement data of unfrozen soil thermal conductivity, the prediction models of frozen soil thermal conductivity for 7 typical soils in the QTEC are proposed. To further facilitate engineering applications, the prediction models of two soil categories (coarse and fine-grained soil) have also been proposed. The results demonstrate that, compared with nonideal prediction accuracy of using water content and dry density as the fitting parameter, the ternary fitting model has a higher thermal conductivity prediction accuracy for 7 types of frozen soils (more than 98% of the soil specimens’ relative error are within 20%). The SVR model can further improve the frozen soil thermal conductivity prediction accuracy and more than 98% of the soil specimens’ relative error are within 15%. For coarse and fine-grained soil categories, the above two models still have reliable prediction accuracy and determine coefficient (R2) ranges from 0.8 to 0.91, which validates the applicability for small sample soils. This study provides feasible prediction models for frozen soil thermal conductivity and guidelines of the thermal design and freeze-thaw damage prevention for engineering structures in cold regions.
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He, Ruixia, Ning Jia, Huijun Jin, Hongbo Wang, and Xinyu Li. "Experimental Study on Thermal Conductivity of Organic-Rich Soils under Thawed and Frozen States." Geofluids 2021 (September 23, 2021): 1–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2021/7566669.

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Thermal properties are important for featuring the water-heat transfer capacity of soil. They are also key to many processes in earth sciences, such as the land surface processes and ecological and geoenvironmental dynamics and their changes in permafrost regions. With loose and porous structures, the organic matter layer in soil strata substantially influences soil thermal conductivity. So far, thermal conductivity of mineral soils has been explored extensively and in depth, but there are only limited studies on that of organic soils. In this study, influences of soil temperature, soil moisture saturation (SMS), and soil organic matter (SOM) content on soil thermal conductivity were analyzed on the basis of laboratory experiments on the silt-organic soil mixtures of varied mixing ratios. Results show that soil thermal conductivity declines slowly with the lowering temperatures from 10 to 0°C; however, it increases and finally stabilizes when temperature further lowers from 0 to -10°C. It is important to note that thermal conductivity peaks in the temperature range of -2~0°C (silty and organic-poor soil) and -5~0°C (organic-rich soil), possibly due to phase changes of ice/water in warm permafrost. Under both thawed and frozen states, soil thermal conductivity is positively related with SMS. However, with rising SOM content, the growth rate of soil thermal conductivity with SMS slows gradually. Given the same SMS, soil thermal conductivity declines exponentially with increasing SOM content. Based on the experimental and theoretical analyses, a new empirical computational formula of soil thermal conductivity is established by taking into account of the SOM content, SMS, and soil temperature. The results may help better parameterize in simulating and predicting land surface processes and for optimizing frozen soil engineering designs and provide theoretical bases for exploring the dynamic mechanisms of environmental changes in cold regions under a changing climate.
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Sun, Qiang, and Chao Lü. "Semiempirical correlation between thermal conductivity and electrical resistivity for silt and silty clay soils." GEOPHYSICS 84, no. 3 (2019): MR99—MR105. http://dx.doi.org/10.1190/geo2018-0549.1.

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Previous researchers have shown that thermal conductivity and electrical resistivity are related to the water content and void ratio of soil. The objective of this study is to present a theoretical relationship between these two physical parameters. A de Vries equation and Archie’s law are applied to develop a new theoretical equation that relates thermal conductivity to the electrical resistivity of soil. The DRE-2C thermal conductivity tester, which uses a transient plane-source method, is used to measure the thermal conductivity. In addition, the DDC-8 resistivity meter is used to measure the electrical resistivity. Experiments on the thermal conductivity and electrical resistivity of silt soil and silty clay soil with different gravimetric water contents and densities are performed. The results indicate that the theoretical equation can well explain the relationship between the thermal conductivity and electrical resistivity of silt and silty clay soils. The thermal conductivity and electrical resistivity are also found to have a linear relationship with the density of silt soil. When the gravimetric water content is less than 30%, the thermal conductivity and electrical resistivity of silty clay soil increase linearly with the density. The thermal conductivity increases with the gravimetric water content to a critical threshold depending on the soil type. The silty clay samples with a water content of 20% have the largest value of thermal conductivity. The electrical resistivity of the silt and silty clay samples decreases rapidly due to the increased pore connectivity and enhanced hydration of ions in soil with the increased water content. The results of the experiments indicate that the new theoretical equation is effective for estimating the soil electrical resistivity from the soil thermal conductivity.
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Han, Qiang, Zhiguo Wang, and Rui Qin. "Thermal Conductivity Model Analysis of Unsaturated Ice-Containing Soil." Geofluids 2022 (July 12, 2022): 1–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2022/3717705.

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In cold locales, the thermal conductivity of soil porous media varies according to their composition and the phase state of the substance contained within the pore space. During the winter, water and other media in the soil pore space freeze-thaw, resulting in their phase state, composition, distribution, and significant thermal conductivity changes. There are some shortcomings in the current research regarding the thermal conductivity change pattern of unsaturated ice-containing soils. In this paper, the representative elementary volume (REV) selection method is given for unsaturated ice-containing soil with porosity as a representative state variable. Under the condition of freeze-thaw, two thermal conductivity REV analysis models for unsaturated ice-containing soil are established: a simplified volume-weighted average REV model and a fine volume-weighted average REV model; accordingly, a macroscopic thermal conductivity analysis model is given. The computational analysis is carried out with an actual unsaturated ice-containing soil example. The influence of the application of frozen soil in China is examined for its effect on the variation law of the thermal conductivity of porous medium. The variation characteristics of thermal conductivity of permafrost soil with related parameters (porosity, water ratio, moisture percentage, ice content, and tortuosity) are discussed. The model built in this paper provides novel concepts and methods for analyzing the thermal conductivity characteristics of unsaturated soil, as well as enhancing and advancing the analysis.
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Tarnawski, Vlodek R., and Bernhard Wagner. "A new computerized approach to estimating the thermal properties of unfrozen soils." Canadian Geotechnical Journal 29, no. 4 (1992): 714–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/t92-079.

