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1
Wang, H., and P. A. Nuttall. "Comparison of the proteins in salivary glands, saliva and haemolymph of Rhipicephalus appendiculatus female ticks during feeding." Parasitology 109, no. 4 (November 1994): 517–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s003118200008077x.
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SUMMARYTo compare the proteins in salivary glands, saliva and haemolymph of Rhipicephalus appendiculatus female ticks, antisera were prepared from guinea-pigs immunized with soluble denatured salivary gland extracts (SGE). The extracts were derived from R. appendiculatus female ticks that were either unfed (day 0) or partly fed (day 6). The sera were used in immunoblotting, following SDS–polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, to examine the antigen profiles during the course of tick feeding on guinea-pigs. Day 0 and day 6 SGE antisera appeared to detect common proteins in the different tick samples. For example, haemolymph apparently shared some of the small protein bands (31·5–34 kDa) detected in SGEs. These small proteins appeared in both samples at the same stage of feeding, suggesting that haemolymph and salivary glands not only have common antigens but may also share some functions. Furthermore, a number of protein bands were detected in haemolymph before they were apparent in the salivary glands or saliva. Thus some antigens detected in the salivary glands and saliva may be derived from the haemolymph. The results indicate that the host may be exposed to tick saliva antigens that are also present in the haemolymph. We discuss the significance of these observations with regard to the induction of host immunity to ticks and the development of tick vaccines.
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Löhr, Christiane V., Fred R. Rurangirwa, Terry F. McElwain, David Stiller, and Guy H. Palmer. "Specific Expression of Anaplasma marginale Major Surface Protein 2 Salivary Gland Variants Occurs in the Midgut and Is an Early Event during Tick Transmission." Infection and Immunity 70, no. 1 (January 2002): 114–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/iai.70.1.114-120.2002.
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ABSTRACT Infectivity of Anaplasma spp. develops when infected ticks feed on a mammalian host (transmission feed). Specific Anaplasma marginale major surface protein 2 (MSP2) variants are selected for within the tick and are expressed within the salivary glands. The aims of this study were to determine when and where MSP2 variant selection occurs in the tick, how MSP2 expression is regulated in salivary glands of transmission-feeding ticks, and whether the number of A. marginale organisms per salivary gland is significantly increased during transmission feeding. The South Idaho strain of A. marginale was used, as MSP2 expression is restricted to two variants, SGV1 and SGV2, in Dermacentor andersoni. Using Western blot, real-time PCR, and DNA sequencing analyses it was shown that restriction and expression of MSP2 occurs early in the midgut within the first 48 h of the blood meal, when ticks acquire infection. A. marginale is present in the tick salivary glands before transmission feeding is initiated, but the msp2 mRNA and MSP2 protein levels per A. marginale organism increase only minimally and transiently in salivary glands of transmission-feeding ticks compared to that of unfed ticks. A. marginale numbers per tick increase gradually in salivary glands of both transmission-fed and unfed ticks. It is concluded that MSP2 variant selection is an early event in the tick and that MSP2 variants SGV1 and SGV2 are expressed both in the midgut and salivary glands. While MSP2 may be required for infectivity, there is no strict temporal correlation between MSP2 expression and the development of infectivity.
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BOWMAN, A. S., and J. R. SAUER. "Tick salivary glands: function, physiology and future." Parasitology 129, S1 (October 2004): S67—S81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0031182004006468.
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The salivary glands are the organs of osmoregulation in ticks and, as such, are critical to the biological success of ticks both during the extended period off the host and also during the feeding period on the host. Absorption of water vapour from unsaturated air into hygroscopic fluid produced by the salivary glands permit the tick to remain hydrated and viable during the many months between blood-meals. When feeding, the tick is able to return about 70% of the fluid and ion content of the blood-meal into the host by salivation into the feeding site. This saliva also contains many bioactive protein and lipid components that aid acquisition of the blood-meal. The salivary glands are the site of pathogen development and the saliva the route of transmission. The importance of the multifunctional salivary glands to tick survival and vector competency makes the glands a potential target for intervention. Here we review the cell biology of tick salivary glands and discuss the application of new approaches such as expressed sequence tag projects and RNA interference to this important area in the field of tick and tick-borne pathogen research.
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Wang, H., and P. A. Nuttall. "Excretion of host immunoglobulin in tick saliva and detection of IgG-binding proteins in tick haemolymph and salivary glands." Parasitology 109, no. 4 (November 1994): 525–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0031182000080781.
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SUMMARYHost immunoglobulin G (IgG) crossed the gut wall into the haemocoel of adult Rhipicephalus appendiculatus female ticks when they fed on guinea-pigs. Guinea-pig IgG was also found in saliva of the feeding ticks. The concentration and antibody activity of IgG in haemolymph, salivary gland extract (SGE) and saliva at different stages of tick feeding were detected by enzyme-linked immunoassay. Specific activity of the IgG in tick samples was determined by feeding ticks on guinea-pigs which were immunized with killed Escherichia coli: 35–42% of the antibody activity in guinea-pig immune serum remained in the tick samples. The high relative concentration of IgG in tick saliva at later stages of feeding suggests that the tick may have a mechanism for getting rid of foreign proteins via the salivary gland. Such a mechanism could involve lgG binding proteins (1GBPs) which were found in both haemolymph and SGE of female ticks at day 6 of feeding using a guinea-pig IgG–agarose affinity column. In female ticks, the Mr of 1GBPs in SGE (23 and 57 kDa) were less than those in haemolymph (78 and > 100 kDa). The existence of 1GBPs in both the tick salivary gland and haemolymph indicate that haemolymph and salivary gland cooperate to remove foreign proteins, e.g. host immunoglobulin, from the body during feeding. This mechanism may be a part of the tick self-defence system.
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de Silva, Aravinda M., Nordin S. Zeidner, Yan Zhang, Marc C. Dolan, Joseph Piesman, and Erol Fikrig. "Influence of Outer Surface Protein A Antibody onBorrelia burgdorferi within Feeding Ticks." Infection and Immunity 67, no. 1 (January 1, 1999): 30–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/iai.67.1.30-35.1999.
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ABSTRACT Borrelia burgdorferi, the spirochetal agent of Lyme disease, is transmitted by Ixodes ticks. When an infected nymphal tick feeds on a host, the bacteria increase in number within the tick, after which they invade the tick’s salivary glands and infect the host. Antibodies directed against outer surface protein A (OspA) of B. burgdorferi kill spirochetes within feeding ticks and block transmission to the host. In the studies presented here, passive antibody transfer experiments were carried out to determine the OspA antibody titer required to block transmission to the rodent host. OspA antibody levels were determined by using a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay that measured antibody binding to a protective epitope defined by monoclonal antibody C3.78. The C3.78 OspA antibody titer (>213 μg/ml) required to eradicate spirochetes from feeding ticks was considerably higher than the titer (>6 μg/ml) required to block transmission to the host. Although spirochetes were not eradicated from ticks at lower antibody levels, the antibodies reduced the number of spirochetes within the feeding ticks and interfered with the ability of spirochetes to induceospC and invade the salivary glands of the vector. OspA antibodies may directly interfere with the ability of B. burgdorferi to invade the salivary glands of the vector; alternately, OspA antibodies may lower the density of spirochetes within feeding ticks below a critical threshold required for initiating events linked to transmission.
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Schwan, Tom G. "Vector Specificity of the Relapsing Fever Spirochete Borrelia hermsii (Spirochaetales: Borreliaceae) for the Tick Ornithodoros hermsi (Acari: Argasidae) Involves Persistent Infection of the Salivary Glands." Journal of Medical Entomology 58, no. 4 (April 15, 2021): 1926–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jme/tjab060.
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Abstract The relapsing fever spirochetes Borrelia hermsii and Borrelia turicatae are each maintained and transmitted in nature by their specific tick vectors, Ornithodoros hermsi Wheeler (Acari: Argasidae) and Ornithodoros turicata (Duges), respectively. The basis for this spirochete and vector specificity is not known, but persistent colonization of spirochetes in the tick’s salivary glands is presumed to be essential for transmission by these long-lived ticks that feed in only minutes on their warm-blooded hosts. To examine this hypothesis further, cohorts of O. hermsi and O. turicata were infected with B. hermsii and examined 7–260 d later for infection in their midgut, salivary glands, and synganglion. While the midgut from all ticks of both species at all time points examined were infected with spirochetes, the salivary glands of only O. hermsi remained persistently infected. The salivary glands of O. turicata were susceptible to an early transient infection. However, no spirochetes were observed in these tissues beyond the first 32 d after acquisition. Ticks of both species were fed on mice 112 d after they acquired spirochetes and only those mice fed upon by O. hermsi became infected. Thus, the vector competency for B. hermsii displayed by O. hermsi but not O. turicata lies, in part, in the persistent infection of the salivary glands of the former but not the latter species of tick. The genetic and biochemical mechanisms supporting this spirochete and vector specificity remain to be identified.
