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1
Jiménez-Franco, Abigail, Pura Alfonso, Carles Canet, and Juan Elvys Trujillo. "Mineral chemistry of In-bearing minerals in the Santa Fe mining district, Bolivia." Andean Geology 45, no. 3 (June 6, 2018): 410. http://dx.doi.org/10.5027/andgeov45n3-3052.
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The Santa Fe mining district is located in the Central Andean tin belt of Bolivia and contains several Sn-Zn-Pb-Ag deposits. From the economic point of view, the most important deposits of the district are Japo, Santa Fe and Morococala. Beyond the traditional metal commodities, the Central Andean Tin Belt could become an exploration target for indium, owing to the potential of the ore-bearing paragenesis with high concentrations of this technology-critical element. In the Santa Fe mining district, the ore occurs as two main types: (a) Sn-rich cassiterite-quartz veins, and (b) Zn-Pb-Ag veins with sphalerite, galena and stannite mineral phases. The In content in igneous rocks is between 1.5 and 2.5 ppm, whereas in the ore concentrate it attains up to 200 ppm. The 1,000×In/Zn ratio in concentrate ranges from 25 up to 4,000. Exceptionally high In values were found in sakuraiite from Morococala deposit (2.03 wt%). Sakuraiite in this deposit shows evidences for a link between stannite and kësterite trend of solid solutions. There is a noteworthy exploration potential for strategic metals in this district and even in similar deposits elsewhere in the Central Andean tin belt.
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Li, Ying Shu, Yan Cai, Nan Chen, Jiao Jiao Chen, Lun Wang, Yi Ke Zhang, and Da Qing He. "Source of Tinny Granite in Gejiu Tin Ore Deposit in Yunnan Province, China." Advanced Materials Research 634-638 (January 2013): 3493–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.634-638.3493.
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It had been believed that the genesis of tinny granite in Gejiu tin ore deposits were hydrothermal mineralization in granite of Yanshanian epoch by most researchers for a long time. However, according to the form, attitude and sulphur isotope in the ore of the oreboby, the authors believe the genesis of the tin ore deposit is relict body of granitic superimposed ore-forming of the Yanshanian epoch after the basic volcano ore-forming of the Indo-Chinese epoch. It’s proved that the form and attitude of the oreboby is basically consistent with the form and attitude of the basalt of the Indo-Chinese epoch. Because sulphur isotope in pyrite of the ore is from 0.21 per thousand to 4.4 per thousand, feature of source of the mantle sulphur isotope is reflected.
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Cheng, Yong Sheng. "Lead Isotope of Sulfide Minerals from Dachang Ore Field of Guangxi (South China): Characteristic and Implication." Advanced Materials Research 455-456 (January 2012): 1399–403. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.455-456.1399.
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In the Danchi mineralization belt of Guangxi province, south China, the Dachang tin-polymetallic ore deposit is one of the largest Sn ore deposits in this world. But about the genesis and the ore source, there have been some disputes. In terms of the Dafulou deposit, the mineralization model and deposit mechanism is rather illegibility. By analysing and comparing the lead isotope of three ore deposit (the Changpo, the Lamo and the Dafulou), it show that the correlations of 206Pb/204Pb, 207Pb/204Pb and 208Pb/204Pb of sulfide minerals demonstrate obvious excellent linear relation. So, it is also suggested that the eastern mineralization belt, the middle mineralization belt and the western mineralization belt shared the same ore source. And, according to the features of no.22 ore body, the Dafulou deposit is characterized with the characteristics of the Sedimentary Exhalative Deposit (SEDEX).
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Gaspar, O., and A. Pinto. "The ore textures of the Neves-Corvo volcanogenic massive sulphides and their implications for ore beneficiation." Mineralogical Magazine 55, no. 380 (September 1991): 417–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1180/minmag.1991.055.380.11.
