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1
Caston, Victor, ed. Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy, Volume 52. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198805762.001.0001.
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Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy provides, twice each year, a collection of the best current work in the field of ancient philosophy. Each volume features original essays that contribute to an understanding of a wide range of themes and problems in all periods of ancient Greek and Roman philosophy, from its beginnings to the threshold of the Middle Ages. From its first volume in 1983, OSAP has been a highly influential venue for work in the field, and has often featured essays of substantial length as well as critical essays on books of distinctive importance. Volume LII contains an article on Anaxagoras’ theory of the intellect, another on Presocratic epistemology and stage-painting, one on Plato’s Euthyphro and another on his Parmenides, one on the varieties of pleasure in Plato and Aristotle, and three on Aristotle: his views on the analysis of arguments, theory of measurement, and the coincidental causes of actions.
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Zachhuber, Johannes. The Rise of Christian Theology and the End of Ancient Metaphysics. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198859956.001.0001.
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It has rarely been recognized that the Christian writers of the first millennium pursued an ambitious and exciting philosophical project alongside their engagement in the doctrinal controversies of their age. This book offers for the first time a full analysis of this Patristic philosophy. It shows how it took its distinctive shape in the late fourth century and gives an account of its subsequent development until the time of John of Damascus. The book falls into three main parts. The first of them starts from an analysis of the philosophical project underlying the teaching of the Cappadocian fathers, Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nyssa, and Gregory of Nazianzus. This philosophy, arguably the first distinctively Christian theory of being, soon becomes near-universally shared in Eastern Christianity. A few decades after the Cappadocians, all sides in the early Christological controversy take its fundamental tenets for granted. Its application to the Christological problem thus appeared inevitable. Yet it created substantial conceptual problems. Parts II and III of the book describe in detail how these problems led to a series of increasingly radical modifications of the Cappadocian philosophy. The chapters of Part II are dedicated to the miaphysite opponents of the Council of Chalcedon, while Part III discusses the defenders of the Council from the early sixth to the eighth centuries. Through this overview, the book reveals this period as one of remarkable philosophical creativity, fecundity, and innovation.
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Novenson, Matthew V. Messiahs Present and Absent. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190255022.003.0004.
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This chapter critically assesses the widespread scholarly notion of a “messianic vacuum”—that is, a period or periods in the history of ancient Judaism marked by a conspicuous absence of messianic expectation. The chapter considers in detail three classic literary sources commonly invoked in this connection: the works of Philo of Alexandria, Flavius Josephus, and the Mishnah. Against the messianic vacuum hypothesis, it is argued that talk about messiahs is simply one of a number of ancient Jewish discursive resources for solving one of a number of social problems. On this model, references to messiahs occur in some early Jewish texts and not in others, and there is nothing curious, remarkable, or deficient about the texts in which they do not. It is the expectation on the part of the interpreter that creates the problem.
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White, Stephen A. Milesian Measures: Time, Space, and Matter. Edited by Patricia Curd and Daniel W. Graham. Oxford University Press, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195146875.003.0004.
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Any attempt to trace the origin of Greek philosophy faces two complementary problems. One is the fact that evidence for the early philosophers is woefully meager. The other problem raises a question of what is to be counted as philosophy. Yet neither problem is insuperable. This article proposes to reorient the search for origins in two ways, corresponding to these two problems. First, rather than trying to reconstruct vanished work directly, this article focuses on a crucial stage in its ancient reception, in particular, the efforts by Aristotle and his colleagues in the latter half of the fourth century to collect, analyze, and assess the evidence then available for earlier attempts to understand the natural world. The other shift in focus this article makes is from philosophy to science; or rather, it focuses on evidence for the interplay between observation, measurement, and explanation in the work of three sixth-century Milesians.
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Broadie, Sarah. The Ancient Greeks. Edited by Helen Beebee, Christopher Hitchcock, and Peter Menzies. Oxford University Press, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199279739.003.0002.