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Results from a user friendly, menu-driven, and interactive computer program for rapid estimation of thermal properties of soils are presented. The model developed is an extension of the de Vries approach. The new model allows easy estimation of the thermal conductivity of soils with approximately log-normal particle-size distribution. The model introduces the individual characteristics of five main mineral soil constituents (i.e., quartz, feldspar, calcite, clay minerals, and mica) and relates their occurrence in individual soils to grain-size distribution. The user also has a possibility of inserting to the model up to 20 additional mineralogical components, providing that mass fraction, thermal conductivity, density, shape, and specific heat are known. Soil-water hydraulic relations follow an extended power function model and allow the calculation of the apparent thermal conductivity of soils (water-vapor migration) at low moisture contents. Thus the model predicts soil thermal conductivity in a full range of moisture content from dryness to saturation and a temperature range of 0–95 °C. Good agreement with experimental data was reported. Key words : moist soils, soil thermal properties, thermal conductivity, specific heat, de Vries method.
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Ingersoll, J. G. "Analytical Determination of Soil Thermal Conductivity and Diffusivity." Journal of Solar Energy Engineering 110, no. 4 (1988): 306–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.3268272.

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A simple model has been developed that can be used to calculate the soil thermal conductivity and diffusivity on the basis of the following factors: soil porosity; soil water content; conductivity, specific heat, and density of the constituents of soil, i.e., solid matter, water, and air. The model assumes that the void space in soil can be presented by a combination of plane fissures, whose direction is either parallel to the heat flow or perpendicular to it. A coefficient introduced to account for this combination in the two directions can be estimated from measured data as a function of the soil water content. Moreover, it is assumed that air and moisture conduct heat across the fissures in parallel. It is found that soil conductivity and diffusivity increase relatively rapidly with a few percent addition of moisture to entirely dry soil. For instance, assuming a typical soil porosity of 40 percent we conclude that the ratio of soil diffusivities of saturated to dry soil is about four, while that of soild with 2.5 percent moisture content to dry soil is a little over two. That is to say, a small moisture addition to dry soil brings the diffusivity half way to its saturation value. Since soil always contains small amounts of moisture, this finding explains the fact that measured seasonal temperature damping factors in extreme humid and extreme arid climates differ by less than a factor of two even though the moisture content of the respective soils may differ by more than an order of magnitude.
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Barry-Macaulay, D., A. Bouazza, B. Wang, and R. M. Singh. "Evaluation of soil thermal conductivity models." Canadian Geotechnical Journal 52, no. 11 (2015): 1892–900. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2014-0518.

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Numerous models have been developed to predict the thermal conductivity of soils at a range of different densities and moisture contents. This paper evaluates four thermal conductivity models, developed by various researchers, by comparing their performance against experimental results obtained on 27 different soils prepared at a range of saturation levels and densities. The results demonstrate that, in general, all four models show good agreement between experimental thermal conductivity and modelled thermal conductivity. The only significant shortfall is observed in low-saturated sands when using two of the models. A detailed analysis of the empirical soil parameters used in three of the recent models is presented. It shows that the accuracy of the three models can be improved by modifying the empirical soil parameters to fit the experimental data.
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Ross, PJ, and BJ Bridge. "Thermal properties of swelling clay soils." Soil Research 25, no. 1 (1987): 29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/sr9870029.

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The thermal properties of swelling clay soils do not appear to have been previously studied, even though they should be different from those of non-swelling soils because of changes in pore size and structure with water content. We measured the thermal diffusivity of small discs cut from cores of a highly swelling black earth (Pellustert) using the pulse method, common in materials science but not previously applied to soils. Thermal conductivity was calculated from thermal diffusivity and heat capacity per unit volume. The behaviour of these thermal properties was indeed different from those reported for nonswelling soils. The conductivity and diffusivity at low water contents were several times higher, increased much less with water content, and eventually decreased when the soil became saturated and swelled. The heat capacity per unit volume increased more slowly with water content because of the swelling. Over the agriculturally important suction range from 10 kPa to 1.5 MPa (0.1 to 15 bar), the conductivity decreased with increasing water content, a behaviour opposite to that of non-swelling soils. The behaviour could be predicted by three theoretical models, each with two parameters estimated from the data. The first parameter, the conductivity of soil solids, was common to all models, and estimated values ranged from 2.2 to 2.6 Wm-' K-l. The model of de Vries, commonly used in soil science, was applied with the soil solids matrix as the continuous medium and fitted the data particularly well. The second parameter in this model was a shape factor for small pores. Its estimated value corresponded with spheroidal pores with a diameter-to-height ratio of 16, which is reasonable in a swelling clay soil. The de Vries model was used to calculate the conductivity of bulk soil in the vertical direction, assuming that 20% of soil shrinkage appeared as isolated, randomly distributed cracks between aggregates. The conductivity was substantially less than that of the aggregates at lower water contents, but differed little for wetter soil at suctions below 1.5 MPa. In contrast, calculated values of conductivity were much lower when the de Vries model was applied with air as the continuous medium to a cultivated soil structure such as might be found in a seedbed.
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Muhudin, Abdullahi Abdulrahman, Mohammad Sharif Zami, Ismail Mohammad Budaiwi, and Ahmed Abd El Fattah. "Experimental Study of Thermal Conductivity in Soil Stabilization for Sustainable Construction Applications." Sustainability 16, no. 3 (2024): 946. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su16030946.