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AbstractThe Neves-Corvo mine opened officially in December 1988 and it is already the biggest producer of copper in the Iberian Pyrite Belt (IPB). Tin production started in 1990. The ore deposits of the IPB are related to felsic submarine volcanism which developed during the lower Tournaisian to the middle Visean. At the end of the first phase of Hercynian deformation in the middle Westphalian, the ore deposits were affected by low-pressure metamorphism producing schistosity and prehenite-pumpellyite greenschist facies assemblages in the volcanogenic sediments of the IPB.The unique nature of the mineralogy of the Neves-Corvo deposit compared with other IPB deposits is mainly a result of the introduction of later Cu-rich hydrothermal solutions to the primitive ore pile and the presence of tin mineralisation. The cupriferous ores are rich in tetrahedrite-tennantite, stannite, kesterite, stannoidite and mawsonite.Cassiterite occurs in Neves-Corvo: (a) as thin layers of euhedral crystals in cupriferous ores, partially replaced by chalcopyrite; (b) in the schistosity of a banded black shale chalcopyrite hanging wall formation; (c) as metre-sized lenses of massive cassiterite overlying the cupriferous ores.The ore textures at Neves-Corvo are complex, due to intergrowths of fine colloform pyrite with the base metal minerals. Because of the low grade of metamorphism, colloform, geopetal and soft-sediment diagenetic features are preserved in the ‘complex ores’. These ‘complex ores’ have contents of 0.5% Cu, 1% Pb and 5.5% Zn. In copper-rich ores (7.9% Cu and 1.4% Zn), replacement of the primary ore by chalcopyrite has obliterated most of these textures and produced fine chalcopyrite-tetrahedrite-pyrite intergrowths. The textures clearly indicate the genesis of these ores but they impose a practical problem in recovery of the metals. There is no clear correlation between these textures and the ore classification used at the mine, but an understanding of the textures is vital since the ‘complex ores’ require fine grinding to achieve liberation and the fine grinding adversely affects the froth flotation processing of the ore.The implications of the complex sulphide textures for ore beneficiation have been studied using reflected light microscopy, with determination of modal analyses and grain-size distributions of free particles and middlings from concentrates and tailings.The outcome of a one-year intensive study is that the ore microscopy laboratory at the mine now produces daily information about the textures of the feed ores so that metallurgical engineers can optimise the performance of the ore dressing plant.
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Slack, John F., Leonid A. Neymark, Richard J. Moscati, Heather A. Lowers, Paul W. Ransom, Robert L. Hauser, and David T. Adams. "Origin of Tin Mineralization in the Sullivan Pb-Zn-Ag Deposit, British Columbia: Constraints from Textures, Geochemistry, and LA-ICP-MS U-Pb Geochronology of Cassiterite." Economic Geology 115, no. 8 (August 24, 2020): 1699–724. http://dx.doi.org/10.5382/econgeo.4761.
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Abstract Textural, geochronological, and geochemical data are presented here for cassiterite from the giant (149.7 million tonnes [Mt]) Mesoproterozoic Sullivan Pb-Zn-Ag deposit, which has been subjected to several tectonothermal events. These data provide constraints on the age and origin of the tin concentrations and new insights into related base metal mineralization. Sullivan is rare among sediment-hosted, stratiform Pb-Zn-Ag deposits in having high tin contents in ore (up to 2.5 wt %; avg 310 ppm Sn). Cassiterite occurs in all facies of this deformed and metamorphosed deposit, including (1) high-grade veins with arsenopyrite and pyrrhotite, (2) bedded Pb-Zn-Ag ores, (3) massive pyrrhotite, (4) footwall and hanging-wall tourmalinites, and (5) other altered wall rocks. New in situ U-Pb dates for Sullivan cassiterite obtained by laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) are modeled by a multicomponent-based algorithm that yields three age peaks: 1475 ± 4 Ma (51% of the data), 1366 ± 10 Ma (25%), and 1074 ± 7 Ma (24%). These dates are attributed, respectively, to primary tin mineralization at ca. 1475 Ma, the East Kootenay orogeny at ca. 1370 to 1300 Ma, and the Grenvillian orogeny at ca. 1100 to 980 Ma. Based on the presence and local abundance of cassiterite in all ore and ore-related rocks at Sullivan, the U-Pb date of 1475 ± 4 Ma reported here represents the first direct age for ore mineralization in the deposit. Occurrence of texturally discordant rims on Sullivan cassiterite grains having U-Pb dates coeval with the East Kootenay and Grenvillian orogenies suggests that these young dates reflect dissolution-reprecipitation processes associated with channelized metamorphic fluid flow. LA-ICP-MS U-Pb dates obtained on low-U (<10 ppm) cassiterite also indicate that U-Pb dates for cassiterite from other metamorphosed deposits should be viewed with caution and not assumed to record an age of primary tin mineralization. Aqueous transport conditions for tin are evaluated to gain insights into the cassiterite mineralization at Sullivan. Based on fO2-pH topology of aqueous tin species at 250°C, tin transport was dominated by an SnCl3− complex at fO2 of about –40 and pH of <4.0, conditions that were constrained, respectively, by widespread occurrence of pyrrhotite in deep footwall siliciclastic metasedimentary rocks of the host Aldridge Formation and by release of CO2 from shallow mafic sills and resulting formation of carbonic acid in condensed brine. The low fO2 value also reflects inferred production of CH4 from heating of organic matter in the sediments during emplacement of these sills. Based on a fluid pH restriction of <4.0 and a requirement for sparse or no K-feldspar in the source, the tin likely derives from previously altered Lower Aldridge strata. This model relies on the early diagenetic dissolution of K-feldspar from these sediments by basinal brines, followed by interaction with a later, more acidic hydrothermal fluid generated during the emplacement of large mafic sills in the shallow subsurface that leached tin from accessory minerals such as titanite in siliciclastic sediments of the Lower Aldridge Formation. Mass balance calculations suggest that derivation of the tin from this sedimentary source (avg 2.0 ppm Sn) required ~40 km3 and a cylinder diameter of 3.2 km (height 5.0 km) in order to supply the 0.1 Mt of tin contained in the deposit. The presence of mafic sills in the footwall of several other tin-bearing, sediment-hosted, stratiform Pb-Zn-Ag deposits and in modern, tin-rich, sediment-hosted sulfide deposits in the northeast Pacific Ocean suggests that siliciclastic marine basins that contain mafic sills—with or without stratiform sulfide deposits—should be evaluated for possible tin mineralization.