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Gilmore, Robert D., and Joseph Piesman. "Inhibition of Borrelia burgdorferi Migration from the Midgut to the Salivary Glands following Feeding by Ticks on OspC-Immunized Mice." Infection and Immunity 68, no. 1 (January 1, 2000): 411–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/iai.68.1.411-414.2000.
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ABSTRACT Borrelia burgdorferi-infected ticks were fed on either OspC-immunized mice or normal, nonimmunized mice. After 72 h, the ticks were detached, followed by dissection and subsequent culturing in Barbour-Stoenner-Kelley II medium of the salivary glands from each tick to determine the presence of borreliae. Forty percent (10 of 25) of salivary glands from ticks that had fed on nonimmunized mice were culture positive, while only 7.4% (2 of 27) of salivary glands from ticks that had fed on OspC-immunized mice were culture positive, thus indicating a much reduced borrelial migration from the midgut when the bloodmeal contained anti-OspC antibodies. Fluorescent antibody staining of the corresponding midguts from ticks that had fed on the OspC-immunized mice showed that borreliae were present but did not produce OspC. In contrast, borreliae in midguts from ticks that had fed on normal mice demonstrated substantial ospC expression. This study provides evidence that, during tick feeding on an OspC-immunized host, transmission of borreliae from the tick is prevented; it also suggests that OspC functions in a tick-to-host transmission mechanism.
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Wang, Yanan, Houshuang Zhang, Li Luo, Yongzhi Zhou, Jie Cao, Xuenan Xuan, Hiroshi Suzuki, and Jinlin Zhou. "ATG5 is instrumental in the transition from autophagy to apoptosis during the degeneration of tick salivary glands." PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases 15, no. 1 (January 29, 2021): e0009074. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0009074.
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Female tick salivary glands undergo rapid degeneration several days post engorgement. This degeneration may be caused by the increased concentration of ecdysone in the hemolymph during the fast feeding period and both autophagy and apoptosis occur. In this work, we first proved autophagy-related gene (ATG) and caspase gene expression peaks during degeneration of the tick salivary glands. We explored the regulatory role of Rhipicephalus haemaphysaloides autophagy-related 5 (RhATG5) in the degeneration of tick salivary glands. During the fast feeding phase, RhATG5 was cleaved and both calcium concentration and the transcription of Rhcalpains increased in the salivary glands. Recombinant RhATG5 was cleaved by μ-calpain only in the presence of calcium; the mutant RhATG5191-199Δ was not cleaved. Treatment with 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E) led to programmed cell death in the salivary glands of unfed ticks in vitro, RhATG8-phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) was upregulated in ticks treated with low concentration of 20E. Conversely, RhATG8-PE decreased and Rhcaspase-7 increased in ticks treated with a high concentration of 20E and transformed autophagy to apoptosis. High concentrations of 20E led to the cleavage of RhATG5. Calcium concentration and expression of Rhcalpains were also upregulated in the tick salivary glands. RNA interference (RNAi) of RhATG5 in vitro inhibited both autophagy and apoptosis of the tick salivary glands. RNAi of RhATG5 in vivo significantly inhibited the normal feeding process. These results demonstrated that high concentrations of 20E led to the cleavage of RhATG5 by increasing the concentration of calcium and stimulated the transition from autophagy to apoptosis.
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Kim, Donghun, Paulina Maldonado-Ruiz, Ludek Zurek, and Yoonseong Park. "Water absorption through salivary gland type I acini in the blacklegged tick, Ixodes scapularis." PeerJ 5 (October 31, 2017): e3984. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.3984.
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Tick salivary glands play critical roles in maintaining water balance for survival, as they eliminate excess water and ions during blood feeding on hosts. In the long duration of fasting in the off-host period, ticks secrete hygroscopic saliva into the mouth cavity to uptake atmospheric water vapor. Type I acini of tick salivary glands are speculated to be involved in secretion of hygroscopic saliva based on ultrastructure studies. However, we recently proposed that type I acini play a role in resorption of water/ions from the primary saliva produced by other salivary acini (i.e., types II and III) during the tick blood feeding phase. In this study, we tested the function of type I acini in unfed female Ixodes scapularis. The route of ingested water was tracked after forced feeding of water with fluorescent dye rhodamine123. We found that type-I acini of the salivary glands, but not type II and III, are responsible for water uptake. In addition, the ingestion of water through the midgut was also observed. Injection or feeding of ouabain, a Na/K-ATPase inhibitor, suppressed water absorption in type I acini. When I. scapularis was offered a droplet of water, ticks rarely imbibed water directly (5%), while some approached the water droplet to use the high humidity formed in the vicinity of the droplet (23%). We conclude that during both on- and off-host stages, type I acini in salivary glands of female Ixodes scapularis absorb water and ions.
10
Lamoreaux, William, Naby Sankhon, and Lewis B. Coons. "Localization of actin in the salivary glands of the American dog tick, Dermacentor variabilis." Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 49 (August 1991): 320–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424820100085903.
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The salivary glands of ixodid ticks are the primary organs of osmoregulation and the source of pathogen transfer from tick to host. Excess fluid is extracted from the blood meal, moved across the gut wall and into the salivary glands, where it is returned to the host. Previously it has been shown in vivo and in vitro that the type III acinus alternately swells as it fills with fluid and then contracts as the acinus empties, and that cytochalasin D prevents contraction of the type III acini.In this investigation, the rhodamine-phalloidin technique was used to localize actin filaments in the salivary glands of fed mated female ticks. Two microfilament inhibitors were used as controls. Samples were also taken for electron microscopy and dot blot analysis.
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Wang, H., and P. A. Nuttall. "Errata." Parasitology 110, no. 3 (April 1995): 363. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0031182000080951.
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Comparison of the proteins in salivary glands, saliva and haemolymph of Rhipicephalus appendiculatus female ticks during feedingParasitology (1994), 109, 517–523Fig. 2. Delete 24 kDa marker between 36 kDa and 29 kDa markers.Fig. 6. Replace 24 to 17·6 kDa with 34, 33·5, 32·5, 31·5, 30, 29 kDa.Fig. 7. Replace 33·2 kDa with 33·5 kDa.Excretion of host immunoglobulin in tick saliva and detection of IgG-binding proteins in tick haemolymph and salivary glandsParasitology (1994), 109, 525–530Fig. 4. Replace 19·2 kDa with 14·2 kDa.
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Sukumaran, Bindu, Sukanya Narasimhan, John F. Anderson, Kathleen DePonte, Nancy Marcantonio, Manoj N. Krishnan, Durland Fish, Sam R. Telford, Fred S. Kantor, and Erol Fikrig. "An Ixodes scapularis protein required for survival of Anaplasma phagocytophilum in tick salivary glands." Journal of Experimental Medicine 203, no. 6 (May 22, 2006): 1507–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1084/jem.20060208.
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Anaplasma phagocytophilum is the agent of human anaplasmosis, the second most common tick-borne illness in the United States. This pathogen, which is closely related to obligate intracellular organisms in the genera Rickettsia, Ehrlichia, and Anaplasma, persists in ticks and mammalian hosts; however, the mechanisms for survival in the arthropod are not known. We now show that A. phagocytophilum induces expression of the Ixodes scapularis salp16 gene in the arthropod salivary glands during vector engorgement. RNA interference–mediated silencing of salp16 gene expression interfered with the survival of A. phagocytophilum that entered ticks fed on A. phagocytophilum–infected mice. A. phagocytophilum migrated normally from A. phagocytophilum–infected mice to the gut of engorging salp16-deficient ticks, but up to 90% of the bacteria that entered the ticks were not able to successfully infect I. scapularis salivary glands. These data demonstrate the specific requirement of a pathogen for a tick salivary protein to persist within the arthropod and provide a paradigm for understanding how Rickettsia-like pathogens are maintained within vectors.
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Walker, Alan R., and June D. Fletcher. "Age grades and infection rates of Rhipicephalus appendiculatus Neumann (Acari: Ixodidae) to assess theileriosis challenge in the field." Bulletin of Entomological Research 75, no. 4 (December 1985): 653–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0007485300015911.
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AbstractData are presented from five series of 240 adults of Rhipicephalus appendiculatus Neumann kept in the laboratory, in which a steady decline in the numbers of granules in e cells of type 3 acini of the salivary glands occurred. This was readily detected in whole gland preparations of the salivary glands stained with methyl green and pyronin, and the same specimens could be used for detecting Theileria parasites in the salivary glands. Characteristics for grading these ticks into three physiological age grades are given, and a formula is provided for incorporating the age grade with infection rate. This gives a value for comparative estimates of the challenge posed by field populations of ticks for the transmission of Theileria to cattle.
