Journal articles: 'Timber quality'

1

Sandhyavitri, Ari, Fakhri Fakhri, Rizki Ramadhan Husaini, Indra Kuswoyo, and Manyuk Fauzi. "Added values of the local timbers materials for main bridge frame structures utilizing laminating composites technology." Journal of Applied Materials and Technology 2, no. 1 (December 4, 2020): 50–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.31258/jamt.2.1.50-58.

Full text

Abstract:

The objectives of this article are to seek the opportunity to enhance the local Indonesia timber material physical performances (encompassing the low-class quality of III and IV timbers with the Modulus of Elasticity (MOE) = 5,000 - 9,000 MPa) utilizing laminated composite technology to become higher-class timber quality (class II) with the Modulus of Elasticity (MOE)> 15,000 MPa so that it can be used as an alternative material for constructing the bridge mainframe structures (girder beams) especially for the Indragiri Hilir regency, Riau Province, Indonesia. This regency needs several hundred small-medium bridges for connecting 20 districts, 39 wards, and 197 villages using local materials such as local timbers. This laminating technology is not a new technology but the utilization of this technology for constructing the main bridges structures is challenging and limited to the implementation in the civil construction industrial sector. This study composed 2 types of the low-class quality (lcq) of timber materials (such as Shorea sp and Shorea peltata Sym) and 2 types of medium class-quality (mcq) ones (Dipterocarpus and Calophyllum) for constructing the main bridge structures. Based on the laboratory test results utilizing 80% of lcq materials and 20% mcq ones, these composite timber materials may increase the timbers MOE by 145% to 166% from the existing MOE value of the mcq solid timbers. Based on the simulations these laminated composites wooden bridge girders 2 x (70x20) m2, these timber materials have passed all the tests and the application of this technology may improve the lcq timber values and it could be used for an alternative material of the bridge girder's main structures.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

2

Hegde, Nagaraj, Suresh Kumar, Kenyusinlo Khing, and Gopichand B. "Evaluation of Wood Quality of Underutilized Indigenous Timber Species for Reducing Timber Scarcity: A Case of Mizoram, North-East India." Science & Technology Journal 9, no. 1 (January 1, 2021): 36–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.22232/stj.2021.09.01.07.

Full text

Abstract:

Timber demand and supply gap has widened over the last few decades across different regions of the world. Indian scenario is no different. In the last decade though India’s forest cover has increased at a very slow pace, in north eastern part of India, there is a loss of forest cover at an alarming rate. This is a cause of concern for this region which is already depending only on handful of quality timbers for the structural and commercial purposes. Under this scenario, few alternative options should be looked at like exploring promising indigenous fast-growing species, or exploring some lesser-known timber species available naturally in the forest. Therefore, wood quality parameters of such timber species should be tested so as to know the specific utility of these timbers. In this study of Mizoram, wood quality parameters of five underutilized timber species were assessed and three out of five species have shown considerable quality as compared to Teak and many other mainstream species. Few selected properties are highlighted in this paper to indicate possible utility of selected species to reduce the gap in demand and supply of wood as raw material. We focused mainly on anatomical properties, gross features and cell constituents of these species in this paper. The properties observed for lesser-known species are compared with twenty Indian mainstream timbers. The results have indicated that there is a need for further expanding the scope for exploring more such species so that timber requirement of the region is meted out.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

3

Johansson, Germund, Robert Kliger, and Mikael Perstorper. "Structural Sawn Timber Quality Requirements." Structural Engineering International 3, no. 2 (May 1993): 99–103. http://dx.doi.org/10.2749/101686693780612411.

Full text

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

4

Natterer, J. "Quality criteria for timber design." Construction and Building Materials 6, no. 3 (January 1992): 133–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0950-0618(92)90002-g.

Full text

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

5

Höwler, Kirsten, Peter Annighöfer, Christian Ammer, and Dominik Seidel. "Competition improves quality-related external stem characteristics of Fagus sylvatica." Canadian Journal of Forest Research 47, no. 12 (December 2017): 1603–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/cjfr-2017-0262.

Full text

Abstract:

Accurate information on the timber quality of hardwoods is often lacking, in particular for standing trees. In situ measurements of timber quality have the potential to improve the economic yield of a stand and may contribute to the optimal timing of a harvest and, in general, to improving forest management. Here, we used terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) to assess external timber quality metrics nondestructively. We investigated how competition intensity affected the metrics of 118 European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) trees. We found that two newly developed TLS-based measures of external stem characteristics (number of bark anomalies per metre and stem non-circularity) were affected by competition intensity, suggesting that regulating competition levels may improve timber quality. Our study confirms empirical findings indicating a positive relationship between competition intensity and timber quality of European beech and offers a new methodology to assess external timber quality measures in the field objectively and nondestructively.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

6

Gren, Ing-Marie, and Franklin Amuakwa-Mensah. "Multifunctional Forestry and Interaction with Site Quality." Forests 11, no. 1 (December 23, 2019): 29. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/f11010029.

Full text

Abstract:

Several studies have shown the economic value of various ecosystem services provided by the forest. However, the economic value of how site-specific ecological conditions interact with other functions provided by the forest, such as timber value and carbon sequestration, has been less studied. As a result, this paper constructs a numerical discrete dynamic optimization model to estimate the economic value of site quality, taking into account its interaction with timber value and carbon sequestration, in Swedish forests. Analytical results show that the inclusion of the interaction of site quality with forest growth affects the optimal volume of harvest per year, compared to the case without consideration of site quality. The empirical results show that net present value, when considering timber values plus carbon sequestration and site quality interaction, is higher than the case where only timber and carbon sequestration were considered. However, the calculated net present value is sensitive to, in particular, the price of carbon sequestration and discount rate.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

7

Lencinas, María Vanessa, Guillermo Martínez Pastur, Paola Rivero, and Carlos Busso. "Conservation value of timber quality versus associated non-timber quality stands for understory diversity in Nothofagus forests." Biodiversity and Conservation 17, no. 11 (February 8, 2008): 2579–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10531-008-9323-6.