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There are various motives for refining the notion of cause. Aristotle's was an interest in providing the most informative and illuminating method of explaining the central natural phenomena of his universe. A different sort of motive is created by problems of free will and responsibility, of which readers may have been reminded by the reference to indeterminism. The thought that our free and responsible behaviour is caused by factors over which we have no control has often seemed impossible to accept and impossible to reject. The challenge then is to refine the notion of cause either so that the thought becomes more acceptable or so that it becomes more rejectable.
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Adrych, Philippa, Robert Bracey, Dominic Dalglish, Stefanie Lenk, and Rachel Wood. Syncretisms. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198792536.003.0007.
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The Conclusion to this volume returns to the three main questions posed in the Introduction, examining how a shared name, alongside material culture, can affect our understanding of ancient religious practices. The first section explores the benefits of a collaborative and comparative endeavour, drawing out examples from the earlier chapters and showing how they informed our perceptions of what a name can mean. The second and third parts ask more theoretical questions about how we can use our case studies to explore broader problems of interpreting ancient religious practices, and the role of objects within them. Finally, we return to the main theme of the volume: the name Mithra, and the ideas, expectations, and traditions that have been attached to it in antiquity and in modern scholarship. We suggest a new way of approaching the phenomenon of the shared name, and what that can entail for those interested in ancient religion.
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Rowlands, Mark. World on Fire. Oxford University Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197541890.001.0001.
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We face three epoch-defining environmental problems: climate, extinction, and pestilence. Our climate is changing in ways that will have serious consequences for humans, and it may even profoundly affect the ability of the planet to support life. All around us, other species are disappearing at a rate between several hundred and several thousand times the normal background rate of extinction. The SARS-CoV-2 virus, which has wreaked social and economic havoc, is merely the latest model off a blossoming production line of newly emerging infectious diseases, many of which have the potential to be far worse. At the heart of these problems lies an ancient habit: eating animals. This habit is the most significant driver of species extinction and of newly emerging infectious diseases, and one of the most important drivers of climate change. This is a habit we can no longer afford to indulge. Breaking it will substantially reduce climate emissions. It will stem our insatiable hunger for land that is at the heart of both the problems of extinction and pestilence. Most importantly, breaking this habit will make available vast areas of land suitable for afforestation: the return of forests to where they once grew. Afforestation will significantly mitigate all three problems. But only if we stop eating animals will we have enough land for this strategy to work.
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Di Bella, Stefano, and Tad M. Schmaltz, eds. The Problem of Universals in Early Modern Philosophy. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190608040.001.0001.
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The ancient topic of universals was central to scholastic philosophy, which raised the question of whether universals exist as Platonic forms, as instantiated Aristotelian forms, as concepts abstracted from singular things, or as words that have universal signification. It might be thought that this question lost its importance after the decline of scholasticism in the modern period. However, the fourteen contributions to this volume indicate that the issue of universals retained its vitality in modern philosophy. Modern philosophers in fact were interested in three sets of issues concerning universals: (1) issues concerning the ontological status of universals, (2) issues concerning the psychology of the formation of universal concepts or terms, and (3) issues concerning the value and use of universal concepts or terms in the acquisition of knowledge. Chapters in this volume consider the various forms of “Platonism,” “conceptualism,” and “nominalism” (and distinctive combinations thereof) that emerged from the consideration of such issues in the work of modern philosophers. The volume covers not only the canonical modern figures, namely, Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz, Locke, Berkeley, Hume, and Kant, but also more neglected figures such as Pierre Gassendi, Pierre-Sylvain Regis, Nicolas Malebranche, Henry More, Ralph Cudworth, and John Norris.
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Caston, Victor, ed. Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy, Volume 55. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198836339.001.0001.