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Belperron, Alexia A., and Linda K. Bockenstedt. "Natural Antibody Affects Survival of the SpirocheteBorrelia burgdorferi within Feeding Ticks." Infection and Immunity 69, no. 10 (October 1, 2001): 6456–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/iai.69.10.6456-6462.2001.
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ABSTRACT Natural antibodies are those immunoglobulin molecules found in mammalian serum that arise in the absence of exposure to environmental pathogens and may comprise an early host defense against invading pathogens. The spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi first encounters natural antibodies when its arthropod vector, Ixodes scapularis, begins feeding on a mammalian host. Natural antibodies may therefore have an impact on pathogens within blood-sucking vectors, prior to pathogen transmission to the mammal. In this study, we investigated whether natural antibodies influenced the number and/or phenotype of B. burgdorferi organisms within feeding I. scapularis nymphs. Using a competitive PCR, we found that ticks ingesting a blood meal from B-cell-deficient mice, which lack all immunoglobulins, contained fivefold more spirochete DNA than ticks feeding on control mice. Spirochete DNA levels could be reduced to that of controls with passive transfer of normal mouse serum or polyclonal immunoglobulin M (IgM), but not IgG, into B-cell-deficient mice prior to placement of infected ticks. At 48 h of tick feeding, 90% of spirochetes within salivary glands of ticks removed from B-cell-deficient mice were found by confocal immunofluorescence microscopy to express outer surface protein A (OspA), compared to only 5% of salivary gland spirochetes from ticks detached from control mice. Taken together, these results show that ingestion of natural antibodies limits the spirochete burden within feeding ticks. Because OspA is normally downregulated when spirochetes moved from the tick midgut to the salivary gland, our findings suggest that OspA-expressing midgut spirochetes may be particularly susceptible to the borrelicidal effects of these molecules.
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Rurangirwa, Fred R., David Stiller, and Guy H. Palmer. "Strain Diversity in Major Surface Protein 2 Expression during Tick Transmission of Anaplasma marginale." Infection and Immunity 68, no. 5 (May 1, 2000): 3023–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/iai.68.5.3023-3027.2000.
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ABSTRACT Specific major surface protein 2 (MSP2) variants are expressed byAnaplasma marginale within the tick salivary gland and, following transmission, are expressed during acute rickettsemia. In previous work, we have shown that a restricted pattern of MSP2 variants is expressed in the salivary glands of Dermacentor andersoni ticks infected with the South Idaho strain of A. marginale. Now we demonstrate that the identical restriction does not apply to two other strains of A. marginale, and that different variants are also expressed when the same strain is transmitted by different Dermacentor spp. This indicates that antigenic diversity among strains is maintained in tick transmission and may be a significant constraint to MSP2 vaccine development.
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Grabowski, Jeffrey M., Olof R. Nilsson, Elizabeth R. Fischer, Dan Long, Danielle K. Offerdahl, Yoonseong Park, Dana P. Scott, and Marshall E. Bloom. "Dissecting Flavivirus Biology in Salivary Gland Cultures from Fed and Unfed Ixodes scapularis (Black-Legged Tick)." mBio 10, no. 1 (January 29, 2019): e02628-18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mbio.02628-18.
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ABSTRACT The Ixodes scapularis tick transmits a number of pathogens, including tick-borne flaviviruses (TBFVs). In the United States, confirmed human infections with the Powassan virus (POWV) TBFV have a fatality rate of ∼10% and are increasing in incidence. Tick salivary glands (SGs) serve as an organ barrier to TBFV transmission, and little is known regarding the location of TBFV infection in SGs from fed ticks. Previous studies showed I. scapularis vanin (VNN) involved with TBFV infection of I. scapularis ISE6 embryonic cells, suggesting a potential role for this gene. The overall goal of this study was to use SG cultures to compare data on TBFV biology in SGs from fully engorged, replete (fed) ticks and from unfed ticks. TBFV multiplication was higher in SGs from fed ticks than in those from unfed ticks. Virus-like particles were observed only in granular acini of SGs from unfed ticks. The location of TBFV infection of SGs from fed ticks was observed in cells lining lobular ducts and trachea but not observed in acini. Transcript knockdown of VNN decreased POWV multiplication in infected SG cultures from both fed and unfed ticks. This work was the first to identify localization of TBFV multiplication in SG cultures from a fed tick and a tick transcript important for POWV multiplication in the tick SG, an organ critical for TBFV transmission. This research exemplifies the use of SG cultures in deciphering TBFV biology in the tick and as a translational tool for screening and identifying potential tick genes as potential countermeasure targets. IMPORTANCE Tick-borne flaviviruses (TBFVs) are responsible for more than 15,000 human disease cases each year, and Powassan virus lineage 2 (POWV-L2) deer tick virus has been a reemerging threat in North America over the past 20 years. Rapid transmission of TBFVs in particular emphasizes the importance of preventing tick bites, the difficulty in developing countermeasures to prevent transmission, and the importance of understanding TBFV infection in tick salivary glands (SGs). Tick blood feeding is responsible for phenomenal physiological changes and is associated with changes in TBFV multiplication within the tick and in SGs. Using SG cultures from Ixodes scapularis female ticks, the primary aims of this study were to identify cellular localization of virus-like particles in acini of infected SGs from fed and unfed ticks, localization of TBFV infection in infected SGs from fed ticks, and a tick transcript (with associated metabolic function) involved in POWV-L2 infection in SG cultures.
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de Silva, A. M., S. R. Telford, L. R. Brunet, S. W. Barthold, and E. Fikrig. "Borrelia burgdorferi OspA is an arthropod-specific transmission-blocking Lyme disease vaccine." Journal of Experimental Medicine 183, no. 1 (January 1, 1996): 271–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1084/jem.183.1.271.
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Borrelia burgdorferi, the spirochetal agent of Lyme disease, is transmitted by Ixodes ticks. A vaccine based on B. burgdorferi outer surface protein (Osp) A protects mice from spirochete infection. Here we report on the expression of OspA on spirochetes inside engorging ticks and relate OspA expression to antispirochetal immunity. Spirochetes in the gut of unfed nymphal ticks were stained by an OspA antibody, whereas in feeding ticks, the majority of spirochetes in the gut and salivary glands did not stain with the antibody. Thus, OspA was not expressed on most spirochetes during transmission from the vector to the vertebrate host. To examine the mechanism of protection afforded by OspA antibody, mice were passively immunized with OspA antibody at different times relative to tick attachment. When OspA antibody was administered to mice before or at the time of tick attachment, spirochetal development events in the vector, such as growth and salivary gland invasion, were blocked and the mice were protected from B. burgdorferi infection. When OspA antibody was administered to mice 48 h after tick attachment, spirochetes persisted in the nymphs and the mice were not protected despite the presence of circulating antibodies in the host as well as in the tick blood meal. Thus, OspA immunity appears to be effective only during a narrow window time at the beginning of the blood meal when antibodies bind to OspA-expressing spirochetes in the tick gut and block transmission from the vector to the host.
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Lindsay, Paul J., and W. Reuben Kaufman. "Potentiation of salivary fluid secretion in ixodid ticks: a new receptor system for γ-aminobutyric acid." Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 64, no. 8 (August 1, 1986): 1119–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/y86-191.
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γ-Aminobutyric acid (GABA), having minimal intrinsic activity, potentiates dopamine-induced fluid secretion in salivary glands of female ixodid ticks. Because the effect of GABA was similar to that of spiperone, we tested whether these two drugs act at a common recognition site. Potentiation was not augmented when salivary glands were exposed to supramaximal concentrations of spiperone (1 μM) plus GABA (100 μM). (±)-Sulpiride (100 μM), a spiperone antagonist in this system, also blocked GABA-induced potentiation. Picrotoxin (100 μM) and (−)-bicuculline (100 μM), two GABA antagonists, blocked GABA-induced and spiperone-induced potentiation. Inhibition of GABA by picrotoxin and (−)-bicuculline was noncompetitive. Muscimol (an agonist at GABAA receptors) also potentiated dopamine-induced secretion. Baclofen (an agonist at GABAB receptors) did not elicit potentiation. We suggest that GABA may function as a neuromodulator for dopamine-induced fluid secretion in tick salivary glands.
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Fischer, Elizabeth R., and Tom G. Schwan. "Transmission Of Borreua Hermsii, The Agent Of Relapsing Fever, By The Tick Vector Ornithodoros Hermsi." Microscopy and Microanalysis 5, S2 (August 1999): 1220–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927600019425.