Full text

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

8

Milic, Goran, Nebojsa Todorovic, and Ranko Popadic. "Influence of steaming on drying quality and colour of beech timber." Bulletin of the Faculty of Forestry, no. 112 (2015): 83–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/gsf1512083m.

Full text

Abstract:

This paper presents the results of an analysis of influence of the ?light? steaming process on conventional drying and colour of beech timber. A stack consisting of steamed and unsteamed boards was dried. Moisture content and moisture content profiles were recorded, and at the end of drying final moisture content, moisture content difference across thickness, case-hardening and colour were determinated. No statistically significant difference between steamed and unsteamed timber was established in any of the examined parameters (MC, ?MC, gap). The results indicate that equal (or even) better drying quality can be expected with steamed beech timber than with unsteamed timber, given the same drying schedule. Dry steamed timber was darker and more reddish than the unsteamed one. An imprecision of measurement by probes in the kiln was noticed in measuring steamed and unsteamed beech timber having a moisture content of between 7% and 15%, and a solution for overcoming this problem was given.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

9

Damayanti, Ratih, and Listya Mustika Dewi. "Wood Anatomy and Fibre Quality of the Least Known Timbers Belong to Actinidiaceae from Indonesia." Wood Research Journal 10, no. 2 (July 21, 2020): 33–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.51850/wrj.2019.10.2.33-38.

Full text

Abstract:

Wood anatomy of 417 genera and 86 families belong to the major, minor, and the lesser known timbers of South- East Asia have been studied and described in 3 volumes of PROSEA books. This paper deals with timber species of the least known timbers, which have not been treated in the above mentioned PROSEA books, i.e.: Saurauia bracteosa, S. capitulata., and S. nudiflora from family Actinidiaceae. The objective of this study was to acquire descriptions of their anatomical features and evaluate the quality of their fibres for pulp and paper manufacture. Samples were provided by Xylarium Bogoriense, which were collected from various forest areas in Indonesia. Microscopic features observed comprise all features those listed by IAWA Committee in 1989. Fibre quality was determined based on their dimension and evaluated according to quality classification developed by FPRDC Bogor. The results indicate that identification of timber up to genera level is possible. Fibres of Saurauia spp. fall into quality class I, which means good for pulp and paper. The descriptions of anatomical features were presented. Sauraria have bright color, light yellow to light brown, fine texture, light, smooth to rather rough surface, and make it suitable to substitute ramin (Gonystylus spp.)

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

10

Marenče, Jurij, Bogdan Šega, and Dominika Gornik Bučar. "Monitoring the Quality and Quantity of Beechwood from Tree to Sawmill Product." Croatian journal of forest engineering 41, no. 1 (December 9, 2019): 119–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.5552/crojfe.2020.613.

Full text

Abstract:

The analysis evaluates the potential and methods of the respective assessment of beech trees, beech logs and sawn timber. The objective of the study was to assess the impact of the quality of the incoming raw material (tree) on the quality and quantity of products – obtained at the sawmill. The study presents a model that indicates the relations between the assessment of the quality of a standing beech tree and the quality of the sawmill products obtained from its wood. In addition, relations between individual quality classes of sawlogs, pulpwood, energy wood and sawn timber are shown. Standing trees were assessed in three sites according to the national 5-grade quality scale, assortments produced from selected trees pursuant to the EN 1316-1 standard, and sawn timber produced from assortments according to the rules of the European Organisation of the Sawmill Industry (EOS). In total, 87.04 m3 of timber was harvested. In higher quality trees (quality 1 and 2), the shares of sawlogs were between 53% and 72% of gross tree volume, but in the poorest quality trees, the shares were only between 23% and 36%. What remained was pulp and energy wood. In trees of excellent quality (quality 1), sawlogs of the highest quality prevailed (A and B quality grade), while sawlogs of C and B quality prevailed in trees of lower quality. Covered knots and heart defects were typically the decisive criteria for classifying sawlogs quality in all three sites. A total of 30,786 m3 of unedged timber was sawn from the sawlogs, which comprised 35% of the total gross quantity of trees on average. Nine percent of the sawn timber was classified into the A–EOS class (top quality), 27% into the B–EOS class and 47% into the C–EOS class. Seventeen percent of the timber was only suitable for post-processing. The crucial criteria for classifying sawn timber were as follows: dead and rotten knots, heart, curvature and cracks. Above-average sawlogs (A and B quality grade) was mainly obtained from trees of better quality. Relations between the quality of trees, sawlogs and sawn timber indicated the suitability of classifying standing trees and sawlogs, since it was possible to produce sawn timber of higher quality from quality trees or logs. The model presents a rare attempt to establish and monitor quality and quantity from standing tree to end product.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

11

Warkotsch, Walter. "The Effects of Harvesting on Timber Quality." South African Forestry Journal 147, no. 1 (December 1988): 53–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00382167.1988.9628971.

Full text

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

12

Kovryga, A., P. Stapel, and J. W. G. van de Kuilen. "Quality control for machine strength graded timber." European Journal of Wood and Wood Products 75, no. 2 (October 21, 2016): 233–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00107-016-1105-3.

Full text

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

13

Задраускайте, Natalya Zadrauskayte, Гузенко, and Natal'ya Guzenko. "About the improving the technique of timber products quality assessment." Forestry Engineering Journal 6, no. 4 (May 3, 2017): 173–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.12737/23453.