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Semenyak, B. I., P. G. Korostelev, and V. G. Gonevchuk. "TIN-POLYMETALLIC DEPOSITS IN THE FURMANOVSKY ORE DISTRICT (SOUTH PRIMORYE, RUSSIA)." Bulletin of Kamchatka Regional Association «Educational-Scientific Center». Earth Sciences, no. 2(38) (2018): 76–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.31431/1816-5524-2018-2-38-76-83.
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Cheng, Yong Sheng. "Geological Characteristics of the Dafulou Tin–Polymetallic Sulfide Deposits in Guangxi, South China." Advanced Materials Research 455-456 (January 2012): 1350–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.455-456.1350.
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The Danchi mineralization belt is an important ore district in southern China. According to the tectonic characteristics, the Danchi mineralization belt could be devided into three mineralization belts, such as the east mineralization belt, the west mineralization belt and the middle mineralization belt. The Dafulou deposit, which belongs to the east mineralization belt, is located in the eastern flank of the NNW–SSE-trending Danchi anticlinorium. The key structures in the Dafulou ore district are the NW-trending faults, which developed parallel with the axis of the Dachang anticlinorium. In the Dafulou ore district, the Devonian stratum has a closed contact with the Sn–polymetallic deposits. In the Danchi mineralization belt, the granite belongs to alkali-calcium rock series or near to the alkali rock series. There are four different types of hydrothermal alteration, including silicification, carbonation, pyritization and pyrrhotitezation.
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Liu, Shiyu, Yuping Liu, Lin Ye, Chen Wei, Yi Cai, and Weihong Chen. "Genesis of Dulong Sn-Zn-In Polymetallic Deposit in Yunnan Province, South China: Insights from Cassiterite U-Pb Ages and Trace Element Compositions." Minerals 11, no. 2 (February 13, 2021): 199. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/min11020199.
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The Dulong Sn-Zn-In polymetallic deposit in the Yunnan province, SW China, hosts a reserve of 5.0 Mt Zn, 0.4 Mt Sn, and 7 Kt In. It is one of the most important polymetallic tin ore districts in China. Granites at Dulong mining area include mainly the Laojunshan granite (third phase), which occurs as quartz porphyry or granite porphyry dikes in the Southern edge of the Laojunshan intrusive complex. Granites of phases one and two are intersected at drill holes at depth. There are three types of cassiterite mineralization developed in the deposit: cassiterite-magnetite ± sulfide ore (Cst I), cassiterite-sulfide ore (Cst II) within the proximal skarn in contact with the concealed granite (granites of phases one to two and three), and cassiterite-quartz vein ore (Cst III) near porphyritic granite. Field geology and petrographic studies indicate that acid neutralising muscovitization and pyroxene reactions were part of mechanisms for Sn precipitation resulting from fluid-rock interaction. In situ U–Pb dating of cassiterite samples from the ore stages of cassiterite-sulfide (Cst II) and Cassiterite-quartz vein (Cst III) yielded Tera-Wasserburg U–Pb lower intercept ages of 88.5 ± 2.1 Ma and 82.1 ± 6.3 Ma, respectively. The two mineralization ages are consistent with the emplacement age of the Laojunshan granite (75.9–92.9 Ma) within error, suggesting a close temporal link between Sn-Zn(-In) mineralization and granitic magmatism. LA-ICPMS trace element study of cassiterite indicates that tetravalent elements (such as Zr, Hf, Ti, U, W) are incorporated in cassiterite by direct substitution, and the trivalent element (Fe) is replaced by coupled substitution. CL image shows that the fluorescence signal of Cst I–II is greater than that of Cst III, which is caused by differences in contents of activating luminescence elements (Al, Ti, W, etc.) and quenching luminescence element (Fe). Elevated W and Fe but lowered Zr, Hf, Nb, and Ta concentrations of the three type cassiterites from the Dulong Sn-Zn-In polymetallic deposit are distinctly different from those of cassiterites in VMS/SEDEX tin deposits, but similar to those from granite-related tin deposits. From cassiterite-magnetite ± sulfide (Cst I), cassiterite-sulfide ore (Cst II), to cassiterite-quartz vein ore-stage (Cst III), high field strength elements (HFSEs: Zr, Nb, Ta, Hf) decrease. This fact combined with cassiterite crystallization ages, indicates that Cst I–II mainly related to concealed granite (Laojunshan granites of phases one and two) while Cst III is mainly related to porphyritic granite (Laojunshan granites of phase three).