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Relapsing fever, a disease characterized by recurrent episodes of high fevers, is caused by geographically distinct spirochetes of the genus Borrelia,transmitted by ticks of the genus Ornithodoros. In the Northwestern United States, the soft tick Ornithodoros hermsi has been identified as the vector for the spirochete Borrelia hermsii. The life cycle of O.hermsi includes larval and multiple nymphal stages prior to full maturation into an adult male or female (Fig.1). Progression into each stage requires a blood-meal typically provided by squirrels and chipmunks, and incidentally humans. Feeding is rapid, lasting 10-60 minutes, and during this time an infected tick can transmit the agent of relapsing fever, B. hermsii. Following ingestion, spirochetes are initially found in the tick midgut. Within 1-3 weeks, they are found in other organs, including the central ganglion and salivary glands. Since saliva is the primary mode of transmission of these bacteria during tick feeding, we assessed by electron microscopy the structural and functional relationships between the spirochetes and the salivary glands.
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Zung, J. L., S. Lewengrub, M. A. Rudzinska, A. Spielman, S. R. Telford, and J. Piesman. "Fine structural evidence for the penetration of the Lyme disease spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi through the gut and salivary tissues of Ixodes dammini." Canadian Journal of Zoology 67, no. 7 (July 1, 1989): 1737–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z89-249.
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The route followed by the Lyme disease spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi as it passes from vector to host has been the subject of controversy over whether the spirochete is transmitted through the saliva of the tick or through regurgitation during feeding. In the event that the spirochete's presence in the salivary tissues is transient we employed a detailed electron microscopic study spanning the period of nymphal attachment to the host to determine whether B. burgdorferi invades the salivary acini and ducts. In addition we examined other tissues of the tick to determine the route and mode of migration. Two different groups of nymphs were used in this study. After feeding, spirochetes were found in both groups in the gut lumen, epithelium, and within the salivary glands and ducts. Borrelia is able to pass both inter- and intra-cellularly through these tissues. In one group of unfed nymphs Borrelia was limited to the gut lumen, whereas the second group demonstrated a disseminated infection. This difference might be due to transovarial transmission, the geographic origin, and (or) age of the ticks. The finding of Borrelia within the salivary glands and ducts provides strong evidence for the salivary transmission of the Lyme disease spirochete.
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Tilly, Kit, Jonathan G. Krum, Aaron Bestor, Mollie W. Jewett, Dorothee Grimm, Dawn Bueschel, Rebecca Byram, et al. "Borrelia burgdorferi OspC Protein Required Exclusively in a Crucial Early Stage of Mammalian Infection." Infection and Immunity 74, no. 6 (June 2006): 3554–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/iai.01950-05.
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ABSTRACT This study demonstrates a strict temporal requirement for a virulence determinant of the Lyme disease spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi during a unique point in its natural infection cycle, which alternates between ticks and small mammals. OspC is a major surface protein produced by B. burgdorferi when infected ticks feed but whose synthesis decreases after transmission to a mammalian host. We have previously shown that spirochetes lacking OspC are competent to replicate in and migrate to the salivary glands of the tick vector but do not infect mice. Here we assessed the timing of the requirement for OspC by using an ospC mutant complemented with an unstable copy of the ospC gene and show that B. burgdorferi's requirement for OspC is specific to the mammal and limited to a critical early stage of mammalian infection. By using this unique system, we found that most bacterial reisolates from mice persistently infected with the initially complemented ospC mutant strain no longer carried the wild-type copy of ospC. Such spirochetes were acquired by feeding ticks and migrated to the tick salivary glands during subsequent feeding. Despite normal behavior in ticks, these ospC mutant spirochetes did not infect naive mice. ospC mutant spirochetes from persistently infected mice also failed to infect naive mice by tissue transplantation. We conclude that OspC is indispensable for establishing infection by B. burgdorferi in mammals but is not required at any other point of the mouse-tick infection cycle.
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Ueti, Massaro W., Donald P. Knowles, Christine M. Davitt, Glen A. Scoles, Timothy V. Baszler, and Guy H. Palmer. "Quantitative Differences in Salivary Pathogen Load during Tick Transmission Underlie Strain-Specific Variation in Transmission Efficiency of Anaplasma marginale." Infection and Immunity 77, no. 1 (October 27, 2008): 70–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/iai.01164-08.
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ABSTRACT The relative fitness of arthropod-borne pathogens within the vector can be a major determinant of pathogen prevalence within the mammalian host population. Strains of the tick-borne rickettsia Anaplasma marginale differ markedly in transmission efficiency, with a consequent impact on pathogen strain structure. We have identified two A. marginale strains with significant differences in the transmission phenotype that is effected following infection of the salivary gland. We have proposed competing hypotheses to explain the phenotypes: (i) both strains are secreted equally, but there is an intrinsic difference in infectivity for the mammalian host, or (ii) one strain is secreted at a significantly higher level and thus represents delivery of a greater pathogen dose. Quantitative analysis of pathogen replication and secretion revealed that the high-efficiency St. Maries strain replicated to a 10-fold-higher titer and that a significantly greater percentage of infected ticks secreted A. marginale into the saliva and did so at a significantly higher level than for the low-efficiency Israel vaccine strain. Furthermore, the transmission phenotype of the vaccine strain could be restored to that of the St. Maries strain simply by increasing the delivered pathogen dose, either by direct inoculation of salivary gland organisms or by increasing the number of ticks during transmission feeding. We identified morphological differences in the colonization of each strain within the salivary glands and propose that these reflect strain-specific differences in replication and secretion pathways linked to the vector-pathogen interaction.
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Ueti, Massaro W., Guy H. Palmer, Glen A. Scoles, Lowell S. Kappmeyer, and Donald P. Knowles. "Persistently Infected Horses Are Reservoirs for Intrastadial Tick-Borne Transmission of the Apicomplexan Parasite Babesia equi." Infection and Immunity 76, no. 8 (May 19, 2008): 3525–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/iai.00251-08.
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ABSTRACT Tick-borne pathogens may be transmitted intrastadially and transstadially within a single vector generation as well as vertically between generations. Understanding the mode and relative efficiency of this transmission is required for infection control. In this study, we established that adult male Rhipicephalus microplus ticks efficiently acquire the protozoal pathogen Babesia equi during acute and persistent infections and transmit it intrastadially to naïve horses. Although the level of parasitemia during acquisition feeding affected the efficiency of the initial tick infection, infected ticks developed levels of ≥104 organisms/pair of salivary glands independent of the level of parasitemia during acquisition feeding and successfully transmitted them, indicating that replication within the tick compensated for any initial differences in infectious dose and exceeded the threshold for transmission. During the development of B. equi parasites in the salivary gland granular acini, the parasites expressed levels of paralogous surface proteins significantly different from those expressed by intraerythrocytic parasites from the mammalian host. In contrast to the successful intrastadial transmission, adult female R. microplus ticks that fed on horses with high parasitemia passed the parasite vertically into the eggs with low efficiency, and the subsequent generation (larvae, nymphs, and adults) failed to transmit B. equi parasites to naïve horses. The data demonstrated that intrastadial but not transovarial transmission is an efficient mode for B. equi transmission and that persistently infected horses are an important reservoir for transmission. Consequently, R. microplus male ticks and persistently infected horses should be targeted for disease control.
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Alarcon-Chaidez, Francisco, Raymond Ryan, Stephen Wikel, Kenneth Dardick, Caroline Lawler, Ivo M. Foppa, Patricio Tomas, et al. "Confirmation of Tick Bite by Detection of Antibody to Ixodes Calreticulin Salivary Protein." Clinical and Vaccine Immunology 13, no. 11 (August 23, 2006): 1217–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/cvi.00201-06.
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ABSTRACT Ticks introduce a variety of pharmacologically active molecules into their host during attachment and feeding in order to obtain a blood meal. People who are repeatedly exposed to ticks may develop an immune response to tick salivary proteins. Despite this response, people usually are unaware of having been bitten, especially if they are not repeatedly exposed to ticks. In order to develop a laboratory marker of tick exposure that would be useful in understanding the epidemiology of tick-borne infection and the immune response to tick bite, we developed an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to detect antibody to a recombinant form of calreticulin protein found in the salivary glands of Ixodes scapularis, a member of a complex of Ixodes ticks that serve as the vectors for Lyme disease, human babesiosis, and human granulocytic anaplasmosis. Using this assay, we tested sera obtained from C3H/HeN and BALB/c mice before and after experimental deer tick infestation. These mice developed antibody to Ixodes calreticulin antigen after infestation. We then used the same assay to test sera obtained from people before and after they experienced deer tick bite(s). People experiencing deer tick bite(s) developed Ixodes calreticulin-specific antibody responses that persisted for up to 17 months. This Ixodes recombinant calreticulin ELISA provides objective evidence of deer tick exposure in people.
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de la Fuente, José, and Katherine M. Kocan. "Expression of Anaplasma marginale Major Surface Protein 2 Variants in Persistently Infected Ticks." Infection and Immunity 69, no. 8 (August 1, 2001): 5151–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/iai.69.8.5151-5156.2001.