Full text

Abstract:

In the study 100 boards of each cross-section have been measured with their subsequent certification and calculating the Spearman rank correlation coefficients on the principle “each with each”. Further data processing showed the existence of interdependencies between the location of defects on various sides of the timber cross-section. As a result of the research, data has been obtained allowing to change the current approach to sorting timber and to base normalization and quality assessment not on all four sides of timber, as being currently sorted, but only on one face and one edge.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

14

Mcconnell, T. Eric, Curtis L. Vanderschaaf, Jason J. Holderieath, and Michael K. Crosby. "Adequacy of Timber Trespass Civil Awards: A Louisiana Case Study." Journal of Forestry 117, no. 6 (October 7, 2019): 533–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jofore/fvz052.

Full text

Abstract:

Abstract Timber trespass in Louisiana is a civil offense punishable by restitution of three times the timber’s current market value, yet whether this compensation level alone is adequate at present is unclear. We modeled a loblolly pine plantation across a range of site qualities in Louisiana. First, we estimated financial returns from a traditional sawtimber rotation using historical state timber prices that included three harvests: two thinnings and a final cut; harvest times differed by site quality. We then assumed all timber was taken at the first thinning. Net present value (NPV) determined appropriateness of compensation at 1×, 2×, and 3× stumpage revenues and was compared to the traditional rotation’s NPV. The NPVs were calculated with and without additional settlement for reforestation costs. We concluded that reforestation costs in addition to 3× stumpage value reimbursement were required to negate the effect of timber prices and better the traditional rotation’s NPV.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

15

Franke, Bettina, Florian Scharmacher, and Andreas Müller. "Assessment of the Glue-Line Quality in Glued Laminated Timber Structures." Advanced Materials Research 778 (September 2013): 424–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.778.424.

Full text

Abstract:

Timber constructions with glulam members have regularly to be proofed for their performance to avoid structural collapse. For the assessment of glued laminated timber, it is important to know reliable methods and criteria. The requirements given in standard EN 386:2001 are valid for the quality control of the glulam production. The use and application of these two different methods at existing timber structures were investigated and discussed. The experimental test series comprise different adhesives as well as specimen from new material and existing structures. Problems and issues noted during the test series and analyses of the results are discussed. The correlations found provide advice for the assessment of existing structures.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

16

Pinchevska, Olena, Andriy Spirochkin, Denys Zavialov, and Rostislav Oliynyk. "Influence of Temperature Fields on the Quality of Dried Wood Products." Materials Science Forum 1038 (July 13, 2021): 336–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.1038.336.

Full text

Abstract:

The reasons of white spots appearance in the middle of oak timber are determined. These white spots reduce the cost of the lamina made of oak timbers - the front covering of floorboards. It is proposed to intensify the drying process by using oscillating drying schedules to avoid this defect. A method for calculating the duration of such drying is proposed. This method includes the peculiarities of heating and cooling periods kinetics of oak timbers with 25 mm and 30 mm thickness. The inexpediency of using the oscillation of the drying agent parameters in the range of wood moisture content below 20% has been established. An adequate model for calculating wood temperature and air humidity during wood heating and cooling periods has been developed using heat and mass transfer criteria and experimentally determined oak wood moisture conductivity coefficient. Based on the results of theoretical and experimental studies oscillating drying schedules of different thickness oak timbers are offered. Tests of the proposed schedules in industrial conditions showed no discoloration of the central layers of European oak (Quercus robur) timbers. The drying process duration was reduced by 1.5–2.4 times and energy consumption were reduced by 1.53 times.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

17

Kärki, T. "Drying quality of European aspen (Populus tremula) timber." Holz als Roh- und Werkstoff 60, no. 5 (October 1, 2002): 369–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00107-002-0325-x.

Full text

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

18

Potkány, Marek, Miloš Gejdoš, and Marek Debnár. "Sustainable Innovation Approach for Wood Quality Evaluation in Green Business." Sustainability 10, no. 9 (August 22, 2018): 2984. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su10092984.

Full text

Abstract:

The purpose of this paper is to propose a method for the optimization of raw wood for the timber construction industry that would meet the green business and sustainable development requirements within the concept of corporate social responsibility. The methodology conceptually applied the ImageJ software in the process of spruce-timber valuation using 100 log specimens according to the standard STN 480055. The impact of timber structure on the environment compared to silicate buildings was assessed via selected environmental criteria of life-cycle assessment. The methodology was applied according to the standards within the monitored phase of the life-cycle cradle to a gate based on the available environmental products declaration. The overall difference in the assortment value when using the ImageJ software as the evaluation method reached €426.68 (+6.7%). The individual construction elements creating the composition of perimeter walls of the evaluated alternatives showed a positive impact of the following indicators: global warning potential, primary energy input for production, ozone depletion potential, and photochemical ozone creation potential of the reference timber structure. The findings presented in this study clearly confirm the ecological approach toward building a wood-based structure while meeting the requirements of sustainable development.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

19

Howard, Andrew F. "Timber quality classes from cruise data for lodgepole pine sawn at a board mill in British Columbia." Canadian Journal of Forest Research 21, no. 4 (April 1, 1991): 498–503. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/x91-067.

Full text

Abstract:

Information on timber quality can play an important role in a wide range of planning activities at sawmills. A system for assessing timber quality does not exist for lodgepole pine (Pinuscontorta Dougl.), which is one of the most important commercial species in the interior of British Columbia. A classification system for lodgepole pine timber was developed from cruise data collected according to procedures prescribed by the British Columbia Ministry of Forests. A sawmill lumber yield study was made to obtain the data necessary to test the grading system. Regression analysis, likelihood ratio tests, and analysis of variance were used to test for significant differences in lumber grade yields and log values among six quality classes. The findings indicate that data collected during cruising can be used to separate timber into distinct quality classes. The quality classes showed appreciable variation in average log value when current lumber prices were applied.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

20

Максименков and Alexey Maksimenkov. "Influence of ways of teeth set and feed rate of band saws on roughness of sawn timber." Forestry Engineering Journal 4, no. 1 (April 21, 2014): 178–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.12737/3366.