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Lobo, Agustin, Emma Garcia, Gisela Barroso, David Martí, Jose-Luis Fernandez-Turiel, and Jordi Ibáñez-Insa. "Machine Learning for Mineral Identification and Ore Estimation from Hyperspectral Imagery in Tin–Tungsten Deposits: Simulation under Indoor Conditions." Remote Sensing 13, no. 16 (August 18, 2021): 3258. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs13163258.
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This study aims to assess the feasibility of delineating and identifying mineral ores from hyperspectral images of tin–tungsten mine excavation faces using machine learning classification. We compiled a set of hand samples of minerals of interest from a tin–tungsten mine and analyzed two types of hyperspectral images: (1) images acquired with a laboratory set-up under close-to-optimal conditions, and (2) a scan of a simulated mine face using a field set-up, under conditions closer to those in the gallery. We have analyzed the following minerals: cassiterite (tin ore), wolframite (tungsten ore), chalcopyrite, malachite, muscovite, and quartz. Classification (Linear Discriminant Analysis, Singular Vector Machines and Random Forest) of laboratory spectra had a very high overall accuracy rate (98%), slightly lower if the 450–950 nm and 950–1650 nm ranges are considered independently, and much lower (74.5%) for simulated conventional RGB imagery. Classification accuracy for the simulation was lower than in the laboratory but still high (85%), likely a consequence of the lower spatial resolution. All three classification methods performed similarly in this case, with Random Forest producing results of slightly higher accuracy. The user’s accuracy for wolframite was 85%, but cassiterite was often confused with wolframite (user’s accuracy: 70%). A lumped ore category achieved 94.9% user’s accuracy. Our study confirms the suitability of hyperspectral imaging to record the spatial distribution of ore mineralization in progressing tungsten–tin mine faces.
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Razikov, Odil Takhirjanovich, Khabibulla Asadovich Akbarov, and Mehrozh Nurillaevich Zhuraev. "Metallogy Of The Zeravshano-Alay Belt (South Tianshan)." American Journal of Applied sciences 02, no. 12 (December 27, 2020): 44–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.37547/tajas/volume02issue12-08.
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The work describes the genetic types and conditions for the localization of mineralization - individual deposits and ore occurrences. Also, the indicated mineralized zones, the conditions of occurrence of the mineralization, the geological-structural position and the peculiarities of the host complexes. Descriptions of promising tungsten, tin ore, polymetallic, mercury and other ore zones, which serve as a reserve in expanding the resource base in the Republic, are given. Tungsten, tin ore, and mercury mineralizations are characterized in somewhat more detail, since the latter in the region under study is often spatially associated with gold and forms mercury-antimony-polymetallic mineralization.
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Takhirjanovich, Razikov Odil. "Genetic Types Of Rare Mineral Gold Of Western Uzbekistan (Southern Tien-Shan)." American Journal of Applied sciences 02, no. 12 (December 27, 2020): 61–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.37547/tajas/volume02issue12-10.
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The work describes the genetic types and conditions for the localization of mineralization - individual deposits and ore occurrences. Also, the indicated mineralized zones, the conditions of occurrence of the mineralization, the geological-structural position and the peculiarities of the host complexes. Descriptions of promising tungsten, tin ore, polymetallic, mercury and other ore zones, which serve as a reserve in expanding the resource base in the Republic, are given. Tungsten, tin ore, and mercury mineralizations are characterized in somewhat more detail, since the latter in the region under study is often spatially associated with gold and forms mercury-antimony-polymetallic mineralization.
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Proenza, Joaquín A., Lisard Torró, and Carl E. Nelson. "Mineral deposits of Latin America and the Caribbean. Preface." Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana 72, no. 3 (November 28, 2020): A250820. http://dx.doi.org/10.18268/bsgm2020v72n3a250820.