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ABSTRACT Anaplasma marginale, an intraerythrocytic ehrlichial pathogen of cattle, establishes persistent infections in both vertebrate (cattle) and invertebrate (tick) hosts. The ability ofA. marginale to persist in cattle has been shown to be due, in part, to major surface protein 2 (MSP2) variants which are hypothesized to emerge in response to the bovine immune response. MSP2 antigenic variation has not been studied in persistently infected ticks. In this study we analyzed MSP2 in A. marginalepopulations from the salivary glands of male Dermacentor variabilis persistently infected with A. marginaleafter feeding successively on one susceptible bovine and three sheep. New MSP2 variants appeared in each A. marginale population, and sequence alignment of the MSP2 variants revealed multiple amino acid substitutions, insertions, and deletions. These results suggest that selection pressure on MSP2 occurred in tick salivary glands independent of the bovine immune response.
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Oleaga, Ana, Beatriz Soriano, Carlos Llorens, and Ricardo Pérez-Sánchez. "Sialotranscriptomics of the argasid tick Ornithodoros moubata along the trophogonic cycle." PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases 15, no. 2 (February 5, 2021): e0009105. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0009105.
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The argasid tick Ornithodoros moubata is the main vector of human relapsing fever (HRF) and African swine fever (ASF) in Africa. Salivary proteins are part of the host-tick interface and play vital roles in the tick feeding process and the host infection by tick-borne pathogens; they represent interesting targets for immune interventions aimed at tick control. The present work describes the transcriptome profile of salivary glands of O. moubata and assesses the gene expression dynamics along the trophogonic cycle using Illumina sequencing. De novo transcriptome assembling resulted in 71,194 transcript clusters and 41,011 annotated transcripts, which represent 57.6% of the annotation success. Most salivary gene expression takes place during the first 7 days after feeding (6,287 upregulated transcripts), while a minority of genes (203 upregulated transcripts) are differentially expressed between 7 and 14 days after feeding. The functional protein groups more abundantly overrepresented after blood feeding were lipocalins, proteases (especially metalloproteases), protease inhibitors including the Kunitz/BPTI-family, proteins with phospholipase A2 activity, acid tail proteins, basic tail proteins, vitellogenins, the 7DB family and proteins involved in tick immunity and defence. The complexity and functional redundancy observed in the sialotranscriptome of O. moubata are comparable to those of the sialomes of other argasid and ixodid ticks. This transcriptome provides a valuable reference database for ongoing proteomics studies of the salivary glands and saliva of O. moubata aimed at confirming and expanding previous data on the O. moubata sialoproteome.
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Šimo, Ladislav, Dušan Žitňan, and Yoonseong Park. "Neural control of salivary glands in ixodid ticks." Journal of Insect Physiology 58, no. 4 (April 2012): 459–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jinsphys.2011.11.006.
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Klyachko, Olga, Barry D. Stein, Nathan Grindle, Keith Clay, and Clay Fuqua. "Localization and Visualization of a Coxiella-Type Symbiont within the Lone Star Tick, Amblyomma americanum." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 73, no. 20 (August 24, 2007): 6584–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.00537-07.
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ABSTRACT A Coxiella-type microbe occurs at 100% frequency in all Amblyomma americanum ticks thus far tested. Using laboratory-reared ticks free of other microbes, we identified the Amblyomma-associated Coxiella microbe in several types of tissue and at various stages of the life cycle of A. americanum by 16S rRNA gene sequencing and diagnostic PCR. We visualized Amblyomma-associated Coxiella through the use of a diagnostic fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) assay supplemented with PCR-based detection, nucleic acid fluorescent staining, wide-field epifluorescence and confocal microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Specific fluorescent foci were observed in several tick tissues, including the midgut and the Malpighian tubules, but particularly bright signals were observed in the granular acini of salivary gland clusters and in both small and large oocytes. TEM confirmed intracellular bacterial structures in the same tissues. The presence of Amblyomma-associated Coxiella within oocytes is consistent with the vertical transmission of these endosymbionts. Further, the presence of the Amblyomma-associated Coxiella symbiont in other tissues such as salivary glands could potentially lead to interactions with horizontally acquired pathogens.
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Barbet, A. F., R. Blentlinger, Jooyoung Yi, A. M. Lundgren, E. F. Blouin, and K. M. Kocan. "Comparison of Surface Proteins of Anaplasma marginale Grown in Tick Cell Culture, Tick Salivary Glands, and Cattle." Infection and Immunity 67, no. 1 (January 1, 1999): 102–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/iai.67.1.102-107.1999.
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ABSTRACT Anaplasma marginale, a tick-borne rickettsial pathogen of cattle, infects bovine erythrocytes, resulting in mild to severe hemolytic disease that causes economic losses in domestic livestock worldwide. Recently, the Virginia isolate of A. marginalewas propagated in a continuous tick cell line, IDE8, derived from embryonic Ixodes scapularis. Development of A. marginale in cell culture was morphologically similar to that described previously in ticks. In order to evaluate the potential of the cell culture-derived organisms for use in future research or as an antigen for serologic tests and vaccines, the extent of structural conservation of the major surface proteins (MSPs) between the cell culture-derived A. marginale and the bovine erythrocytic stage, currently the source of A. marginale antigen, was determined. Structural conservation on the tick salivary-gland stage was also examined. Monoclonal and monospecific antisera against MSPs 1 through 5, initially characterized against erythrocyte stages, also reacted with A. marginale from cell culture and tick salivary glands. MSP1a among geographic A. marginaleisolates is variable in size because of different numbers of a tandemly repeated 28- or 29-amino-acid peptide. The cell culture-derivedA. marginale maintained the same-size MSP1a as that found on the Virginia isolate of A. marginale in bovine erythrocytes and tick salivary glands. Although differences were observed in the polymorphic MSP2 antigen between culture and salivary-gland stages, MSP2 did not appear to vary, by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis, during continuous passage in culture. These data show that MSPs of erythrocyte-stage A. marginale are present on culture stages and may be structurally conserved during continuous culture. The presence of all current candidate diagnostic and vaccine antigens suggests that in vitro cultures are a valuable source of rickettsiae for basic research and for the development of improved diagnostic reagents and vaccines against anaplasmosis.
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Perner, Jan, Sára Kropáčková, Petr Kopáček, and José M. C. Ribeiro. "Sialome diversity of ticks revealed by RNAseq of single tick salivary glands." PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases 12, no. 4 (April 13, 2018): e0006410. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0006410.
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Ochanda, H., A. S. Young, C. Wells, G. F. Medley, and B. D. Perry. "Comparison of the transmission of Theileria parva between different instars of Rhipicephalus appendiculatus." Parasitology 113, no. 3 (September 1996): 243–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0031182000082019.
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SUMMARYThe transmission of Theileria parva by nymphal and adult Rhipicephalus appendiculatus was compared by the assessment of salivary gland infections in tick batches fed on the same group of infected cattle at the same time. When larval and nymphal R. appendiculatus Muguga ticks were fed concurrently on cattle undergoing acute infection with T. parva Muguga, the resultant nymphae developed a slightly lower prevalence of infection than did the adult ticks. The abundance of infection was 5–20 times higher in the adult ticks than in the nymphae. When larval and nymphal R. appendiculatus Muguga and R. appendiculatus McIlwaine were fed to repletion on cattle infected with T. parva Boleni, a parasite causing subacute infection, resultant adult tick batches had a relatively high prevalence of infection, but infection was not detected in resultant nymphal batches. When cattle that were carriers of 2 stocks of T. parva, Marikebuni and Kiambu 5, were used as the source of infection, the infections developing in adult R. appendiculatus Muguga ticks were much higher than those developing in nymphae. The structure of salivary glands differed between nymphal ticks, adult males and adult females, and this is considered to be an important factor affecting the infection levels. The morphology of the type III acini, the target acini for sporogony, was similar, but the mean numbers of type III acini were different, with 87 in nymphae, 1346 in males and 1736 in females. This difference was correlated with the different infection levels produced in the various instars and sexes. While the process of sporogony in the different tick instars and sexes was similar, the rate of sporogony was fastest in feeding nymphae, taking on average 2–3 days, compared to 3–4 days in females and an irregular period in the males. These results are discussed in relation to the epidemiology of T. parva.
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Ueti, Massaro W., James O. Reagan, Donald P. Knowles, Glen A. Scoles, Varda Shkap, and Guy H. Palmer. "Identification of Midgut and Salivary Glands as Specific and Distinct Barriers to Efficient Tick-Borne Transmission of Anaplasma marginale." Infection and Immunity 75, no. 6 (April 9, 2007): 2959–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/iai.00284-07.