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Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy provides, twice each year, a collection of the best current work in the field of ancient philosophy. Each volume features original essays that contribute to an understanding of a wide range of themes and problems in all periods of ancient Greek and Roman philosophy, from the beginnings to the threshold of the Middle Ages. From its first volume in 1983, OSAP has been a highly influential venue for work in the field, and has often featured essays of substantial length as well as critical essays on books of distinctive importance. Volume LV contains: a methodological examination on how the evidence for Presocratic thought is shaped through its reception by later thinkers, using discussions of a world soul as a case study; an article on Plato’s conception of flux and the way in which sensible particulars maintain a kind of continuity while undergoing constant change; a discussion of J. L. Austin’s unpublished lecture notes on Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics and his treatment of loss of control (akrasia); an article on the Stoics’ theory of time and in particular Chrysippus’ conception of the present and of events; and two articles on Plotinus, one that identifies a distinct argument to show that there is a single, ultimate metaphysical principle; and a review essay discussing E. K. Emilsson’s recent book, Plotinus.
10
Doyle, William, ed. The Oxford Handbook of the Ancien Régime. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199291205.001.0001.
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In this book, a team of contributors surveys and presents current thinking about the world of pre-revolutionary France and Europe. The idea of the Ancien Régime was invented by the French revolutionaries to define what they hoped to destroy and replace. But it was not a precise definition, and although historians have found it conceptually useful, there is wide disagreement about what the Ancien Régime's main features were, how they worked, how old they were, how far they stretched, how dynamic or inert they were, and how far the revolutionaries succeeded in their ambitions to eradicate them. In this collection, old and newer areas of research into the Ancien Régime are presented and assessed, and there has been no attempt to impose any sort of consensus. The result shows what a lively field of historical enquiry the Ancien Régime remains, and points the way towards a range of promising new directions for thinking and writing about the intriguing complex of historical problems that it continues to pose.
11
Anderson, Greg. Historicism and Its Consequences. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190886646.003.0005.
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Moreover, standard histories of Athens are riddled with the same kinds of problems that postcolonial critics have seen in the mainstream “histories” of non-western lifeworlds. To support this claim, the chapter considers three especially influential accounts of the formation of the Athenian politeia. In all three cases, this process is quite explicitly historicized as a story of modern-style “democratization,” as a progressive extension of a political or civic equality to every (male) Athenian, even though this account is quite strenuously resisted by all of our ancient sources. More generally, much as the postcolonial critique of historicism would lead us to expect, when we historicize demokratia as “democracy,” we inevitably end up figuring Athens as an incomplete or imperfect anticipation of a modern lifeworld, never as a fully realized version of itself.
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Camper, Martin. Conflicting Passages. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190677121.003.0005.
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Chapter 5 examines how arguers resolve apparently conflicting passages through argument. First, the problem that textual inconsistency poses for interpreters is considered, followed by a discussion of the three types of disputes that rhetors can have over an apparent inconsistency. Ancient rhetoricians viewed controversies in this stasis as consisting of a double letter versus spirit dispute, and the lines of argument detailed in the previous chapter are available in this stasis. But, as this chapter illustrates, there remain other special lines of reasoning that rhetors can use to resolve evidently conflicting passages. Several of these strategies have been used to reconcile apparently conflicting biblical passages concerning women’s preaching, as exemplified by the chapter’s main example: an epistolary debate over the issue reproduced in Frances Willard’s 1889 Woman in the Pulpit. Disputes in this stasis reveal the logical connections between passages and how these connections can be rhetorically constructed.
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Farrelly, Colin. Virtue Epistemology and the Democratic Life. Edited by Nancy E. Snow. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199385195.013.17.
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Integrating insights from the Ancient Greeks (e.g. concerning virtue, eudaimonia, and the original meaning of “democracy”), John Dewey, and recent work in virtue epistemology, this chapter develops a virtue-based defense of democracy, one that conceives of democracy as an inquiry-based mode of social existence. This account of democracy is developed by responding to three common concerns raised against democracy, which the author calls the Irrationality Problem, the Problem of Autonomy, and the Epistocracy Objection. Virtue epistemology can help elucidate the link between democracy and human flourishing by drawing attention to democracy’s potential for cultivating and refining the “intellectual virtues” (e.g. intellectual humility, fairness in evaluating the arguments of others, the social virtue of being communicative, etc.) constitutive of the good life.