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The region that encompasses Latin America and the Caribbean is a preferential destination for mining and mineral exploration, according to the Mineral Commodity Summaries 2020 of the US Geological Survey (https://www.usgs.gov/centers/nmic/). The region contains important resources of copper, gold, silver, nickel, cobalt, iron, niobium, aluminum, zinc, lead, tin, lithium, chromium, and other metals. For example, Chile is the world’s largest copper producer and the second largest lithium producer. Brazil is the world’s leading niobium producer, the second largest producer of iron ore, and the third-ranked producer of tantalum. Cuba contains some of the largest reserves of nickel and cobalt in the world, associated with lateritic Ni-Co deposits. Mexico is traditionally the largest silver producer and contains the two largest mines in this commodity and, along with Peru, Chile, Bolivia and Argentina, accounts for more than half of the total amount of global silver production. The region also hosts several world-class gold mines (e.g., Pueblo Viejo in the Dominican Republic, Paracotu in Brazil, Veladero in Argentina, and Yanacocha in Peru). Also, Bolivia and Brazil are among the world’s leading producers of tin. The region hosts a variety of deposit types, among which the most outstanding are porphyry copper and epithermal precious metal, bauxite and lateritic nickel, lateritic iron ore from banded iron-formation, iron-oxide-copper-gold (IOCG), sulfide skarn, volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS), Mississippi Valley type (MVT), primary and weathering-related Nb-bearing minerals associated with alkaline–carbonatite complexes, tin–antimony polymetallic veins, and ophiolitic chromite. This special issue on Mineral Deposits of Latin America and the Caribbean in the Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana contains nineteen papers. Contributions describe mineral deposits from Mexico, Panama, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Chile, and Argentina. This volume of papers covers four mineral systems (mafic-ultramafic orthomagmatic mineral systems, porphyry-skarn-epithermal mineral systems, iron oxide copper-gold mineral systems, and surficial mineral systems). This special issue also includes papers on industrial minerals, techniques for ore discovery (predictive modelling of mineral exploration using GIS), regional metallogeny and mining history.
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Proenza, Joaquín A., Lisard Torró, and Carl E. Nelson. "Mineral deposits of Latin America and the Caribbean. Preface." Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana 72, no. 3 (November 28, 2020): P250820. http://dx.doi.org/10.18268/bsgm2020v72n3p250820.
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The region that encompasses Latin America and the Caribbean is a preferential destination for mining and mineral exploration, according to the Mineral Commodity Summaries 2020 of the US Geological Survey (https://www.usgs.gov/centers/nmic/). The region contains important resources of copper, gold, silver, nickel, cobalt, iron, niobium, aluminum, zinc, lead, tin, lithium, chromium, and other metals. For example, Chile is the world’s largest copper producer and the second largest lithium producer. Brazil is the world’s leading niobium producer, the second largest producer of iron ore, and the third-ranked producer of tantalum. Cuba contains some of the largest reserves of nickel and cobalt in the world, associated with lateritic Ni-Co deposits. Mexico is traditionally the largest silver producer and contains the two largest mines in this commodity and, along with Peru, Chile, Bolivia and Argentina, accounts for more than half of the total amount of global silver production. The region also hosts several world-class gold mines (e.g., Pueblo Viejo in the Dominican Republic, Paracotu in Brazil, Veladero in Argentina, and Yanacocha in Peru). Also, Bolivia and Brazil are among the world’s leading producers of tin. The region hosts a variety of deposit types, among which the most outstanding are porphyry copper and epithermal precious metal, bauxite and lateritic nickel, lateritic iron ore from banded iron-formation, iron-oxide-copper-gold (IOCG), sulfide skarn, volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS), Mississippi Valley type (MVT), primary and weathering-related Nb-bearing minerals associated with alkaline–carbonatite complexes, tin–antimony polymetallic veins, and ophiolitic chromite. This special issue on Mineral Deposits of Latin America and the Caribbean in the Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana contains nineteen papers. Contributions describe mineral deposits from Mexico, Panama, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Chile, and Argentina. This volume of papers covers four mineral systems (mafic-ultramafic orthomagmatic mineral systems, porphyry-skarn-epithermal mineral systems, iron oxide copper-gold mineral systems, and surficial mineral systems). This special issue also includes papers on industrial minerals, techniques for ore discovery (predictive modelling of mineral exploration using GIS), regional metallogeny and mining history.
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Bortnikov, N. S., L. Ya Aranovich, S. G. Kryazhev, S. Z. Smirnov, V. G. Gonevchuk, B. I. Semanyak, E. O. Dubinina, N. V. Gorelikova, and E. N. Sokolova. "Badzhal tin magmatic-fluid system (Far east, Russia): the transition from the granite crystallization to the hydrothermal ore deposition." Геология рудных месторождений 61, no. 3 (June 19, 2019): 3–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.31857/s0016-77706133-30.