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Soils in Saudi Arabia are emerging as potential sustainable building materials, a notion central to this study. The research is crucial for advancing construction practices in arid areas by enhancing soil thermal properties through stabilization. Focusing on Hejaz region soils, the study evaluates the impact of stabilizers such as cement, lime, and cement kiln dust (CKD) on their thermal behavior. This investigation, using two specific soil types designated as Soil A and Soil B, varied the concentration of additives from 0% to 15% over a 12-week duration. Employing a TLS-100 for thermal measurements, it was found that Soil A, with a 12.5% cement concentration, showed a significant 164.54% increase in thermal conductivity. When treated with 2.5% lime, Soil A reached a thermal conductivity of 0.555 W/(m·K), whereas Soil B exhibited a 53.00% decrease under similar lime concentration, reflecting diverse soil responses. Notably, a 15% CKD application in Soil A led to an astounding 213.55% rise in thermal conductivity, with Soil B recording an 82.7% increase. The findings emphasize the substantial influence of soil stabilization in improving the thermal characteristics of Hejaz soils, especially with cement and CKD, and, to a varying extent. This study is pivotal in identifying precise, soil-specific stabilization methods in Saudi Arabia’s Hejaz region, essential for developing sustainable engineering applications and optimizing construction materials for better thermal efficiency.
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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Thermal conductivity of soil"

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Martin, Ana Isabel. "Hydrate Bearing Sediments-Thermal Conductivity." Thesis, Georgia Institute of Technology, 2005. http://hdl.handle.net/1853/6844.

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The thermal properties of hydrate bearing sediments remain poorly studied, in part due to measurement difficulties inside the hydrate stability envelope. In particular, there is a dearth of experimental data on hydrate-bearing sediments, and most available measurements and models correspond to bulk gas hydrates. However, hydrates in nature largely occur in porous media, e.g. sand, silt and clay. The purpose of this research is to determine the thermal properties of hydrate-bearing sediments under laboratory conditions, for a wide range of soils from coarse-grained sand to fine-grained silica flour and kaolinite. The thermal conductivity is measured before and after hydrate formation, at effective confining stress in the range from 0.03 MPa to 1 MPa. Results show the complex interplay between soil grain size, effective confinement and the amount of the pore space filled with hydrate on the thermal conductivity of hydrate-bearing sediments.
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Low, Jasmine. "Thermal conductivity of soils for energy foundation applications." Thesis, University of Southampton, 2016. https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/389737/.

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Ground source heat pumps are a low-carbon method of providing space heating. Thermal energy is extracted by means of a heat transfer fluid pumped through a series of pipes buried in the ground. For new builds, construction costs can be minimised by installing the pipes within the building foundations, eliminating the need for further excavations. These are known as energy foundations. Designing such a system requires knowledge of the ground thermal properties, in particular the thermal conductivity. This can be determined by conducting a field thermal response test, or by laboratory tests on soil samples. In this thesis, the thermal response test was compared to the needle probe and thermal cell laboratory methods. For each method, the main sources of error were investigated. Previously, the needle probe transient temperature data was analysed by visual inspection or rules of thumb. A new analysis method was developed and trialled on agar-kaolin samples, which reduces errors associated with the previous methods. The greatest source of error in the thermal cell method was identified as heat losses. A finite element model of the thermal cell showed that it overestimates the thermal conductivity by at least 35% due to heat losses. The needle probe was found to be the more reliable method. Both laboratory methods gave significantly lower values of thermal conductivity than the thermal response test. Possible reasons for this include differences in scale and sampling disturbances. The final stage of this research considered the required accuracy in soil thermal conductivity measurement for a well-designed energy foundation system. A numerical model of an energy foundation system was used to simulate different thermal loading scenarios. Variations in thermal conductivity had little effect on balanced systems, but had a significant impact on heating only or cooling only systems.
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Pauly, Nicole M. "Thermal Conductivity of Soils from the Analysis of Boring Logs." Scholar Commons, 2010. http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/3614.

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Recent interest in "greener" geothermal heating and cooling systems as well as developments in the quality assurance of cast-in-place concrete foundations has heightened the need for properly assessing thermal properties of soils. Therein, the ability of a soil to diffuse or absorb heat is dependent on the surrounding conditions (e.g. mineralogy, saturation, density, and insitu temperature). Prior to this work, the primary thermal properties (conductivity and heat capacity) had no correlation to commonly used soil exploration methods and therefore formed the focus of this thesis. Algorithms were developed in a spreadsheet platform that correlated input boring log information to thermal properties using known relationships between density, saturation, and thermal properties as well as more commonly used strength parameters from boring logs. Limited lab tests were conducted to become better acquainted with ASTM standards with the goal of proposing equipment for future development. Finally, sample thermal integrity profiles from cast-in-place foundations were used to demonstrate the usefulness of the developed algorithms. These examples highlighted both the strengths and weaknesses of present boring log data quality leaving room for and/or necessitating engineering judgment.
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Alrtimi, Abdulbaset Ahmed. "Experimental investigation of thermal conductivity of soils and borehole grouting materials." Thesis, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, 2014. http://hdl.handle.net/10443/2723.