Full text

Abstract:

On the basis of research of quality indicators features of formation of surface of band saws are considered, prepared under various schemes of teeth set. In a study of process of sawing of timber on bandsaw equipment factors are defined which have the greatest impact on the quality of sawn timber, depending on the wood: hardwood (oak) and softwood (pine). According to the research regression models are obtained allowing calculating the optimal modes of band equipment to ensure the required quality of sawn obtained timber.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

21

Sharma, S. K., R. V. Rao, S. R. Shukla, P. Kumar, R. Sudheendra, M. Sujatha, and Y. M. Dubey. "Wood Quality of Coppiced Eucalyptus Tereticornisfor Value Addition." IAWA Journal 26, no. 1 (2005): 137–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/22941932-90001608.

Full text

Abstract:

The anatomical, physical and mechanical properties of non-coppiced and coppiced (after first felling) wood of Eucalyptus tereticornis were studied to evaluate their quality and to recommend it for various end uses. The pith to periphery variation in specific gravity, fibre length, fibre diameter, fibre lumen diameter, double wall thickness, vessel diameter and vessel element length were investigated in both types of wood. Correlation coefficients between anatomical characteristics and specific gravity and among anatomical characteristics were established. The results of physical and mechanical properties indicate that the timber from both non-coppiced and coppiced wood can be classified as very heavy, strong, tough, very hard but liable to warp and crack badly. The studies suggest that there is no significant difference in anatomical and mechanical properties of non-coppiced and coppiced wood suggesting their timbers can be utilized for similar purposes.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

22

Kittredge, David B., Michael J. Mauri, and Edward J. McGuire. "Decreasing Woodlot Size and the Future of Timber Sales in Massachusetts: When Is an Operation Too Small?" Northern Journal of Applied Forestry 13, no. 2 (June 1, 1996): 96–101. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/njaf/13.2.96.

Full text

Abstract:

Abstract The heavily forested landscape of Massachusetts is dominated by nonindustrial private ownerships. Statistics indicate that parcel size has decreased to a most recent average of 10.6 ac. Professional loggers were queried to determine if there was a timber sale size (expressed in eithervolume or area) below which they would not bid. Respondents indicated that they had operated on a timber sale as small as an average of 7.8 ac and 20.4 mbf, and would purchase one as small as an average of 5.3 ac and 17.1 mbf. The single most important factor in deciding to bid on a smallsale was the quality and value of the timber. In the future, small parcels with a preponderance of low-quality timber resulting from high-grading may be deemed inoperable by loggers. The importance of high quality timber on small parcels emphasizes the need for stand improvement measures toensure small parcels are feasible to commercially operate in the future. North. J. Appl. For. 13(2):00-00.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

23

Kangas, A., H. Hurttala, H. Mäkinen, and J. Lappi. "Estimating the value of wood quality information in constrained optimization." Canadian Journal of Forest Research 42, no. 7 (July 2012): 1347–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/x2012-072.

Full text

Abstract:

In recent years, forest information has been evaluated increasingly through its value in decision making, not solely through its statistical accuracy. The value of forest information is rooted in the ability to make better decisions with better data. When the adopted option differs from the optimal, it incurs suboptimality losses, defined as the difference between the outcome (typically NPV) of the optimal and selected options. In this study, we analyse the value of timber quality information for the timber buyer selecting stands to be purchased with a given budget or demand constraint. In the basic constrained linear programming approach, the option selected as optimal with erroneous data may prove to be infeasible when evaluated with error-free data. To properly estimate the value of information, the costs of violating the constraints need to be included. We present a stochastic goal programming approach for solving this problem in which the violations are penalized with the interest of a loan, in the case of budget constraint, and with diminishing revenues, in the case of demand constraints. We show that information on timber quality has value to the buyer, increasing with the penalty. The value varied from 0 to about 80 €·ha–1, assuming only the timber quality assessments to be uncertain. Using the stochastic solution instead of expected value solution also has value for the buyer.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

24

Lencinas, María Vanessa, Guillermo Martínez Pastur, Christopher B. Anderson, and Carlos Busso. "The value of timber quality forests for insect conservation on Tierra del Fuego Island compared to associated non-timber quality stands." Journal of Insect Conservation 12, no. 5 (April 13, 2007): 461–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10841-007-9079-4.

Full text

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

25

Sendak, Paul E., William B. Leak, and Wanda B. Rice. "Hardwood Tree Quality Development in the White Mountains of New Hampshire." Northern Journal of Applied Forestry 17, no. 1 (March 1, 2000): 9–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/njaf/17.1.9.

Full text

Abstract:

Abstract Few studies in New England have related timber cutting in northern hardwood stands to improvements in timber quality. The objective of this study was to assess tree-quality improvement for lumber production from initial cutting in a northern hardwood forest on the Bartlett Experimental Forest in New Hampshire that occurred about 40 yr ago. This study used nine compartments on the Forest that were initially cut in the 1950s. Cutting methods included three diameter-limit cuts and six individual tree selection cuts followed by timber stand improvement by chemical girdling.The nine compartments remained undisturbed by cutting for approximately 40 yr. By 1996, average tree grade had improved in all compartments, from 3.8 to 3.1 for the diameter limits combined and from 3.2 to 2.7 for the selection compartments combined. Returns per acre of standing inventory were influenced by tree quality but also were confounded with compartment volume and species mix. In general, return of standing inventory in 1996, whether per acre or per mbf, was greater in the selection compartments, but one of the diameter limits had a significant volume of high value red oak timber that skewed its total value upward. North. J. Appl. For. 17(1):9-15.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

26

Kurz, Jochen H. "Monitoring of timber structures." Journal of Civil Structural Health Monitoring 5, no. 2 (April 9, 2014): 97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13349-014-0075-6.