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ABSTRACT Understanding the determinants of efficient tick-borne microbial transmission is needed to better predict the emergence of highly transmissible pathogen strains and disease outbreaks. Although the basic developmental cycle of Anaplasma and Ehrlichia spp. within the tick has been delineated, there are marked differences in the ability of specific strains to be efficiently tick transmitted. Using the highly transmissible St. Maries strain of Anaplasma marginale in Dermacentor andersoni as a positive control and two unrelated nontransmissible strains, we identified distinct barriers to efficient transmission within the tick. The Mississippi strain was unable to establish infection at the level of the midgut epithelium despite successful ingestion of infected blood following acquisition feeding on a bacteremic animal host. This inability to colonize the midgut epithelium prevented subsequent development within the salivary glands and transmission. In contrast, A. marginale subsp. centrale colonized the midgut and then the salivary glands, replicating to a titer indistinguishable from that of the highly transmissible St. Maries strain and at least 100 times greater than that previously associated with successful transmission. Nonetheless, A. marginale subsp. centrale was not transmitted, even when a large number of infected ticks was used for transmission feeding. These results establish that there are at least two specific barriers to efficient tick-borne transmission, the midgut and salivary glands, and highlight the complexity of the pathogen-tick interaction.
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IJdo, Jacob W., Caiyun Wu, Sam R. Telford, and Erol Fikrig. "Differential Expression of the p44 Gene Family in the Agent of Human Granulocytic Ehrlichiosis." Infection and Immunity 70, no. 9 (September 2002): 5295–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/iai.70.9.5295-5298.2002.
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ABSTRACT Using reverse transcription-PCR targeting of the p44 genes of the agent of human granulocytic ehrlichiosis (HGE) with primers flanking the hypervariable region, we show differential expression in a murine model of HGE infection and during tick transmission. The p44 genes were differentially expressed in salivary glands of infected nymphal ticks removed during transmission feeding but not in nonfeeding infected ticks. Similarly, the p44 genes were differentially expressed in infected C3H mice, in SCID mice, and in cultured HGE bacteria. Thus, differential p44 expression exists in vivo and in vitro and could provide a basis for antigenic variation.
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Park, Yoonseong, Donghun Kim, Gunavanthi Boorgula, Kristof De Schutter, Guy Smagghe, Ladislav Šimo, Stephanie Archer-Hartmann, and Parastoo Azadi. "Alpha-Gal and Cross-Reactive Carbohydrate Determinants in the N-Glycans of Salivary Glands in the Lone Star Tick, Amblyomma americanum." Vaccines 8, no. 1 (January 9, 2020): 18. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/vaccines8010018.
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Ticks are important ectoparasites and vectors of numerous human and animal pathogens. Ticks secrete saliva that contains various bioactive materials to evade the host defense system, and often facilitates the pathogen transmission. In addition, the Lone star tick saliva is thought to be the sensitizer in red meat allergy that is characterized by an allergic reaction to glycan moieties carrying terminal galactose-alpha-1,3-galactose (aGal). To assess N-glycome of Amblyomma americanum, we examined the N-glycan structures in male and female salivary glands at three different feeding stages and in carcasses of partially fed lone star ticks. We also surveyed the genes involved in the N-glycosylation in the tick species. The aGal epitopes and cross-reactive carbohydrate determinants (CCD) increases over time after the onset of blood feeding in both male and female A. americanum. These CCDs include xylosylation of the core mannose, 1,3-mono and 1,3- and 1,6-difucosylations of the basal GlcNac and mono- or diantennary aGal. Combinations of both xylosylation and aGal and fucosylation and aGal were also found on the N-glycan structures. While the enzymes required for the early steps of the N-glycosylation pathway are quite conserved, the enzymes involved in the later stages of N-glycan maturation in the Golgi apparatus are highly diverged from those of insects. Most of all, we propose that the aGal serves as a molecular mimicry of bioactive proteins during tick feedings on mammalian hosts, while it contributes as a sensitizer of allergy in atypical host human.
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KOCAN, K. M., J. DE LA FUENTE, E. F. BLOUIN, and J. C. GARCIA-GARCIA. "Anaplasma marginale(Rickettsiales: Anaplasmataceae): recent advances in defining host–pathogen adaptations of a tick-borne rickettsia." Parasitology 129, S1 (October 2004): S285—S300. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0031182003004700.
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The tick-borne intracellular pathogenAnaplasma marginale(Rickettsiales: Anaplasmataceae) develops persistent infections in cattle and tick hosts. While erythrocytes appear to be the only site of infection in cattle,A. marginaleundergoes a complex developmental cycle in ticks and transmission occurs via salivary glands during feeding. Many geographic isolates occur that vary in genotype, antigenic composition, morphology and infectivity for ticks. In this chapter we review recent research on the host–vector–pathogen interactions ofA. marginale. Major surface proteins (MSPs) play a crucial role in the interaction ofA. marginalewith host cells. The MSP1a protein, which is an adhesin for bovine erythrocytes and tick cells, is differentially regulated and affects infection and transmission ofA. marginalebyDermacentorspp. ticks. MSP2 undergoes antigenic variation and selection in cattle and ticks, and contributes to the maintenance of persistent infections. Phylogenetic studies ofA. marginalegeographic isolates usingmsp4andmsp1α provide information about the biogeography and evolution ofA. marginale:msp1α genotypes evolve under positive selection pressure. Isolates ofA. marginaleare maintained by independent transmission events and a mechanism of infection exclusion in cattle and ticks allows for only the infection of one isolate per animal. Prospects for development of control strategies by use of pathogen and tick-derived antigens are discussed. TheA. marginale/vector/host studies described herein could serve as a model for research on other tick-borne rickettsiae.
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Torianyk, Inna I. "MACROMICROSCOPIC ARGUMENTATION OF THE PATHOGENETIC SCENARIO OF BABESIOSIS IN THE COORDINATE SYSTEM «PATHOGEN-CARRIER-RESERVOIR»." Wiadomości Lekarskie 74, no. 3 (2021): 436–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.36740/wlek202103110.
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The aim is to get a thorough argument for the babesiosis pathogenetic scenario in the coordinate system «pathogen (Babesia spp.) – carrier (ticks of the Ixodoidea superfamily of the Ixodidea family) – reservoir (a susceptible organism)» with the emphasis on the epizootic/epidemic role of the carrier. Materials and methods: The macromicroscopic method of research was used in order to maximize the clarification of the babesiosis scenario, its pathogenetic links, the connection of the latter with attacks of active stages of ixodes ticks, types of circulation of ontogenetic forms of Babesia spp. in the body of carriers and their inoculation of the pathogen into an organism susceptible to it. The use of this method helped to strengthen the diagnostic potential of the study, and increase the reliability of the results obtained. Taking this into consideration it was focused on the epizootological/epidemiological aspects of babesiosis, the role and significance of the most vulnerable epizootic link – Ixodes ticks on the body of the vertebrate provider (mammal), poikilomorphism, anisomorphy. The study of the monolithic idiosome and ticks salivary glands were carried out on activated (capable of attack) female individuals aged 2-3 months after molting. Ticks were dissected in a cool (t=4ºC) Ringer’s saline solution for arachnids. Ticks and prepared salivary glands were fixed in 12% formalin solution on 0.1 M phosphate buffer (pH=7.0-7.2) at t=4oC for 3 hours, washed with the buffer, and fixed again for 1 hour (t=4oC). To achieve tonicity, sucrose was added to the fixatives and the washing medium. Dehydration occurred due to a battery of alcohols of increasing concentration and absolute acetone. Microspecimens stained with hematoxylin and eosin were studied using an Olympus BX-41 microscope (Japan). Results: Implementation of the leading stages of the babesiosis pathogenetic scenario is focused on the coordinate system «pathogen (Babesia spp.) − carrier (ticks of the Ixodoidea superfamily of the Ixodidea family) − reservoir (a susceptible organism)» in which carrier take the leading place. The macromicroscopic specificity of the structure of the ticks (variability: ability to aniso-, poikilomorphism) is an evidence-based criterion for pathogens inoculation to the macroorganism of warm-blooded vertebrates. It determines the features of circulation and organ/cellular locations of Babesia spp. (intestines and its epithelium, hemolymph, gonads, salivary glands). The species belonging of warm blooded vertebrates susceptible to babesiosis pathogens correlates with the species belonging of ticks and determines the tropicity of the latter. The simultaneous implementation of a complex of research procedures with the tick biological material samples is problematic taking into account the physical lack of material, which requires researchers to re-orient the diagnostic vector towards the use of additional methods for babesiosis diagnosing, including in vitro ones. Conclusions: In the pathogenetic scenario of babesiosis, the carrier (Ixodes ticks) is the central figure in the epidemic/epizootic coordinate system.
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Guo, Xiuyang, Carmen J. Booth, Michael A. Paley, Xiaomei Wang, Kathleen DePonte, Erol Fikrig, Sukanya Narasimhan, and Ruth R. Montgomery. "Inhibition of Neutrophil Function by Two Tick Salivary Proteins." Infection and Immunity 77, no. 6 (March 30, 2009): 2320–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/iai.01507-08.