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Exploitation of thermogeology energy in heating and cooling of buildings starts to spread worldwide as an alternative renewable source of heat energy. The thermal conductivity of soils is among the critical parameters required to achieve a proper design of ground heat exchangers or any underground systems that involve thermo-active processes. This research is a part of study related to the laboratory measurements of thermal conductivity of soils and thermal grouts used for borehole heat exchangers. The first part of this project involves a design of a new thermal cell that can be used to measure the thermal conductivity of soils. The design of the apparatus is based on the application of Fourier’s law at steady state condition where unidirectional heat flux is generated through two identical specimens. A new concept of minimizing the radial heat losses that occur due to the ambient temperature interface (ATI) using a thermal jacket as a heat insulation barrier has been introduced in the design and experimentally performed. The obtained results and the analysis of the heat flow reveal that the longitudinal heat flow can be maximized and the radial heat flow can be minimized when the thermal jacket is used with proper temperature control. Also, it has been revealed that the measured thermal conductivity of soils is sensitive to further boundary conditions such as thermocouples and temperature of sink disks. In addition to its simplicity, the new cell can be used for undisturbed field samples (U100 samples) as well as laboratory-prepared specimens. The sample preparation and the test procedure for the two different soil conditions highlighted the simplicity of using the new apparatus in measurement of the thermal conductivity of soils. The second part of this research concerns a production of new thermal grout for borehole heat exchangers using unwanted industrial and domestic materials (PFA and ground glass-low cost) and the commodity fluorspar, all of which have relatively high thermal conductivity. The thermal conductivity of different PFA based grouts that comprise different enhancing materials at different mix proportions has been measured dry and at saturation using the new thermal call. The results highlighted the effect of mineralogy and the particle size distribution of the mix constituents on the thermal conductivity of the grout. The results showed that a combination of fluorspar with coarse ground glass can provide good thermal enhancement in both dry and saturated conditions. The grout that consist of 20% cement, 30% PFA, 15% coarse ground glass and 35% fluorspar by weight with dry and saturated thermal conductivity of 1.283 and 1.985 W/m respectively can be considered as a suitable grout that can be used successfully in UK. Comparing with thermally enhanced bentonite (1.46 W/m.K), it is expected that with London Clay Formation optimal performance of borehole heat exchangers and cost savings would be achieved using the selected grout. The work done in the final part can be considered as an application of the new steady state thermal cell in the estimation of the thermal conductivity of sandy soils. Also, it can be considered as a case study where the thermal conductivity was measured for soils that have not been previously thermally tested (Tripoli sand). The effects of the porosity and degree of saturation on the thermal conductivity of Tripoli sand were investigated. The results of twenty experimental tests showed that the effect of the saturation degree is significant compared with the effect of dry density especially at saturation degree less that 10%. Also, the results revealed that the thermal conductivity is approximately linearly proportional to the dry density at all levels of saturation. The validation of some existing selected prediction models showed that none of the selected models is able to correctly match the thermal conductivity of Tripoli sand at all conditions. However, some models were more accurate than others in certain conditions. It is also concluded that all presented models failed to estimate the thermal conductivity of such soil in low or partially saturated conditions where convection started to play a role in the heat transfer mode. On the other hand, the variation of thermal conductivity of Tripoli sand can be fittingly described as logarithmic function of the water content at all levels of porosity with R2 value ranges between 0.9694 and 0.9732. As a result, an empirical model based on the experimental results expressing the thermal conductivity in terms of water content and porosity has been obtained and validated.
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Sarfraz, Sohab. "A high temperature gas flow invariant thermal conductivity sensor developed in SOI CMOS MEMS technology." Thesis, University of Cambridge, 2014. https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.708412.

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Roque, Wellington. "Desenvolvimento de um multi-sensor eletronico para medida da umidade, temperatura e condutividade eletrica do solo." [s.n.], 2008. http://repositorio.unicamp.br/jspui/handle/REPOSIP/259314.

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Orientador: Jose Antonio Siqueira Dias<br>Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Eletrica e de Computação<br>Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-11T13:05:25Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Roque_Wellington_M.pdf: 6339203 bytes, checksum: 18872eccdf7c33ab07b778e59d8d3d08 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2008<br>Resumo: A utilização de sensores é indispensável para a coleta de dados na Agricultura de Precisão, pois possibilita um estudo mais aprofundado e preciso do solo. A proposta deste trabalho é o desenvolvimento de um multi-sensor (MS) para realizar a medida do valor da condutividade elétrica do solo usando um dispositivo composto por quatro hastes paralelas tipo ¿Wenner array¿, e aproveitando a sua geometria de fabricação, realizar a medida da umidade volumétrica do solo por intermédio de um método indireto, que usa a variação da condutividade térmica do solo em função da quantidade de água nele presente. Foi também desenvolvido um sistema de medida e aquisição de dados que permite a caracterização e a calibração de sensores de umidade através de um programa em LabView e uma placa de aquisição de dados, desenvolvida a partir de uma célula de carga. Os resultados obtidos mostram que o medidor de quatro pontas tipo ¿Wenner array¿ é uma ferramenta útil e precisa para medida da condutividade elétrica do solo e a técnica de medir as variações da temperatura no solo causadas por pulsos de calor fornece dados úteis para estimar, com precisão necessária para usos agrícolas, a umidade do solo. Palavras-chave: Sensores, agricultura de precisão, condutividade elétrica do solo, condutividade térmica do solo, umidade do solo<br>Abstract: The implementation of precision agriculture techniques requires the use of sensors which can measure the characteristics of the soil. In this work it was designed and fabricated a multi-sensor probe, capable of measuring the electrical conductivity, the volumetric humidity, and the temperature of the soil, using a four probes device. The electrical conductivity of the soil is measured using the conventionalWenner array method, where a self-calibration circuit was designed to avoid the usually necessary initial calibration of the Wenner array. The volumetric humidity is obtained by an indirect measurement, where the thermal conductivity of the soil is evaluated by applying heat pulses in one probe of the sensor, and measuring the resulting temperature increase in an adjacent probe. It was also developed an automatic measurement and data acquisition system that allows the characterization and calibration of the sensors. The obtained results show that the Wenner array is an useful tool for measuring the electric conductivity of the soil, and that the evaluation of the thermal conductivity of the soil using heat pulses and measuring the variation of temperature can accurately determine the humidity of the soil. Keywords: Sensors, precision agriculture, electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, soil moisture<br>Mestrado<br>Eletrônica, Microeletrônica e Optoeletrônica<br>Mestre em Engenharia Elétrica
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Roshankhah, Shahrzad. "Physical properties of geomaterials with relevance to thermal energy geo-systems." Diss., Georgia Institute of Technology, 2015. http://hdl.handle.net/1853/54893.