Full text

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

27

Höwler, Kirsten, Torsten Vor, Peter Schall, Peter Annighöfer, Dominik Seidel, and Christian Ammer. "Distribution of the timber quality attribute ‘knot surface’ in logs of Fagus sylvatica L. from pure and mixed forest stands." European Journal of Forest Research 140, no. 4 (April 26, 2021): 969–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10342-021-01378-9.

Full text

Abstract:

AbstractResearch on mixed forests has mostly focused on tree growth and productivity, or resistance and resilience in changing climate conditions, but only rarely on the effects of tree species mixing on timber quality. In particular, it is still unclear whether the numerous positive effects of mixed forests on productivity and stability come at the expense of timber quality. In this study, we used photographs of sawn boards from 90 European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) trees of mixed and pure forest stands to analyze internal timber quality through the quality indicator knot surface that was quantitatively assessed using the software Datinf® Measure. We observed a decrease in knot surface with increasing distance from the pith as well as smaller values in the lower log sections. Regarding the influence of neighborhood species identity, we found only minor effects meaning that timber qualities in mixed stands of beech and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) tended to be slightly worse compared to pure beech stands.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

28

Sanz, Blanca, Jukka Malinen, Sanna Sirparanta, Jussi Peuhkurinen, Vesa Leppänen, Timo Melkas, Kirsi Riekki, Tuomo Kauranne, Mikko Vastaranta, and Timo Tokola. "Integrating Detailed Timber Assortments into Airborne Laser Scanning (ALS)-Based Assessments of Logging Recoveries." Forests 12, no. 9 (September 8, 2021): 1221. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/f12091221.

Full text

Abstract:

The methodology presented here can assist in making timber markets more efficient when assessing the value of harvestable timber stands and the amounts of timber assortments during the planning of harvesting operations. Information on wood quality and timber assortments is essential for wood valuation and procurement planning as varying wood dimensions and qualities may be utilized and refined in different places, including sawmills, plywood mills, pulp mills, heating plants or combined heat and power plants. We investigate here alternative approaches for generating detailed timber assortments for Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H.Karst.), Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and birch (Betula spp.) from airborne laser scanning (ALS) data, aerial images, harvester data and field data. For this purpose, we used 665 circular plots, and logging recovery information recorded from 249 clear-cut stands using cut-to-length harvesters. We estimated timber assortment volumes, economic values and wood paying capabilities (WPC) for each stand in different bucking scenarios, and used the resulting timber assortment estimates to assess logging recoveries. The bucking scenarios were (1) bucking-to-value using maximum sawlog and pulpwood volumes excluding quality (theoretical maximum), and (2) bucking-to-value using sawlog lengths at 30 cm intervals for Norway spruce and Scots pine and veneer logs of lengths 4.7 m, 5.0 m, 6.0 m and 6.7 m for birch, either excluding quality (the usual business practice) or including quality (a novel business practice). The results showed that our procedure can assist in locating stands that are likely to be more valuable and have the desired timber assortment distributions. We conclude that the method can estimate WPC with root mean square errors of 28.7%, 66.0% and 45.7% in Norway spruce, Scots pine and birch, respectively, for sawlogs and 19.3%, 63.7% and 29.5% for pulpwood.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

29

Croft, Peter, Nick Reid, and John T. Hunter. "Experimental burning changes the quality of fallen timber as habitat for vertebrate and invertebrate fauna: implications for fire management." Wildlife Research 37, no. 7 (2010): 574. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wr10053.

Full text

Abstract:

Context Fallen timber is a key habitat feature in forests and woodlands for vertebrate and invertebrate fauna, and is either consumed or left partially burnt after the passage of fire. This impact on habitat quality assumes significance because increasing areas of land are subject to frequent hazard-reduction burning and wildfire in eastern Australia. Aims We test here whether partially burnt or charred fallen timber is employed as habitat to the same extent as unburnt fallen timber. Methods Vertebrate and invertebrate abundance beneath burnt and unburnt fence posts was monitored for 13 months in unburnt forest and forest burnt by a wildfire. Key results Both vertebrate and invertebrate fauna made significantly less use of charred refuges. In most taxa, twice as many animals occurred under unburnt as under burnt artificial timber refuges, ant nests being the exception. Fauna made greater use of experimental refuges in burnt forest. Key conclusions Partially burnt fallen-timber refuges, where the log surface is left charred, are inferior habitat for fauna. Habitat quality in burnt forest may be enhanced by introducing fallen timber. Implications The study highlights an ecological consequence of fire for habitat quality, whether through wildfire or hazard-reduction burning, which should be considered in fire management.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

30

Krzosek, Slawomir, Izabela Burawska-Kupniewska, and Piotr Mankowski. "Geographical origin and log quality influence on the mechanical properties of Scots pine sawnwood." BioResources 16, no. 1 (December 4, 2020): 669–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.15376/biores.16.1.669-683.

Full text

Abstract:

This paper presents research conducted on pine timber sawn from logs obtained from three different forestry regions in western Poland. Forestry regions were characterized in terms of i.e. annual mean temperature and rainfall distribution, soil, growing stock, and technical quality and type of forest. The timber logs were classified in three different quality classes, A, B, and C as per PN-D 95017 (1992). The coefficients of correlation were calculated for pairs of the studied properties (density, modulus of elasticity (MOE), and static bending strength (MOR)) considering the forestry region of origin of the different quality logs. The statistical analysis revealed that there is a strict correlation between quality class of logs, geographical origin in terms of technical quality of forest, and physical and mechanical parameters of sawn timber.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

31

Stenson, Jason, Suzanne L. Ishaq, Aurélie Laguerre, Andrew Loia, Georgia MacCrone, Ignace Mugabo, Dale Northcutt, et al. "Monitored Indoor Environmental Quality of a Mass Timber Office Building: A Case Study." Buildings 9, no. 6 (June 13, 2019): 142. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/buildings9060142.