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ABSTRACT The saliva of hematophagous arthropods contains potent anti-inflammatory and antihemostatic activities that promote acquisition of the blood meal and enhance infection with pathogens. We have shown that polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMN) treated with the saliva of the tick Ixodes scapularis have reduced expression of β2 integrins, impaired PMN adherence, and reduced killing of Borrelia burgdorferi, the causative agent of Lyme disease. Here we describe two Ixodes proteins that are induced upon tick feeding and expressed predominantly in the salivary glands. Using saliva harvested from ticks with reduced levels of ISL 929 and ISL 1373 through targeted RNA interference knockdown, as well as purified recombinant proteins, we show the effects of these proteins on downregulation of PMN integrins and inhibition of the production of O2 − by PMN in vitro. Mice immunized with ISL 929/1373 had increased numbers of PMN at the site of tick attachment and a lower spirochete burden in the skin and joints 21 days after infection compared to control-immunized animals. Our results suggest that ISL 929 and ISL 1373 contribute to the inhibition of PMN functions shown previously with tick saliva and support important roles for these inhibitory proteins in the modulation of PMN function in vivo.
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Barbet, A. F., Jooyoung Yi, Anna Lundgren, B. R. McEwen, E. F. Blouin, and K. M. Kocan. "Antigenic Variation of Anaplasma Marginale: Major Surface Protein 2 Diversity during Cyclic Transmission between Ticks and Cattle." Infection and Immunity 69, no. 5 (May 1, 2001): 3057–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/iai.69.5.3057-3066.2001.
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ABSTRACT The rickettsial pathogen Anaplasma marginale expresses a variable immunodominant outer membrane protein, major surface protein 2 (MSP2), involved in antigenic variation and long-term persistence of the organism in carrier animals. MSP2 contains a central hypervariable region of about 100 amino acids that encodes immunogenic B-cell epitopes that induce variant-specific antibodies during infection. Previously, we have shown that MSP2 is encoded on a polycistronic mRNA transcript in erythrocyte stages of A. marginale and defined the structure of the genomic expression site for this transcript. In this study, we show that the same expression site is utilized in stages of A. marginale infecting tick salivary glands. We also analyzed the variability of this genomic expression site in Oklahoma strain A. marginale transmitted from in vitro cultures to cattle and between cattle and ticks. The structure of the expression site and flanking regions was conserved except for sequence that encoded the MSP2 hypervariable region. At least three different MSP2 variants were encoded in each A. marginalepopulation. The major sequence variants did not change on passage ofA. marginale between culture, acute erythrocyte stage infections, and tick salivary glands but did change during persistent infections of cattle. The variant types found in tick salivary glands most closely resembled those present in bovine blood at the time of acquisition of infection, whether infection was acquired from an acute or from a persistent rickettsemia. These variations in structure of an expression site for a major, immunoprotective outer membrane protein have important implications for vaccine development and for obtaining an improved understanding of the mechanisms of persistence of ehrlichial infections in humans, domestic animals, and reservoir hosts.
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BISHOP, R., A. MUSOKE, S. MORZARIA, M. GARDNER, and V. NENE. "Theileria: intracellular protozoan parasites of wild and domestic ruminants transmitted by ixodid ticks." Parasitology 129, S1 (October 2004): S271—S283. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0031182003004748.
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Theileriaare economically important, intra-cellular protozoa, transmitted by ixodid ticks, which infect wild and domestic ruminants. In the mammalian host, parasites infect leukocytes and erythrocytes. In the arthropod vector they develop in gut epithelial cells and salivary glands. All four intra-cellular stages ofTheileriasurvive free in the cytoplasm. The schizont stages of certainTheileriaspecies induce a unique, cancer-like, phenotype in infected host leukocytes.Theileriaundergoes an obligate sexual cycle, involving fusion of gametes in the tick gut, to produce a transiently diploid zygote. The existence of sexual recombination inT.parvahas been confirmed in the laboratory, and is presumed to contribute to the extensive polymorphism observed in field isolates. Key parameters inT. parvapopulation dynamics are the relative importance of asymptomatic carrier cattle and animals undergoing severe disease, in transmission of the parasite to ticks, and the extent of transmission by nymphs as compared to adult ticks. Tick populations differ in vector competence for specificT. parvastocks. Recombinant forms ofT.parvaandT. annulatasporozoite surface antigens induce protection against parasite challenge in cattle. In future, vaccines might be improved by inclusion of tick peptides in multivalent vaccines.
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Sauer, J. R., R. C. Essenberg, and A. S. Bowman. "Salivary glands in ixodid ticks: control and mechanism of secretion." Journal of Insect Physiology 46, no. 7 (July 2000): 1069–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0022-1910(99)00210-3.
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Yunker, C. E., S. M. Mahan, S. D. Waghela, T. C. McGuire, F. R. Rurangirwa, A. F. Barbet, and L. A. Wassink. "Detection ofCowdria ruminantiumby means of a DNA probe, pCS20 in infected bont ticks,Amblyomma hebraeum, the major vector of heartwater in Southern Africa." Epidemiology and Infection 110, no. 1 (February 1993): 95–104. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s095026880005072x.
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SUMMARYA DNA probe, pCS20, previously described for use in detection ofCowdria ruminantiuminfections inAmblyomma variegatum(the principal vector of heartwater) hybridized withC. ruminantiumDNA in organs of laboratory-infectedA. hebraeumadult ticks (the major southern African vector of heartwater). The probe hybridized withC. ruminantiumDNA in 46/49 midguts from male ticks and 26/29 from females, thus indicating infection. Corresponding salivary glands were less heavily infected, but infections were more numerous in glands from males. Infection in ticks was confirmed by transmission of the disease to susceptible goats. The probe did not hybridize with DNA from uninfected ticks or with DNA from a spotted fever group rickettsia commonly associated withA. hebraeumin Zimbabwe. TheC. ruminantiumspecific pCS20 DNA probe can be applied to determine accurately the infection rates in the two major vectors of heartwater and the risk of exposure of ruminants in endemic areas.
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AUSTEN, J. M., U. M. RYAN, J. A. FRIEND, W. G. F. DITCHAM, and S. A. REID. "Vector of Trypanosoma copemani identified as Ixodes sp." Parasitology 138, no. 7 (April 26, 2011): 866–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0031182011000497.
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SUMMARYA total of 41 ticks were collected from 15 quokkas on Bald Island and 2 ticks from a Gilbert's potoroo from Two Peoples Bay. Three species of Ixodid ticks Ixodes australiensis, Ixodes hirsti and Ixodes myrmecobii were identified on the quokkas known to have a high prevalence of Trypanosoma copemani. Tick faeces from ticks isolated from 8 individual quokkas and a Gilbert's potoroo were examined with one identified as positive for trypanosomes. Faecal examination revealed trypanosomes similar to in vitro life-cycle stages of T. copemani. In total 12 ticks were dissected and trypanosomes found in sections of their midgut and haemolymph, 49 and 117 days after collection. Tick faeces, salivary glands and midguts from I. australiensis were screened using an 18S rRNA PCR with amplification seen only from the midguts. Sequencing showed 100% homology to T. copemani (genotype A) and 99·9% homology to the wombat (AII) isolate of T. copemani. Trypanosomes were only detected in I. australiensis as neither I. hirsti nor I. myrmecobii survived the initial 30-day storage conditions. We therefore identify a vector for T. copemani as I. australiensis and, given the detection of trypanosomes in the faeces, suggest that transmission is via the faecal-oral route.
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Couto, Joana, Margarita Villar, Lourdes Mateos-Hernández, Joana Ferrolho, Gustavo Sanches, Ana Sofia Santos, Maria Santos-Silva, et al. "Quantitative Proteomics Identifies Metabolic Pathways Affected by Babesia Infection and Blood Feeding in the Sialoproteome of the Vector Rhipicephalus bursa." Vaccines 8, no. 1 (February 19, 2020): 91. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/vaccines8010091.
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The negative impact of ticks and tick-borne diseases on animals and human health is driving research to discover novel targets affecting both vectors and pathogens. The salivary glands are involved in feeding and pathogen transmission, thus are considered as a compelling target to focus research. In this study, proteomics approach was used to characterize Rhipicephalus bursa sialoproteome in response to Babesia ovis infection and blood feeding. Two potential tick protective antigens were identified and its influence in tick biological parameters and pathogen infection was evaluated. Results demonstrate that the R. bursa sialoproteome is highly affected by feeding but infection is well tolerated by tick cells. The combination of both stimuli shifts the previous scenario and a more evident pathogen manipulation can be suggested. Knockdown of ub2n led to a significative increase of infection in tick salivary glands but a brusque decrease in the progeny, revealing its importance in the cellular response to pathogen infection, which is worth pursuing in future studies. Additionally, an impact in the recovery rate of adults (62%), the egg production efficiency (45.75%), and the hatching rate (88.57 %) was detected. Building knowledge on vector and/or pathogen interplay bridges the identification of protective antigens and the development of novel control strategies.