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Energy related geo-systems involve a wide range of engineering solutions from energy piles to energy geo-storage facilities and waste repositories (CO₂, nuclear). The analysis and design of these systems require proper understanding of geo-materials, their properties and their response to extreme temperature and high stress excitations, the implications of mixed-fluid conditions when contrasting fluid viscosities and densities are involved, the effect of static and cyclic coupled hydro-thermo-chemo-mechanical excitations, and rate effects on the response of long design-life facilities. This study places emphasis on thermal geo-systems and associated physical properties. Uncemented soils and rocks are considered. The research approach involves data compilation, experimental studies and analytical methods. Emphasis is also placed to engineer geomaterials in order to attain enhanced performance in energy geo-systems. The thermal conductivity and stiffness of most geomaterials decrease as temperature increases but increase with effective stress. This macroscale response is intimately related to contact-scale conduction and deformation processes at interparticle contacts. Pore-filling liquids play a critical role in heat conduction as liquids provide efficient conduction paths that can diminish the effects of thermal contact resistance. Conversely, grains and fluids can be selected to attain very low thermal conductivity in order to create mechanically sound thermal barriers. In the case of rock masses, heat (and gas) recovery can be enhanced by injecting fluids at high pressure to cause hydraulic fractures. Scaled experiments reveal the physical meaning of hydraulic fractures in pre-structured rocks (e.g., shale) and highlight the extensive self-propped dilational distortion the medium experiences. This result explains the higher production rate from shale gas and fractured geothermal reservoirs that is observed in the field, contrary to theoretical predictions.
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Jayatissa, Thilini. "Expediting the Consolidation of Clayey Soils Utilizing Microwaves." Scholar Commons, 2018. https://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/7310.

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Post-construction settlement has been an issue in the field of construction due to the excessive time taken for the dissipation of pore water pressure. This is significant for construction carried out on clayey soils primarily due to the low permeability of clayey soils. Therefore, attention has been directed at finding means of increasing the rate of pre-consolidation. Recent research has focused on the effects of temperature on consolidation. It has been shown that elevated temperature increases the hydraulic conductivity of pore water due to both the reduction of viscosity and differential volumetric expansion of soil and water. This results in an increase in the rate of pore pressure dissipation. In addition, it has been proven that compressibility properties also improved at elevated temperature and subsequently, the rate of consolidation of the clay. This research aimed to study the feasibility of utilizing microwaves to expedite the aforementioned temperature elevation and the subsequent consolidation of a clay soil. A numerical model has been formulated using finite difference methods to theoretically predict the temperature rise and pore pressure dissipation. The results of the numerical model proved to be in general agreement with the experimental data. The feasibility of utilizing microwaves to raise the temperature of the soil sample was also evaluated practically by conducting bench-scale experiments. The use of microwave irradiation to rapidly increase the temperature of saturated clay was quantified by this research and was proven to be more efficient than currently used soil heating methodologies. Comparable consolidation experiments showed that increasing the temperature of the sample using microwave heating resulted in a higher rate of settlement when compared with the settlement of the non-heated sample while the ultimate percentage settlement of both were equal.
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Choo, Hyunwook. "Engineering behavior and characterization of physical-chemical particulate mixtures using geophysical measurement techniques." Diss., Georgia Institute of Technology, 2013. http://hdl.handle.net/1853/52178.

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Natural geomaterials exhibit a wide range in size, physical properties, chemical properties, and mechanical behaviors. Soils that are composed of mixtures of particles with different physical and chemical properties pose a challenge to characterization and quantification of the engineering properties. This study examined the behavior of particulate mixtures composed of differently sized silica particles, mixtures composed of aluminosilicate and organic carbon particles, and mixtures composed of particles with approximately three orders of magnitude difference in particle size. This experimental investigation used elastic, electromagnetic, and thermal waves to characterize and to quantify the small to intermediate strain behavior of the mixtures. The mechanical property of stiffness of mixed materials (e.g. binary mixtures of silica particles and fly ashes with various carbon and biomass contents) was evaluated through the stiffness of active grain contacts, and the stiffness of particles which carry applied load, using the physical concepts of intergranular void ratio and interfine void ratio. Additionally, the change in both contact mode/stiffness and electrical property due to the presence of nano-sized particles (i.e., iron oxides) on the surface of soil grains was evaluated according to applied stress, packing density, iron coating density, and substrate sand particle size. Finally, the biomass fraction and total organic carbon content of mixtures was used to quantify the electrical and thermal conductivities when particulate organic was mixed with aluminosilicate particles.
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Hayase, Gen. "Studies on sol-gel-derived monolithic porous polyorganosiloxanes." 京都大学 (Kyoto University), 2014. http://hdl.handle.net/2433/188507.

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Books on the topic "Thermal conductivity of soil"

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International, Thermal Conductivity Conference (18th 1983 Rapid City S. D. ). Thermal conductivity 18. Plenum Press, 1985.

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Wilkes, Kenneth E., Ralph B. Dinwiddie, and Ronald S. Graves. Thermal Conductivity 23. CRC Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781003210719.

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Hasselman, D. P. H., and J. R. Thomas, eds. Thermal Conductivity 20. Springer US, 1989. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-0761-7.

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Ashworth, T., and David R. Smith, eds. Thermal Conductivity 18. Springer US, 1985. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-4916-7.

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1937-, Yarbrough D. W., ed. Thermal conductivity 19. Plenum Press, 1988.

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International Thermal Conductivity Conference (21st 1989 Lexington, Ky.). Thermal conductivity 21. Plenum Press, 1990.

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International Thermal Conductivity Conference (22nd 1993 Arizona State University). Thermal conductivity 22. Technomic Pub. Co., 1994.

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Hasselman, D. P. H. Thermal Conductivity 20. Springer US, 1989.

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International Thermal Conductivity Conference (20th 1987 Blacksburg, Va.). Thermal conductivity 20. Plenum Press, 1989.

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Ashworth, T. Thermal Conductivity 18. Springer US, 1985.

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Book chapters on the topic "Thermal conductivity of soil"

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Chesworth, Ward, Marta Camps Arbestain, Felipe Macías, et al. "Conductivity, Thermal." In Encyclopedia of Soil Science. Springer Netherlands, 2008. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-3995-9_126.

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Leong, Eng-Choon, and Martin Wijaya. "Thermal conductivity." In Laboratory Tests for Unsaturated Soils. CRC Press, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/b22304-21.