Full text

Abstract:

A broad range of building performance monitoring, sampling, and evaluation was conducted periodically after construction and spanning more than a year, for an occupied office building constructed using mass timber elements such as cross-laminated timber (CLT) floor and roof panels, as well as glue-laminated timber (GLT) beams and columns. This case study contributes research on monitoring indoor environmental quality in buildings, describing one of the few studies of an occupied mass timber building, and analyzing data in three areas that impact occupant experience: indoor air quality, bacterial community composition, and floor vibration. As a whole, the building was found to perform well. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), including formaldehyde, were analyzed using multiple methods. Formaldehyde was found to be present in the building, though levels were below most recommended exposure limits. The source of formaldehyde was not able to be identified in this study. The richness of the bacterial community was affected by the height of sampling with respect to the floor, and richness and composition was affected by the location within the building. Floor vibration was observed to be below recognized human comfort thresholds.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

32

Buka-Vaivade, Karina, Dmitrijs Serdjuks, Andrejs Podkoritovs, Leonids Pakrastins, and Viktors Mironovs. "RIGID CONNECTION WITH GRANITE CHIPS IN THE TIMBER-CONCRETE COMPOSITE." ENVIRONMENT. TECHNOLOGIES. RESOURCES. Proceedings of the International Scientific and Practical Conference 3 (June 16, 2021): 36–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.17770/etr2021vol3.6552.

Full text

Abstract:

Timber-concrete composite panels enables to combine advantages of pure timber and pure concrete panels in one structural member especially in the case, when the rigid timber-concrete connection is provided. The effectiveness of timber and concrete use and load-carrying capacity of the timber-concrete composite panels will grow in the case. The new concept of rigid timber to concrete connection was developed by the using of the granite chips as the keys to provide high quality of the glued connection. Behaviour of the timber-concrete composite panels were investigated by finite element method and laboratorian experiment. Three timber-concrete composite panels in combination with carbon fibre reinforced plastic composite tapes in the tension zone with the span 1.8 m were statically loaded till the failure by the scheme of three-point bending. One specimen was produced by dry method, by gluing together cross-laminated timber panel and prefabricated concrete panel. Timber-concrete connection of the other two specimens was provided by the granite chips, which were glued on the surface of the cross-laminated timber by epoxy, and then wet concrete was placed. Dimensions of the crushed granite pieces changes within the limits from 16 to 25 mm. The current study focuses on determining the effect of the use of granite chips for timber-concrete composite panels with adhesive connection between layers. The effect of the use of granite chips in rigid connection is determined by comparison of mid-span displacements and level of failure load of the two variants of the timber-concrete composite panels. Three-dimensional finite element models of timber-concrete composite with rigid connection was developed and validated by experiment data. Obtained results shown, that the use of the granite chips in rigid timber to concrete connection allow to make a quality rigid connection. Possibility to increase by 28% level of failure load of the timber-concrete composite panels by the adding of granite chips was stated. Maximal vertical mid-span displacements of the panels decrease about 3.8 times at the same time.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

33

Cameron, A. "Managing birch woodlands for the production of quality timber." Forestry 69, no. 4 (April 1, 1996): 357–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/forestry/69.4.357.

Full text

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

34

Gorohovsky, A. G., E. E. Shishkina, E. V. Starova, A. A. Mikov, and S. V. Bulatov. "Improving the system of quality requirements for drying timber." Systems. Methods. Technologies, no. 2(34) (2017): 133–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.18324/2077-5415-2017-2-133-138.

Full text

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

35

Shahverdi, Mahdi, Luiz Oliveira, and Stavros Avramidis. "Kiln-drying optimization for quality pacific coast hemlock timber." Drying Technology 35, no. 15 (February 13, 2017): 1867–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07373937.2017.1283324.

Full text

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

36

Phonetip, Khamtan, Barbara Ozarska, Benoit Belleville, and Graham Ian Brodie. "Comparing two intermittent drying schedules for timber drying quality." Drying Technology 37, no. 2 (March 19, 2018): 186–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07373937.2018.1445638.

Full text

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

37

Bilby, Robert E. "Water quality monitoring in Washington's Timber/Fish/Wildlife program." Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 26-26, no. 2-3 (July 1993): 249–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00547502.

Full text

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

38

Gökbulak, F., Y. Serengil, S. Özhan, N. Özyuvacı, and N. Balcı. "Effect of Timber Harvest on Physical Water Quality Characteristics." Water Resources Management 22, no. 5 (June 2, 2007): 635–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11269-007-9183-y.

Full text

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

39

Baynes, Jack, John Herbohn, Nestor Gregorio, and Jufamar Fernandez. "How Useful are Small Stands of Low Quality Timber?" Small-scale Forestry 14, no. 2 (November 20, 2014): 193–204. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11842-014-9281-7.

Full text

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

40

Кривощёков, Никита, Nikita Krivoschekov, Станислав Рыкунин, Stanislav Rykunin, Надежда Куликова, and Nadezhda Kulikova. "Visual sorting of sawn timber based on the calculation method for determining the volume of blanks." Forestry Engineering Journal 7, no. 4 (January 30, 2018): 148–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.12737/article_5a3d02b31a74a7.51188033.