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Marenbon, John. 6. Universals (Avicenna and Abelard). Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/actrade/9780199663224.003.0006.
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There is a core question about universals, which perplexed ancient and medieval thinkers, and still exercises philosophers today. Some things in the world are the same, not by being numerically identical but by being the same in some respect. Is it enough simply to suppose that there are these particular things which are the same in these respects, or is there some additional entity, besides the particular things—a universal—in respect of which they are the same? ‘Universals (Avicenna and Abelard)’ considers the problem of universals in antiquity; early medieval realism; the views of Avicenna and Abelard on universals; Duns Scotus, who transformed Avicenna’s solution; and the nominalism of William of Ockham.
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Cavanaugh, T. A. Snake? Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190673673.003.0002.
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Chapter 1 (Snake?) reflects on Asclepius’ snake (symbolic of the healing profession) as indicative of the need for Hippocrates’ Oath. Chapter 1 proposes that this ancient medical symbol reveals medicine’s vexing ethical problem, iatrogenic harm—wounds caused by a physician. Such wounds take three forms: wounds ineliminable from therapy (e.g., cauterizing), harmful errors committed while caregiving (e.g., wrong drug dose), and, last of all, but most ethically problematic, wounds of role-conflation, such as euthanizing a patient or assisting suicide (at the patient’s request). By the last type of wound, a physician takes on the role of wounder and deliberately injures, thereby abandoning the practice of medicine as an exclusively therapeutic activity. Chapter 1 argues that Hippocrates’ Oath responds to this vexing medical-ethical problem of role conflation by having physicians forswear the role of wounder, especially as instanced by killing.
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Burkert, Walter. Sacrificial Violence. Edited by Michael Jerryson, Mark Juergensmeyer, and Margo Kitts. Oxford University Press, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199759996.013.0031.
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This chapter investigates the sacrificial violence that is a problem of ancient religions, paying attention only to those civilizations which form the basis of Near Eastern-European tradition. The suicidal murderer regards himself as homo religiosus. Religion is committed in an arena of death, nay of killing. The shadow of death appears most noticeable when sacrifice reaches its violent peak in human sacrifice. There have been a few examples of substitution sacrifice in rituals and legends. The themes of violence and killing make tragedy. Religion admits danger, fear, and violence, while presenting rules concerning how to deal with these, one of which includes the risk and the triumph of killing.
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Knights, Paul, and John O'Neill. Consumption and Well-being. Edited by Teena Gabrielson, Cheryl Hall, John M. Meyer, and David Schlosberg. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199685271.013.45.
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Environmental problems driven by unsustainable consumption are lending new importance to an ancient question: are there bounds to the goods required for a happy or flourishing life? A standard assumption in recent economics is that there are no such bounds. Many further argue that markets, technological change, and resource substitution can deliver sustainability while allowing consumption of final goods by consumers to increase. This chapter criticizes this approach and considers two much older traditions, the Epicurean and Aristotelian, which do recognize the existence of limits to the goods required for the good life. Their revival has been used to argue that consumption can be reduced without loss of well-being. This chapter argues that the promise found by environmentalists in the recent hedonic revival of the Epicurean tradition is misplaced, and that the Aristotelian tradition provides a richer account of why the future—and therefore consuming sustainably—matters to our well-being.
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Rumfitt, Ian. Bivalence and Determinacy. Edited by Michael Glanzberg. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199557929.013.17.
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The principle that every statement is bivalent (i.e. either true or false) has been a bone of philosophical contention for centuries, for an apparently powerful argument for it (due to Aristotle) sits alongside apparently convincing counterexamples to it. This chapter analyzes Aristotle’s argument, then, in the light of this analysis, examines three sorts of problem case for bivalence. Future contingents, it is contended, are bivalent. Certain statements of higher set theory, by contrast, are not. Pace the intuitionists, though, this is not because excluded middle does not apply to such statements, but because they are not determinate. Vague statements too are not bivalent, in this case because the law of proof by cases does not apply. The chapter goes on to show how this opens the way to a solution to the ancient paradox of the heap (or Sorites) that draws on quantum logic.