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Lutenegger, Alan J. "Thermal Conductivity." In Laboratory Manual for Geotechnical Characterization of Fine-Grained Soils. CRC Press, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781003263289-24.

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Minea, Vasile. "Determination of Ground/Soil Effective Thermal Conductivity." In Heating and Cooling with Ground-Source Heat Pumps in Cold and Moderate Climates. CRC Press, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781003032540-6.

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Cloessner, J. J., and R. F. Barron. "Thermal Conductivity of Frozen Soil at Cryogenic Temperatures." In Advances in Cryogenic Engineering. Springer US, 1995. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-0516-4_69.

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Łydżba, Dariusz, Adrian Różański, and Damian Stefaniuk. "Thermal Conductivity of Unsaturated Soil: Equivalent Microstructure Approach." In Springer Series in Geomechanics and Geoengineering. Springer International Publishing, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97115-5_156.

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Różański, Adrian. "Soil Texture Based Approach for Thermal Conductivity Evaluation." In Springer Series in Geomechanics and Geoengineering. Springer International Publishing, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97115-5_158.

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Wierenga, P. J., D. R. Nielsen, R. Horton, and B. Kies. "Tillage Effects on Soil Temperature and Thermal Conductivity." In ASA Special Publications. American Society of Agronomy and Soil Science Society of America, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.2134/asaspecpub44.c5.

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Galkin, A. F., N. A. Plotnikov, and V. Yu Pankov. "Selection of Construction Materials for a Thermal Insulation Layer of a Road." In Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering. Springer Nature Singapore, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-4355-1_52.

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AbstractSafety of the roads in the permafrost region is largely determined by their thermal regime. The aim of the present work was to discover a function to determine the thermal conductivity coefficient of materials used to construct a thermal insulation layer of a road to prevent foundation soils from thawing over a permitted thawing depth. Two cases were surveyed: when the natural temperature of the soil is equal to ice melting temperature and when it is not equal to ice melting temperature. Engineering formulas permitting to quickly select the required thermal resistance property of an insulation material based on the known Biot number were derived. An expedient regularity is observed: the thermal resistance of the thermal insulation layer is roughly proportional to the dimensionless thawing depth. Correspondingly, when selecting the construction materials for a thermal insulation layer it can be considered that the increase in permissible thawing depth increases proportionally to the increase of the thermal conductivity coefficient of the insulation material. Considering that the physical and mechanical properties of the soil are not constant along the road length, the thermal resistance of the thermal insulation layer should be determined for individual sections of the road rather than for the entire route. Accordingly, the construction materials can also vary depending on the selected solutions for the road construction.
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Chen, Bao, Yiyi Huang, Weimin Ye, Yujun Cui, and Zou Xu. "Investigation on the Thermal Conductivity of Shanghai Soft Clay." In Proceedings of GeoShanghai 2018 International Conference: Fundamentals of Soil Behaviours. Springer Singapore, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0125-4_109.

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Conference papers on the topic "Thermal conductivity of soil"

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Sun, Jie, Dajun Li, Huabo Cai, et al. "Inversion of Soil Thermal Conductivity and Ampacity of the Buried High Voltage Power Cables." In 2024 China International Conference on Electricity Distribution (CICED). IEEE, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/ciced63421.2024.10754087.

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Papavinasam, Sankara, and Alex Doiron. "Relevance of Cathodic Disbondment Test for Evaluating External Pipeline Coatings at Higher Temperatures." In CORROSION 2009. NACE International, 2009. https://doi.org/10.5006/c2009-09050.

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Abstract This paper investigates the applicability of cathodic disbondment (CD) test at higher temperatures, i.e., up to 150° C. This paper also presents different factors affecting applicability of the CD test at higher temperatures. It was found that CD Experiments are relevant for high-temperature coating evaluation up to 150° C. Maintaining temperature of the experimental pipe section simulates conditions as those of hot pipes. Slow evaporation of water occurs. The rate of water evaporation decreases in the presence of soil – the extent of which depends on the type of soil. Conducting the experiments in an autoclave is not an adequate way to conduct high-temperature CD tests because it does not simulate the temperature differentials that occur under pipeline operating conditions. While conducting long-term experiments care should be exercised to avoid evaporation of electrolyte. Evaporation can be prevented or minimized by refluxing the electrolyte, replenishing the electrolyte, or by covering the experimental set up. The thickness and thermal conductivity of a pipeline coating affect how much heat is transmitted from a hot pipe section to the soil it is in contact with.
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Sun, Shiping, Yian Fang, Yong Zhang, Guode Ying, Chunshen Wang, and Mengxin Liang. "A Combined Methodology of a Finite Element Method and a Sine Cosine Optimization Algorithm for Inversions of the Thermal Conductivity of Soil Around the High-voltage Cable Horizontal Pipe Jacking." In 2024 7th International Conference on Power and Energy Applications (ICPEA). IEEE, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1109/icpea63589.2024.10784482.

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Farelas, Fernando, Rebecca Martin, Zak Bear, Charles Carfagna, and Benjamin Pinkston. "Novel Thin-Sol-Gel Coatings for Biofouling Prevention and Easy Removal." In CONFERENCE 2023. AMPP, 2023. https://doi.org/10.5006/c2023-19037.

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Abstract Heat exchangers are widely used in Navy ships to cool operating fluids and seawater is the preferred cooling medium since it is readily available. However, biofouling will form while ocean water circulates through the heat exchanger tubes or plates, decreasing the heat transfer efficiency and increasing fluid resistance. Further fouling eventually results in more energy consumption and a decrease in heat exchanger service life. To solve the biofouling problem, we developed thin and durable sol-gel coatings that significantly decreased biofouling deposition and facilitated its removal. The developed coatings were applied to titanium substrates and immersed for 64 days at Pearl Harbor, HI. Biofouling formation was followed by taking high-resolution images to quantify the type and extent of biofouling formation. Biofouling adhesion was evaluated by water jet at different nozzle pressures. In addition, the thermal conductivity of the coatings was measured and used as an input parameter for thermal simulations to determine the effect of the coating thickness on the efficiency of a shell and tube heat exchanger.
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Newson, T. A., P. Brunning, and G. Stewart. "Thermal Conductivity of Consolidating Offshore Clayey Backfill." In ASME 2002 21st International Conference on Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering. ASMEDC, 2002. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/omae2002-28020.