Full text

Abstract:

The presented research is devoted to the definition of the fragmentation of the sorting of lumber and the boundaries of sorting groups according to the value of the volume output of the primary harvesting, based on the calculation method for determining the volume output of harvesting for the furniture board. The article provides a brief overview of research on the evaluation of timber quality. The scheme for assessing the quality of lumber wood is given. The volumetric output and output parameters of cut modeling of the 1st and 2nd quality groups of sawn timber for blanks for the production of the furniture board of A grade are presented. The technique for determining the boundaries of sorting groups using the volumetric output of the main billet based on the calculated method for determining the volume yield of blanks for a furniture board. Visual sorting on the main work piece increases the volume output of solid blanks of the 1st quality group by 8.61% and the volume output of short blanks of the 2nd quality group by 8.54% compared to the calculated method. Sorting sawn timber according to the proposed indicator simplifies this process, and also allows achieving a functional dependence approximate to 1 between the quality of sawn timber and the quality of blanks, except for errors of quality controllers or operators that perform sorting.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

41

Muhamad Azlan, Hafizah, Lannie Francis, and Zakiah Ahmad. "Strength and Interface Adhesion Properties of in-Plane Shear Loaded Thick Adhesive Joint." International Journal of Engineering & Technology 7, no. 2.29 (May 22, 2018): 947. http://dx.doi.org/10.14419/ijet.v7i2.29.14289.

Full text

Abstract:

This paper addresses the quality of the interface bonded joints in layers of timber elements. The shear performance was studied to assess the suitability of adhesive to bond timber with different thickness of glueline and timber densities. Since there is absolute test method in establishing the shear strength of the surface bonds between layers timber elements, two test methods were used namely Thick Adherend Shear Test [TAST] and Lap Shear Test. The adhesived used is Sikadur-30 and timber used are Sesendok, Bintangor and Kempas with average densities 400-600kg/m3, 600-800kg/m3 and 800-1000kg/m3 respectively. Obtained results suggest that the interface stress distribution are related to the thicknesses of adhesive and densities of timber.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

42

Mankowski, Piotr, Izabela Burawska-Kupniewska, Slawomir Krzosek, and Marek Grzeskiewicz. "Influence of pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) growth rings width on the strength properties of structural sawn timber." BioResources 15, no. 3 (May 22, 2020): 5402–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.15376/biores.15.3.5402-5416.

Full text

Abstract:

Annual growth ring width was considered relative to the mechanical properties of timber from the Silesian Forestry Region in Poland. The timber was acquired from raw wood aged approximately 120 years old, with log quality A, B, and C. The study was conducted on 210 pieces of timber; 70 of them were from each part of the log: butt, middle, and top. The tested parameters, modulus of elasticity (MOE) and modulus of rupture (MOR), were measured on fully dimensional timber (40 × 138 × 3500 mm3) that had been dried and planed in industrial conditions. The density of wood (stereometric method) and annual rings width were calculated after MOR and MOE determination on samples including the entire cross-section cut near the failure zone. The tests revealed that the correlation between the width of growth rings and MOE or MOR depended on the log area: it was the highest for timber from butt logs and the lowest for timber from top logs. Moreover, the correlation between growth ring width and MOE or MOR depended also on the quality class of the logs from which the samples were obtained: it was the highest for timber from class A, and the lowest for class C.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

43

Lickwar, Peter, Clifford Hickman, and Frederick W. Cubbage. "Costs of Protecting Water Quality During Harvesting on Private Forestlands in the Southeast." Southern Journal of Applied Forestry 16, no. 1 (February 1, 1992): 13–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/sjaf/16.1.13.

Full text

Abstract:

Abstract Data on harvest volumes, topography, and other site and area characteristics were obtained from 22 timber harvests in Alabama, Florida, and Georgia. An economic analysis was then used to estimate the marginal costs of implementing each state's recommended Best Management Practices (BMPs), as well as a set of enhanced BMPs on these sites. Considering all of the areas combined, the costs of using the recommended BMPs averaged 2.9% of gross timber sale revenue, $2.34 per thousand board feet (mbf) of timber harvested, or $12.45/ac. The cost of implementing the enhanced BMPs averaged 5.1% of gross stumpage value, $4.13/mbf, or $21.94/ac. Seed, fertilizer, and mulch, broad based dips, and water bars were the most expensive practices on a total cost basis. Culvert installation, streamside management zones, and road relocation costs were less expensive for most tracts. South. J. Appl. For. 16(1):13-20.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

44

Isopescu, Dorina Nicolina, and Oana Neculai. "Testing Procedure for Timber Strength Grading." Key Engineering Materials 660 (August 2015): 180–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/kem.660.180.

Full text

Abstract:

Despite the variability and particularities that the timber reveals, the strength class grading system has been developed to meet the need to correlate structural design standards with quality standards for timber products. The paper presents the standardised approaches for determining the characteristic values of properties for timber products, with the purpose of classifying the material according to the strength classes system presented in European standards.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

45

Audebert, M., D. Dhima, M. Taazount, and A. Bouchaïr. "Thermo-mechanical behaviour of timber-to-timber connections exposed to fire." Fire Safety Journal 56 (February 2013): 52–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2013.01.007.

Full text

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

46

McConnell, Thomas Eric, Curtis L. VanderSchaaf, and Shaun M. Tanger. "Potential Changes to Louisiana Hardwood Timber Industry Economic Contributions Following Emerald Ash Borer (EAB) Invasion: An Input–Output Approach." Journal of Economic Entomology 112, no. 6 (September 7, 2019): 2751–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jee/toz212.