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With a view to reveal special characteristics of the transition stage from granite crystallization to rare-metal ore deposition it is studied Badzhal tin-bearing magmatic-fluid system of eponymously-named volcano-plutonic zone of the Middle Priamyrie. For that end the detail research of melt, fluid-melt and fluid inclusions and oxygen isotopes from minerals of granitoids from Verkne-Urmi massif from Badzhal volcano-plutonic zone and also minerals of Sn-W deposits Pravo-Urmi and Blizhnee have been carried out. The formation of greisens and hydrothermal veins were caused by the development of the integrated system associating with establishing of Verkne-Urmi granite massif which is one of a dome fold of Badzhal cryptobatholith. For the first time for tin deposits it has been followed up the transition from the magmatic phase of granite crystallization to the hydrothermal ore formation stage and the evolution of magmatic fluid from its separation from magmatic melt to Sn-W ore deposition. The direct evidence of tin-bearing fluid separation under melt crystallization is combined fluid-melt inclusions. Glass composition in inclusions shows that granites and granite-porphyry were crystallizing from acid and from limited to high-aluminous melts, that is value ASI changes from 0.95 to 1.33 and a content of alkalies varies from 6.02 up to 9.02 mass.%. Cl and F concentrations in glasses are according 0.03–0.14 and 0.14–0.44 mass.% and turned out to be higher of same in the total composition of rocks (0.02 and 0.05–0.13 mass.% in accordance). These differences indicate that Cl and F could be separated from granite melt under its crystallization and degasation. H2O content made from total deficiency electron microprobe analysis is 8–11 mass.%. This evaluation was made inclusive of a probable effect of “Na loss” (Nielsen, Sigurdson, 1981) under aqueous glass crystallization. Considering a high error of a such estimation (Devine et al., 1995), it should take to obtained values as a very approximate evaluation and consider that examined melts contained about 9,5–10,0 mass.% of H2O.
The results of melt inclusion examination show that at any rate a part of melt forming magmatic rocks of Badzhal Ore Magmatic System are crystallizing at about T = 650 °C. These melts were acid, limited fluoride and meta- and high aluminous. The reason of low temperatures of its crystallization are likely a high pressure of aqua and also a increased content of F. Most likely that examined inclusions characterize the final stage of establishing of the massif, herewith at the system crystals, residual liquor and magmatic fluid phase coexist.
The fluid from which greisens of Pravo-Urmi deposit formed is similar in properties to the supercritical fluid absorbing by magmatic minerals. The salinity of this fluid varying from ~9 to 12 mass.% equiv. NaCl, maximal T = 550 °C (with consideration for the temperature correction of T gom on a pressure ~1 кbar) are similar to such of magmatic fluid, which permit to connect its origin with pluton cooling. The formation of greisens and quartz-topaz veins of Pravo-Urmi deposit is related to fall of temperature of magmatic fluid from 550–450 up to 480–380 °C. The evolution of fluid deposited quartz-cassiterite veins of Blizhnee deposit, which based upon oxygen isotope composition (d18ОН2О ≈ 8.5‰) also separated from magma, was going at more subsurface conditions under much lesser pressure. That led to the gas separation of a fluid with salinity ~13 mass.% equa. NaCl under T = 420–340 °C on thin low salinity vapour and brine with concentration 33.5–37.4 mass.% equiv. NaCl. The research of oxygen isotope system testifies that oxygen isotope composition of ore-forming fluid controlled by equilibrium with granites at wide interval temperatures (from ~700 °С up to the beginning of greisen crystallization). Correspondence of measured and calculation data of the offered model indicates that the considerable volume of external fluid with other isotope characteristics which did not reach the isotope equilibrium with Verkhne-Urmi massif did not come into the magmatic isotope system. The discovered differences of physico-chemical conditions for two studied deposits are not “critical” and support an idea about their formation as the single magmatic-fluid system.
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Zvereva, Valentina, Anastasiya Lysenko, and Konstantin Frolov. "Modern Minerals Formation Genesis in Kavalerovsky Tin–Ore District Technogenic System (Primorsky Krai)." Minerals 10, no. 2 (January 21, 2020): 91. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/min10020091.
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Parameters and conditions of crystallization for the majority of hypergenic and technogenic minerals have not yet been studied, as their determination is often difficult due to their imperfect crystalline structure (X-ray amorphous) and formation in polymineral compounds. The article discusses the formation conditions of 20 hypergenic and technogenic minerals from technogenic waters in the mining industrial system of the Kavalerovsky district tin–sulfide deposits (Primorsky krai) in Russia. For various ratios of hypogenic minerals–host rocks in ore and in tailings in a wide temperature range (from −25 to 45 °C), the Eh-pH parameters and the minerals paragenesis were established. All hypergenic and technogenic minerals formed during modeling were found and diagnosed in the Kavalerovsky tin–ore district mining industrial technogenic system.
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Бровендер, Ю. М. "To the issue of tin bronzes over the area of the Dnieper-Don region in the late bronze age." ВІСНИК СХІДНОУКРАЇНСЬКОГО НАЦІОНАЛЬНОГО УНІВЕРСИТЕТУ імені Володимира Даля, no. 3(259) (February 18, 2020): 13–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.33216/1998-7927-2020-259-3-13-17.