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Kubasu, S. S. "The ability of Rhipicephalus appendiculatus (Acarina: Ixodidae) stocks in Kenya to become infected with Theileria parva." Bulletin of Entomological Research 82, no. 3 (September 1992): 349–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0007485300041134.
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AbstractEight steers of European breed, Bos taurus type which were shown to be negative for antibodies against Theileria parva, were divided into two groups of four animals each. Animals in one group were inoculated with 0.5 ml undiluted tick-derived T. p. parva Muguga strain and animals in the other group were inoculated with 1 ml undiluted tick-derived T. p. parva Kilae strain to infect them. The two infected groups of cattle were simultaneously infested with uninfected nymphal Rhipicephalus appendiculatus Neumann in separate cloth patches. Ticks were from five populations, i.e., four from different geographical zones in Kenya and one laboratory population, in separate cloth patches. After moulting, the adult ticks were fed on rabbits for three days and their salivary glands were examined by microscopy for infective stages of the parasite. This revealed significant differences in the five populations as regards to their susceptibility to Theileria parva parasites.
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Guillemi, Eliana Carolina, Mélody Imbert, Sofia de la Fournière, María Marcela Orozco, Jorge Peña Martinez, Ana Carolina Rosas, Valeria Noely Montenegro, and Marisa Diana Farber. "Closing the Gaps to Understand the Tick Transmission of Anaplasma marginale among Giant Anteaters (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) in Argentina." Pathogens 9, no. 12 (December 9, 2020): 1033. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9121033.
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Anaplasma marginale, a well-known cattle pathogen of tropical and subtropical world regions, has been previously molecularly characterized in a giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) from Corrientes, Argentina. Ticks or other hematophagous arthropod involved in the wild transmission cycle remained unknown. The aim of the present study was to analyze the simultaneous occurrence of A. marginale in blood samples and ticks from giant anteaters from Corrientes in order to investigate if ticks could be relevant in the transmission among these mammals. Blood samples from 50 giant anteaters collected in different years and 26 ticks Amblyomma dubitatum and A. sculptum were studied through the molecular amplification of two unequivocal species-specific genes from A. marginale: msp5 and msp1β. Twenty five giant anteaters and tick organs (salivary glands, gut and oviduct) from 11 ticks tested positive to the A. marginale DNA amplification. The further molecular characterization through MSP1a tandem repeats analysis revealed the presence of genotypes circulating among giant anteaters that had been previously identified in cattle blood samples from the same geographical region. These results confirm the presence of A. marginale in giant anteaters in Corrientes and suggests that A. dubitatum and A. sculptum ticks could be involved in the transmission among giant anteaters. Future studies will determine the role of these tick species in the wild transmission cycle in the study area and the eventual connection with the domestic cycle.
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Villar, Margarita, Iván Pacheco, Octavio Merino, Marinela Contreras, Lourdes Mateos-Hernández, Eduardo Prado, Dina Karen Barros-Picanço, et al. "Tick and Host Derived Compounds Detected in the Cement Complex Substance." Biomolecules 10, no. 4 (April 5, 2020): 555. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/biom10040555.
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Ticks are obligate hematophagous arthropods and vectors of pathogens affecting human and animal health worldwide. Cement is a complex protein polymerization substance secreted by ticks with antimicrobial properties and a possible role in host attachment, sealing the feeding lesion, facilitating feeding and pathogen transmission, and protection from host immune and inflammatory responses. The biochemical properties of tick cement during feeding have not been fully characterized. In this study, we characterized the proteome of Rhipicephalus microplus salivary glands (sialome) and cement (cementome) together with their physicochemical properties at different adult female parasitic stages. The results showed the combination of tick and host derived proteins and other biomolecules such as α-Gal in cement composition, which varied during the feeding process. We propose that these compounds may synergize in cement formation, solidification and maintenance to facilitate attachment, feeding, interference with host immune response and detachment. These results advanced our knowledge of the complex tick cement composition and suggested that tick and host derived compounds modulate cement properties throughout tick feeding.
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Salih, D. A., O. E. Sharieff, A. G. Lazarus, and S. M. Hassan. "Natural infection rates and transmission of Theileria annulata by Hyalomma anatolicum anatolicum ticks in the Sud." Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 72, no. 4 (September 14, 2005): 303–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/ojvr.v72i4.179.
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Hyalomma anatolicum anatolicum nymphs were collected from two localities in the Sudan: Eddamer in Northern Sudan and Wad-Medani in Central Sudan. They were allowed to moult to adult ticks, which were assessed for Theileria infection in their salivary glands using Feulgen stain. At Eddamer, 49.6 % of 123 ticks examined were infected with Theileria and the mean intensity of infection was 1.3 (i.e. the number of infected acini / number of infected ticks). At Wad-Medani, 8.6 % of 162 ticks were infected and the mean intensity of infection was 7.9. The prevalence of infection was higher in female than in male ticks at both localities. When adult H. a. anatolicum were applied onto two susceptible calves, both animals developed the severe form of theileriosis.
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Blisnick, Adrien, Ladislav Šimo, Catherine Grillon, Fabienne Fasani, Sébastien Brûlé, Bernard Le Bonniec, Eric Prina, et al. "The Immunomodulatory Effect of IrSPI, a Tick Salivary Gland Serine Protease Inhibitor Involved in Ixodes ricinus Tick Feeding." Vaccines 7, no. 4 (October 12, 2019): 148. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/vaccines7040148.
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Ticks are the most important vectors of pathogens affecting both domestic and wild animals worldwide. Hard tick feeding is a slow process—taking up to several days—and necessitates extended control over the host response. The success of the feeding process depends upon injection of tick saliva, which not only controls host hemostasis and wound healing, but also subverts the host immune response to avoid tick rejection that creates a favorable niche for the survival and propagation of diverse tick-borne pathogens. Here, we report on the molecular and biochemical features and functions of an Ixodes ricinus serine protease inhibitor (IrSPI). We characterize IrSPI as a Kunitz elastase inhibitor that is overexpressed in several tick organs—especially salivary glands—during blood-feeding. We also demonstrated that when IrSPI is injected into the host through saliva, it had no impact on tissue factor pathway-induced coagulation, fibrinolysis, endothelial cell angiogenesis or apoptosis, but the protein exhibits immunomodulatory activity. In particular, IrSPI represses proliferation of CD4+ T lymphocytes and proinflammatory cytokine secretion from both splenocytes and macrophages. Our study contributes valuable knowledge to tick-host interactions and provides insights that could be further exploited to design anti-tick vaccines targeting this immunomodulator implicated in I. ricinus feeding.
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Chen, Philip P., Patricia A. Conrad, Onesmo K. ole-MoiYoi, Wendy C. Brown, and Thomas T. Dolan. "DNA probes detectTheileria parva in the salivary glands ofRhipicephalus appendiculatus ticks." Parasitology Research 77, no. 7 (1991): 590–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00931019.
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Felek, Suleyman, Sam Telford, Richard C. Falco, and Yasuko Rikihisa. "Sequence Analysis of p44 Homologs Expressed by Anaplasma phagocytophilum in Infected Ticks Feeding on Naive Hosts and in Mice Infected by Tick Attachment." Infection and Immunity 72, no. 2 (February 2004): 659–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/iai.72.2.659-666.2004.
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ABSTRACT The 44-kDa immunodominant outer membrane proteins (P44 proteins) of Anaplasma phagocytophilum are encoded by the p44 polymorphic multigene family. The present study examined p44 expression and analyzed the cDNA sequences of various p44 transcripts from the spleens and blood of mice infected by the bites of ticks infected with the A. phagocytophilum NTN-1 strain or of naturally infected nymphal ticks and in the salivary glands and midgut tissues of these ticks. A total of 300 p44 cDNAs were subjected to sequence analysis. Of these, 40 distinct p44 species were found, and all of these had orthologs in the A. phagocytophilum HZ strain genome that shared 95 to 100% base sequence identity. The number of unique p44 species expressed in mouse blood was greater than that for mouse spleens. Higher numbers of different p44 transcripts were also expressed in the salivary glands of ticks than in the midgut tissues. Variations in the sequences of the same p44 cDNA species within a single A. phagocytophilum strain and among different strains were concentrated in the conserved regions flanking the central hypervariable region of p44 genes. No mosaic sequences derived from two or more p44 species were found within the p44 hypervariable region. The conservation of the hypervariable region of each p44 cDNA species of A. phagocytophilum in naturally infected ticks and in different geographic isolates suggests that each A. phagocytophilum genome carries a set of p44 paralogs to be expressed. Thus, a large but restricted repertoire of p44 hypervariable sequences exists in A. phagocytophilum strains in the Northeastern United States.