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Pipelines that transmit untreated products are prone to waxing and hydrate formation unless the fluid is kept above certain temperatures. Since bare pipe can have relatively high thermal conductivity, pipes can be buried to utilise the thermal properties of the surrounding soil. However, the thermal conductivity of clayey offshore trench backfill as it consolidates is poorly understood. This paper describes a series of laboratory tests on offshore clayey sediments to investigate the coupled compressibility and thermal conductivity behaviour. The compressibility behaviour of the soil samples was characterised using a specially designed oedometer apparatus. Measurements of thermal conductivity were taken periodically during the loading sequence. This data was used to model the behaviour of the backfill in a hypothetical jetted offshore trench using finite element analysis. The laboratory testing indicated that the stress-strain behaviour of the undisturbed and reconstituted material seems to be typical of similar onshore clayey soils. The data showed lower thermal conductivities for both the undisturbed and reconstituted soils than have previously been reported by industry for these types of soil. The results have provided extremely useful data on the fundamental behaviour of offshore clayey sediments and have given confidence in predictions of the coupled consolidation and thermal conductivity behaviour of jetted offshore soils using finite element analysis.
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DiCarlo, Anthony A., and Rickey A. Caldwell. "Gradient Based Soil Thermal Conductivity Optimization for Ground Source Heat Exchangers." In ASME 2018 12th International Conference on Energy Sustainability collocated with the ASME 2018 Power Conference and the ASME 2018 Nuclear Forum. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/es2018-7418.

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In geothermal heating and cooling, there exists an opportunity to improve the efficiency by utilizing non-uniform soil properties of a ground source heat exchanger during installation. This paper presents a gradient approach based upon finite element mathematics to determine an optimal distribution of heterogeneous soils with varying thermal conductivities. The numerically simulated case studies demonstrate the good performance of this algorithm to minimize the cross-talk of heat flux between pipes and maximize the overall efficiency.
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AJ Fontana, B Wacker, CS Campbell, and GS Campbell. "Simultaneous Thermal Conductivity, Thermal Resistivity, and Thermal Diffusivity Measurement of Selected Foods and Soil." In 2001 Sacramento, CA July 29-August 1,2001. American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers, 2001. http://dx.doi.org/10.13031/2013.5543.

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Cai, Shanshan, Tengfei Cui, Boren Zheng, and Pingfang Hu. "Fractal Approach to Calculate the Thermal Conductivity of Moist Soil." In IGSHPA Technical/Research Conference and Expo 2017. International Ground Source Heat Pump Association, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.22488/okstate.17.000540.

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ТАППЫРОВА Н, И., Н. КРАВЦОВА О, and А. ПРОТОДЬЯКОНОВА Н. "THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF FINE SOILS TAKING INTO ACCOUNT THE AMOUNT OF UNFROZEN WATER." In ГЕОЛОГИЯ И МИНЕРАЛЬНО-СЫРЬЕВЫЕ РЕСУРСЫ СЕВЕРО-ВОСТОКА РОССИИ 2024. Crossref, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.53954/9785604990100_573.

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At present, a large amount of experimental data has been accumulated on the thermo physical characteristics of soils at positive and negative temperatures. To generalize these data and to reduce the amount of experimental work carried out, it is necessary to systematize and expand the work on the calculation of thermal conductivity of soils. In this paper, a method for calculating thermal conductivity for fine soils in frozen and thawed states is proposed. The calculation models used include a shell model in combination with a model with interpenetrating components. An approximation of the dependence of volumetric heat capacity on temperature was experimentally obtained and the amount of unfrozen water was calculated to account for the temperature dependence of the thermal conductivity of fine soil.
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Shuai, F., and D. G. Fredlund. "Use of a New Thermal Conductivity Sensor to Measure Soil Suction." In Geo-Denver 2000. American Society of Civil Engineers, 2000. http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/40510(287)1.

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Reports on the topic "Thermal conductivity of soil"

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Pradhan, Nawa Raj, Charles Wayne Downer, and Sergey Marchenko. User guidelines on catchment hydrological modeling with soil thermal dynamics in Gridded Surface Subsurface Hydrologic Analysis (GSSHA). Engineer Research and Development Center (U.S.), 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.21079/11681/48331.

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Climate warming is expected to degrade permafrost in many regions of the world. Degradation of permafrost has the potential to affect soil thermal, hydrological, and vegetation regimes. Projections of long-term effects of climate warming on high-latitude ecosystems require a coupled representation of soil thermal state and hydrological dynamics. Such a coupled framework was developed to explicitly simulate the soil moisture effects of soil thermal conductivity and heat capacity and its effects on hydrological response. In the coupled framework, the Geophysical Institute Permafrost Laboratory (GIPL) model is coupled with the Gridded Surface Subsurface Hydrologic Analysis (GSSHA) model. The new permafrost heat transfer in GSSHA is computed with the GIPL scheme that simulates soil temperature dynamics and the depth of seasonal freezing and thawing by numerically solving a one-dimensional quasilinear heat equation with phase change. All the GIPL input and output parameters and the state variables are set up to be consistent with the GSSHA input-output format and grid distribution data input requirements. Test-case simulated results showed that freezing temperatures reduced soil storage capacity, thereby producing higher peak and lower base flow. The report details the functions and format of required input variables and cards, as a guideline, in GSSHA hydrothermal analysis of frozen soils in permafrost-active areas.
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Jones, Scott B., Shmuel P. Friedman, and Gregory Communar. Novel streaming potential and thermal sensor techniques for monitoring water and nutrient fluxes in the vadose zone. United States Department of Agriculture, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.32747/2011.7597910.bard.