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The paper is devoted to tin ores as an alloying impurity in the bronze production by the ancient population of the Dnieper-Don region in the Late Bronze Age. The eastern and western supply vectors providing the local population with both ore (cassiterite) and its products are considered. The author draws attention to the assumptions of some researchers not confirmed by geological surveys about the possibility of finding tin deposits in the Donbass and Krivoy Rog basin, which could probably have been developed in the Early Metal Age. An opinion was given regarding the production of bronze from copper ore with a high content of metals - impurities in the mineral phase and separately from polymetallic ore. In ancient times for the development of any mineral, its availability for development, as well as a great volume or high content of useful mineral in ore were indispensable conditions. Due to existing technologies, the requirements for minerals in antiquity were much higher than modern ones.
On the issue of tin raw materials for bronze production of the ancient population of Ukraine, attention is drawn to the assumption, not yet confirmed by geological surveys of some researchers (S.I. Tatarinov, D.P. Kravets, D.P. Nedopako) on the possibility of finding tin deposits in such ore-rich regions of Ukraine as the Donbass and Krivoy Rog.
The experimental work carried out on the basis of ores of the Kartamysh ore occurrence have indeed confirmed the idea of chemical elements redistribution, when some metals decrease and others increase. This trend with reference to the results of spectral analyzes of Bakhmut ores, slags and products of the Donetsk Mining and Metallurgical Center, performed by E.N. Chernykh was noted by S.I. Tatarinov. However, to obtain bronze, a high percentage of bronze-forming impurities is required, including tin in the minerals. However, the copper and polymetallic ores of Donbass do not contain enough tin in the initial ore to produce tin bronze. A series of our experiments yielded just pure copper. Thus, the author reposes on the commune notion, according to which it is not possible to obtain bronze from copper ores of Donbass and bronze without on purpose input of the appropriate elements into the melt.
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Liu, Si Qing, Xiong Tong, Bao Xu Song, and Wan Ping Wang. "Case Study on Beneficiation of Cassiterite-Polymetallic Sulphide Ores." Advanced Materials Research 511 (April 2012): 28–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.511.28.
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Cassiterite-polymetallic sulphide ore contains multi-elements that can be recovered in beneficiation. Case studies on processing two major tin deposits in Gejiu and Dachang regions are reviewed. Results show that the joint process of flotation and gravity separation has proven to be effective in treating the ores for its high efficiency and relatively small environmental impact. Flotation of tin minerals is considered as a supplementary technique for concentrating cassiterite from the slime produced in the joint process. The joint process is still a promising process in treating the cassiterite-polymetallic sulphide ore.
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Khanchuk, A. I., V. V. Ivanov, E. K. Ignatiev, S. V. Kovalenko, and D. V. Semenova. "Alb-Cenomanian granitoid magmatism and copper ore genesis of the Sikhote-Alin." Доклады Академии наук 488, no. 3 (September 26, 2019): 298–302. http://dx.doi.org/10.31857/s0869-56524883298-302.
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Late Albian-early Cenomanin epoch of Au-Cu porphyry mineralization has been distinguished within the Sikhote-Alin. It is associated with the Alb-Cenomanian granitic rocks which emplacement coincided with the processes of orogeny and neoformation of continental lithosphere caused by compressive stress in the setting of transform continental margins of that time. The intrusion of the granitic magma into the crust of Jurassic accretionary wedge terranes and Early Cretaceous terrane of epicontinental turbidite basin provoked development of Au-Mo-Cu and Cu-Au-W ore genesis, respectively. U-Pb dating of zircons from host granites of the Malmuzh Au-Cu deposit yielded Alb-Cenomania age of 100-95 Ma. This age harmonizes with the age data reported by other researchers on the granitic rocks of East and Southeast Asia which are productive for hydrothermal mineral deposits of copper, gold, tin and other metals. Such age consistency suggests that there is Albian-Cenomanian metallogenic megabelt extending throughout the entire East Asian continental margin.
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Ngadenin, Ngadenin, Frederikus Dian Indrastomo, Adhika Junara Karunianto, and Ersina Rakhma. "Geologi dan Identifikasi Cebakan Bijih di Daerah Batubesi, Belitung Timur." EKSPLORIUM 38, no. 1 (June 21, 2017): 7. http://dx.doi.org/10.17146/eksplorium.2017.38.1.3376.