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Koortbojian, Michael. Crossing the Pomerium. Princeton University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.23943/princeton/9780691195032.001.0001.
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The ancient Romans famously distinguished between civic life in Rome and military matters outside the city—a division marked by the pomerium, an abstract religious and legal boundary that was central to the myth of the city's foundation. This book explores, by means of images and texts, how the Romans used social practices and public monuments to assert their capital's distinction from its growing empire, to delimit the proper realms of religion and law from those of war and conquest, and to establish and disseminate so many fundamental Roman institutions across three centuries of imperial rule. The book probes such topics as the appearance in the city of Romans in armor, whether in representation or in life, the role of religious rites on the battlefield, and the military image of Constantine on the arch built in his name. Throughout, the book reveals how, in these instances and others, the ancient ideology of crossing the pomerium reflects the efforts of Romans not only to live up to the ideals they had inherited, but also to reconceive their past and to validate contemporary practices during a time when Rome enjoyed growing dominance in the Mediterranean world. The book explores a problem faced by generations of Romans—how to leave and return to hallowed city ground in the course of building an empire.
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Wofford, Susanne L. Foreign. Edited by Henry S. Turner. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199641352.013.25.
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This chapter focuses on the importation into English drama of elements that had their roots in European theatre as well as in classical sources and in English imaginations of the ancient past. It shows how this foreign material was absorbed by the plays of Christopher Marlowe, William Shakespeare, Thomas Dekker, Thomas Middleton, and John Marston, becoming fully international even when they appeared to be most local. It also considers several methodological categories for thinking in new ways about the problem of cultural translation that had come to define English theatre by 1600, including the need to recognize what it calls the ‘formal agency’ of the theatre’s many different parts—the tropes, genres, emotions, characters, geographies, and ideas that imported a richly overdetermined set of foreign cultural meanings onto the English stage. Three troping actions that describe the transformations brought about by the foreign on stage are discussed: the foreign as intertext, or trope intertextual; the foreign as intertheatrical, or intertheatrical trope; and translation, or trope intercultural.
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Peach, Ken. Managing Science. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198796077.001.0001.
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Managing science, which includes managing scientific research and, implicitly, managing scientists, has much in common with managing any enterprise, and most of these issues (e.g. annual budget planning and reporting) form the background. Equally, much scientific research is carried in universities ancient and modern, which have their own mores, ranging from professorial autocracy to democratic plurality, as well as national and international with their missions and styles. But science has issues that require a somewhat different approach if it is to prosper and succeed. Society now expects science, whether publicly or privately funded, to deliver benefits, yet the definition of science presumes no such benefit. Managing the expectations of the scientist with those of society is the challenge of the manager of science. The book addresses some issues around science and the organizations that do science. It then deals with leadership, management and communication, team building, recruitment, motivation, managing scientists, assessing performance, cooperation and competition. This is followed by a discussion of proposal writing and reviewing, committees and meetings, project management, risk and health and safety. Finally, there is a discussion on how to deal with disaster, how to cope with the stresses of management and how to deal with difficult problems.
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Olivelle, Patrick, ред. Gṛhastha. Oxford University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190696153.001.0001.
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Much has been written about the Indian ascetic, but hardly any scholarly attention has been paid to the householder, generally referred to in Sanskrit as gṛhastha, “the stay-at-home.” The institution of the householder is viewed implicitly as posing little historical problems with regard to its origin or meaning. The current volume problematizes the figure of the householder within ancient Indian culture and religion. It shows that the term gṛhastha is a neologism and is understandable only in its opposition to the ascetic who goes away from home (pravrajita). Through a thorough and comprehensive analysis of a wide range of inscriptions and texts, ranging from the Vedas, Dharmaśāstras, Epics, and belle-lettres to Buddhist and Jain texts and works on governance and erotics, this volume analyzes the meanings, functions, and roles of the householder from the earliest times until about the fifth century CE. The central finding of these studies is that the householder bearing the name gṛhastha is not simply a married man with a family but someone dedicated to the same or similar goals as an ascetic while remaining at home and performing the economic and ritual duties incumbent on him. The gṛhastha is thus not simply a married person living at home with his family, that is, a general descriptor of a householder, for whom there are many other Sanskrit terms, but a religiously charged concept that is intended as a full-fledged and superior alternative to the concept of a religious renouncer.