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The “Novel streaming potential (SP) and thermal sensor techniques for monitoring water and nutrient fluxes in the vadose zone” project ended Oct. 30, 2015, after an extension to complete travel and intellectual exchange of ideas and sensors. A significant component of this project was the development and testing of the Penta-needle Heat Pulse Probe (PHPP) in addition to testing of the streaming potential concept, both aimed at soil water flux determination. The PHPP was successfully completed and shown to provide soil water flux estimates down to 1 cm day⁻¹ with altered heat input and timing as well as use of larger heater needles. The PHPP was developed by Scott B. Jones at Utah State University with a plan to share sensors with Shmulik P. Friedman, the ARO collaborator. Delays in completion of the PHPP resulted in limited testing at USU and a late delivery of sensors (Sept. 2015) to Dr. Friedman. Two key aspects of the subsurface water flux sensor development that delayed the availability of the PHPP sensors were the addition of integrated electrical conductivity measurements (available in February 2015) and resolution of bugs in the microcontroller firmware (problems resolved in April 2015). Furthermore, testing of the streaming potential method with a wide variety of non-polarizable electrodes at both institutions was not successful as a practical measurement tool for water flux due to numerous sources of interference and the M.S. student in Israel terminated his program prematurely for personal reasons. In spite of these challenges, the project funded several undergraduate students building sensors and several master’s students and postdocs participating in theory and sensor development and testing. Four peer-reviewed journal articles have been published or submitted to date and six oral/poster presentations were also delivered by various authors associated with this project. We intend to continue testing the "new generation" PHPP probes at both USU and at the ARO resulting in several additional publications coming from this follow-on research. Furthermore, Jones is presently awaiting word on an internal grant application for commercialization of the PHPP at USU.
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Friedman, Shmuel, Jon Wraith, and Dani Or. Geometrical Considerations and Interfacial Processes Affecting Electromagnetic Measurement of Soil Water Content by TDR and Remote Sensing Methods. United States Department of Agriculture, 2002. http://dx.doi.org/10.32747/2002.7580679.bard.

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Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) and other in-situ and remote sensing dielectric methods for determining the soil water content had become standard in both research and practice in the last two decades. Limitations of existing dielectric methods in some soils, and introduction of new agricultural measurement devices or approaches based on soil dielectric properties mandate improved understanding of the relationship between the measured effective permittivity (dielectric constant) and the soil water content. Mounting evidence indicates that consideration must be given not only to the volume fractions of soil constituents, as most mixing models assume, but also to soil attributes and ambient temperature in order to reduce errors in interpreting measured effective permittivities. The major objective of the present research project was to investigate the effects of the soil geometrical attributes and interfacial processes (bound water) on the effective permittivity of the soil, and to develop a theoretical frame for improved, soil-specific effective permittivity- water content calibration curves, which are based on easily attainable soil properties. After initializing the experimental investigation of the effective permittivity - water content relationship, we realized that the first step for water content determination by the Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) method, namely, the TDR measurement of the soil effective permittivity still requires standardization and improvement, and we also made more efforts than originally planned towards this objective. The findings of the BARD project, related to these two consequential steps involved in TDR measurement of the soil water content, are expected to improve the accuracy of soil water content determination by existing in-situ and remote sensing dielectric methods and to help evaluate new water content sensors based on soil electrical properties. A more precise water content determination is expected to result in reduced irrigation levels, a matter which is beneficial first to American and Israeli farmers, and also to hydrologists and environmentalists dealing with production and assessment of contamination hazards of this progressively more precious natural resource. The improved understanding of the way the soil geometrical attributes affect its effective permittivity is expected to contribute to our understanding and predicting capability of other, related soil transport properties such as electrical and thermal conductivity, and diffusion coefficients of solutes and gas molecules. In addition, to the originally planned research activities we also investigated other related problems and made many contributions of short and longer terms benefits. These efforts include: Developing a method and a special TDR probe for using TDR systems to determine also the soil's matric potential; Developing a methodology for utilizing the thermodielectric effect, namely, the variation of the soil's effective permittivity with temperature, to evaluate its specific surface area; Developing a simple method for characterizing particle shape by measuring the repose angle of a granular material avalanching in water; Measurements and characterization of the pore scale, saturation degree - dependent anisotropy factor for electrical and hydraulic conductivities; Studying the dielectric properties of cereal grains towards improved determination of their water content. A reliable evaluation of the soil textural attributes (e.g. the specific surface area mentioned above) and its water content is essential for intensive irrigation and fertilization processes and within extensive precision agriculture management. The findings of the present research project are expected to improve the determination of cereal grain water content by on-line dielectric methods. A precise evaluation of grain water content is essential for pricing and evaluation of drying-before-storage requirements, issues involving energy savings and commercial aspects of major economic importance to the American agriculture. The results and methodologies developed within the above mentioned side studies are expected to be beneficial to also other industrial and environmental practices requiring the water content determination and characterization of granular materials.
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Wilkinson, A., and A. E. Taylor. Thermal Conductivity. Natural Resources Canada/ESS/Scientific and Technical Publishing Services, 1991. http://dx.doi.org/10.4095/132227.

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Guidotti, R. A., and M. Moss. Thermal conductivity of thermal-battery insulations. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), 1995. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/102467.

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Clark, D. Thermal Conductivity of Helium. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), 1992. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/1031796.

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M.J. Anderson, H.M. Wade, and T.L. Mitchell. Invert Effective Thermal Conductivity Calculation. Yucca Mountain Project, Las Vegas, Nevada, 2000. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/894317.

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Leader, D. R. Thermal conductivity of cane fiberboard. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), 1995. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/402292.

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Wang, H. Thermal conductivity Measurements of Kaolite. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), 2003. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/885883.

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Hin, Celine. Thermal Conductivity of Metallic Uranium. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/1433931.

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