Full text

Abstract:

Abstract The emerald ash borer (EAB) Agrilus planipennis (Fairmaire, Coleoptera: Buprestidae) will have untold impacts on the contributions hardwood timber products provide Louisiana’s economy. We modeled a scenario where ash mortality was assumed to follow a PERT-Beta distribution to kill essentially all Louisiana ash within 25 yr. Future ash mortality volumes were discounted to the present and valued using market prices to estimate a present effect on timber receipts. Assuming the dead timber would have otherwise been typical trees of average quality, stumpage was presently valued at US$1.57 million, with deliveries totaling US$3.48 million. A salvage arrangement using the double declining balance method coupled with a second PERT-Beta distribution centered upon Louisiana’s current 2.84% harvest-to-inventory proportion depreciated the timber’s value monthly over 1 yr. Following salvage, average stumpage revenue declined −US$1.54 million, mill deliveries fell −US$3.41 million, whereas state timber severance tax collections declined by −US$46,800. The value added and employment direct effects to Louisiana’s economy averaged −US$882,400 and −41.6 jobs, respectively. The multiplier effects of these losses emanating from the timber industry resulted in additional declines averaging −US$2.56 million in value added and −45.6 jobs across the state economy on the drop in output of −US$4.51 million. The total economic effects summed to −US$3.44 million in value added and −87.1 jobs on output declines of −US$9.46 million.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

47

Rideout, Douglas B., and Hayley Hesseln. "The Dynamic Wyoming Timber Economy." Western Journal of Applied Forestry 18, no. 4 (October 1, 2003): 233–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/wjaf/18.4.233.

Full text

Abstract:

Abstract In the 1990s, the United States experienced unprecedented growth and prosperity while western timber economies experienced a series of national and international events that would challenge their future. This contrast of rapid national expansion amid regional challenge for the timber industry was related to a series of international monetary crises that depressed world commodity prices while domestic policy restricted timber supply. Higher prices, lower quantities, lower quality, longer haul distances, and industry consolidation all posed changes and challenges. These events affected Wyoming's timber processors as they attempted to adjust to the dynamic timber economy. Wyoming's dynamic economy suggests that changes, including the potential for consolidation, would be important considerations for industry officials and policy makers. West. J. Appl. For. 18(4):233–237.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

48

Russo, Diego, Pasquale Marziliano, Giorgio Macri, Andrea Proto, Giuseppe Zimbalatti, and Fabio Lombardi. "Does Thinning Intensity Affect Wood Quality? An Analysis of Calabrian Pine in Southern Italy Using a Non-Destructive Acoustic Method." Forests 10, no. 4 (April 2, 2019): 303. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/f10040303.

Full text

Abstract:

In the middle of XIX century, Calabrian pine was planted in southern Italy to increase the forest cover in mountainous areas. Many of these forest stands were never managed, since they were considered non-profitable for wood production. Therefore, in order to promote timber value, it is fundamental to study, more deeply, the characteristics and management options for this species. The acoustic technologies applied to predict the mechanical and physical properties of timber are well-established practices in forest research. In this study, we hypothesized that the tree stand density could influence the dynamic modulus of elasticity (MOEd) and, therefore, the future wood quality. We specifically aimed to verify if different management options, when applied, could influence the timber quality of Calabrian pine growing in similar environmental conditions. The study was conducted in the Aspromonte National Park (Calabria, Southern Italy). We derived the MOEd values from data obtained by the acoustic velocity measured through the TreeSonic™ timer. Calabrian pine trees were selected in stands where different intensities of thinning were applied eleven years before this study began (no thinning, thinning 25%, thinning 50%, and thinning 75%). The percentage refers to the number of trees cut with respect to the total number of occurring trees. The analyses were conducted on a total of 804 trees (201 trees for each intensity of thinning). A strong positive correlation was observed between the acoustic velocity, the thinning treatments and diameter at breast height (DBH). The thinning realized at 25% induced better tree wood quality. We also analyzed the best predictors for MOEd estimation, using variables easily measurable in the field, such as tree diameter, tree height, or their transformations (number of trees per hectare, basal area per hectare). We provide, here, a useful tool for predicting the wood stiffness in relation to stand parameters easily measurable in forest inventories.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

49

Hyytiäinen, K., P. Hari, T. Kokkila, A. Mäkelä, O. Tahvonen, and J. Taipale. "Connecting a process-based forest growth model to stand-level economic optimization." Canadian Journal of Forest Research 34, no. 10 (October 1, 2004): 2060–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/x04-056.

Full text

Abstract:

This study extends the economic literature on forest stand management by applying a process-based, rather than empirical, stand growth model. The economics of timber production is investigated using a distance-independent, individual tree process model specified for pure Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stands. Stem taper and crown morphology information are used for bucking the harvested trees into several roundwood categories according to quality and dimension requirements applied in the Finnish timber markets. Explicit inclusion of causality and timber quality in stand-level economic optimization generates a set of new results. Economic optimization decreases biomass production but increases roundwood production, compared with undisturbed stands. Optimal rotation length is insensitive to changes in the rate of interest beyond 4% owing to nonmonotonic value growth. Better quality attributes and higher productivity in resource use are partial reasons for favoring lower canopy trees in optimal thinnings. The first thinnings are light, irrespective of the rate of interest, because of their favorable feedback effects on the quality of residual trees. Production of the highest-grade roundwood is rational only at rates of interest lower than those prevailing in the capital markets. An example of two optima representing distinct timber management strategies is shown.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

50

Jackson, M. R., R. M. Parkin, and N. Brown. "Waves on wood." Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part B: Journal of Engineering Manufacture 216, no. 4 (April 1, 2002): 475–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1243/0954405021520175.

Full text

Abstract:

The rotary machining process as applied to timber is introduced and compared with the milling and grinding of metals. The emphasis of this work is on the waviness surface quality of the machined timber and initially focuses on a review of the techniques applied to improve surface quality at higher workpiece feed velocities—typically 120 m/min. The main work concentrates on mathematical and computer-based modelling of surface waviness defects generated by two classical woodworking machine engineering science phenomena, caused primarily by forced structural vibration. Surface assessment of machined timber is discussed, with results from contact and non-contact methods highlighted. The causes of surface waviness defects are presented and possible solutions are outlined.

APA, Harvard, Vancouver, ISO, and other styles

Journal articles on the topic 'Timber quality'

Create a spot-on reference in APA, MLA, Chicago, Harvard, and other styles