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Ierodiakonou, Katerina, Paul Kalligas, and Vassilis Karasmanis, eds. Aristotle's Physics Alpha. Oxford University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198830993.001.0001.
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This volume of the ‘Symposium Aristotelicum’ constitutes a running commentary of the first book of Aristotle’s Physics, a central treatise of the Aristotelian corpus that aims at knowledge of the principles of physical change; it establishes that there are such principles and determines what they are and how many. After a general introduction, the ten chapters of the volume, written by distinguished scholars of ancient philosophy, comment on the entirety of the Aristotelian text and deal in detail with the philosophical issues raised in it. Aristotle is here in dialogue with the divergent doctrines of earlier philosophers, namely with the Eleatics’ monism, with Anaxagoras’ theory of mixture, and finally with the Platonist dyadism that posits the two principles of Form and the Great and Small. He employs the critical examination of his predecessors’ views in order to present and formulate his own theory of the principles of natural things, which are fundamental for the entire Aristotelian study of the natural world: form, privation and the substratum that underlies them. Moreover, Aristotle provides us with his own solution to the problem about coming to be and passing away, by distinguishing between coming to be in actuality and in potentiality. The exhaustive analysis of the Aristotelian doctrines as well as the critical discussion of the prevailing current views on their interpretation make this volume an obligatory reference work for Aristotle studies.
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Belamarić, Josip, Dražen Pejković, and Ana Šverko. Istraživanja u urbanističkom planiranju : pedagoška bilježnica vol. 2 = Urban Planning Research : Pedagogical Notebook Vol. 2. Edited by Hrvoje Bartulović, Saša Begović, Dražen Pejković, Ana Šverko, and Ivana Vlaić. University of Split, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Geodesy, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.31534/9789536116850.
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The Second Pedagogical Notebook is a continuation of the first ‘notebook’, dedicated to the Urban Planning Research course. The course and the notebook were created by Prof. Ivana Šverko, with the aim of offering students of architecture in Split the basics of urban planning research in a Mediterranean context. The idea behind the pedagogical notebook is to contribute to the recognition of the research phase as an essential starting point in the entire, complicated process of urban planning and design, as well as an understanding of research methodologies in specific spatial and social conditions. One of the ideal real-world templates for realising this goal is Zrinsko- Frankopanska Street, which developed along one of the Split peninsula’s Roman centuriation lines. This street connects the historical southern city harbour with the newer, northern one. Zrinsko-Frankopanska is an exceptionally important city street, and along its length there are a range of buildings dating from the ancient period to the 21st century, with almost every historical period represented. It is here that the most diverse range of public facilities can be found. The students mapped, studied, and analysed this city street, using historical and morphological analysis of spatial connections, greenery, the relationship between the public and the private, the accessible and inaccessible spaces, purpose, urban equipment, and so on. In doing so, they also noted relevant everyday human activities such as disposing of rubbish, as well as things such as the position and content of graffiti. They also included morphography – the description of forms without reference to their sources and development process – in their analytical approach. After the research phase, the students were instructed to target the problems they detected by proposing improvements to the existing elements, or by redesigning them. They were also required to open up the possibility of alternate uses for the space, up to the point in the design process when an architect or designer would usually take over. By presenting the study of a specific segment in this book, we wish to help students consider the complexity of the urban tissue, define the basic urban elements, research development processes, the typological and morphological characteristics of constriction and, ultimately, to identify everything that constitutes the “urban space as a whole”. We wish to guide them so that with their unique knowledge and tools, and their inclusion of all the other relevant professions in the processes of urban planning, they can become architects with sound professional and ethical principles, and develop into a new generation of responsible city-builders.