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ABSTRAKWilayah Batubesi di Belitung Timur berada di zona bagian timur dari granit jalur timah Asia Tenggara sehingga diduga merupakan daerah yang sangat potensial bagi terbentuknya cebakan bijih seperti besi dan timah bersama dengan monasit dan mineral asesoris lainnya. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui tataan geologi dan mengidentifikasi keterdapatan cebakan bijih dan mineral ikutan radioaktif di daerah Batubesi. Metodologi dalam penelitian ini adalah pemetaan geologi, pengukuran kadar uranium dan thorium, analisis petrografi, mineragrafi, dan butir. Daerah penelitian tersusun atas satuan granit dan metabatupasir. Granit diidentifikasi sebagai granit biotit dan granit hornblenda. Struktur geologi yang berkembang adalah sesar sinistral berarah barat daya – timur laut dan sesar dekstral berarah tenggara – barat laut. Cebakan bijih yang terbentuk di merupakan cebakan bijih besi primer tipe skarn iron tin polymetallic dengan magnetit sebagai mineral utama dan monasit serta zirkon sebagai mineral ikutan radioaktif . Mineral ikutan lainya adalah hematit, ilmenit, kasiterit, dan rutil. ABSTRACTThe Batubesi area in Belitung Timur is located in the eastern part of the Southeast Asian granites tin belt zone, so that it expected as a potential area for the occurence of ore deposit such as iron and cassiterite associate with monazite and other accessories minerals. The study aimed to understand the geological setting and to determine the occurrence of primary ore deposit and its radioactive accessories minerals. The methodologies in this research are geological mapping, uranium and thorium grade measurement, petrography, mineragraphy and grain counting analysis. The area composed by granite and metasandstone units. Types of granites are biotite and hornblende granites. The geological structures founded in this area are SW-NE sinistral and NW-SE dextral faults. Ore deposit in the area is primary iron ore deposits of skarn iron tin polymetallic type where magnetite is the main mineral while monazite and zircon are radioactive accessories minerals. The other accessories minerals are hematite, ilmenite, cassiterite, and rutile.
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Eugster, Hans P. "Granites and hydrothermal ore deposits: a geochemical framework." Mineralogical Magazine 49, no. 350 (March 1985): 7–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1180/minmag.1985.049.350.02.
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AbstractThe geochemical evolution of tin-tungsten deposits and their associated sulphides can be discussed in terms of four sequential processes: acquisition of the ore-forming elements (OFEs) by the granitic magma, emplacement of these elements in minerals and residual melt of the crystallizing granite, release of the OFEs to the circulating hydrothermal fluids and transport to the depositional sites, and finally, deposition of ore minerals through interaction of these fluids with the wall rock. Based on their crystallographic behaviour, it is useful to distinguish three principal classes of OFEs, here identified as BOC, LHC, and ALC elements. BOC (bivalent octahedral cation) elements are similar to ferrous iron and here are represented mainly by Zn, Mn, and perhaps Cu. Li also belongs to this class, although it is monovalent. LHC (large highly charged cations) elements encompass As, Nb, Mo, Sn, Sb, Ta, and W and they are similar to ferric iron or titanium in their crystallographic role. ALC (alkali-like cations) are capable of occupying alkali positions and are represented mainly by Pb, Ag, and Hg.LHCs are rejected from the polymerized silicate liquid network and become enriched in the roof of the acid magma chamber, where more non-bridging oxygens are available. Transport to the roof may be enhanced by the formation of hydrous complexes, as is the pronounced enrichment of Na and Li. BOCs, along with Cl, F, and B, fractionate strongly into the vapour phase during vesiculation. HCl in the ore fluid is crucial for the alteration process and can be produced during boiling by a hydrolysis reaction of the NaCl dissolved or immiscibly present in the silicate magma.Considerable laboratory information is available concerning release mechanisms of the OFEs to hydrothermal fluids. We can distinguish congruent and incongruent dissolution, both in response to acid buildup, as well as congruent and incongruent exchange not involving HCl. Melt-fluid fractionation is also thought to be important, though the physical mechanisms are not well understood. Any of these release mechanisms may be coupled with reduction or oxidation reactions. LHC, BOC, and ALC elements respond differently to each of these mechanisms, and these differences may in part be responsible for the observed separation of ore minerals in space and time. It is suggested that LHC elements are released preferentially during acid, non-oxidizing conditions typical of early stages, while BOC elements respond more readily to later acid-oxidizing environments, as well as exchange reactions with or without oxidation.Depositional reactions have been formulated with respect to two contrasting types of country rocks: carbonates and schists. Differences are related to the process of neutralization of the HCl produced by ore deposition: carbonate dissolution on one hand and feldspar-muscovite or biotite-muscovite conversion on the other. In carbonate rocks, evaporite-related sulphates may provide the H2S necessary for sulphide precipitation, while in schists disseminated sulphides and organic matter may be important sulphur reservoirs in addition to the sulphur liberated from the granite. A variety of situations can be envisaged with respect to the sources of the OFEs and the sulphur species required for ore deposition, including granite and wall rocks. Chloride is recognized as the crucial anion for OFE release, transport, and deposition, although F and B play a role yet to be evaluated. Final HCl neutralization is an essential step in the reactions responsible for the deposition of ore minerals.The ultimate sources of the OFEs must be related to the continental material involved in the process of melt production by partial melting. Oxidized sediments provide sources for LHC and ALC elements in the form of heavy minerals and clastic feldspars and micas. Organic-rich reduced sediments are hosts to BOC and LHC elements as sulphides and ALC elements in organic matter. Remelting of igneous and metamorphic rocks can enrich LHC, BOC, and ALC elements in the melt by extraction from opaques, Fe-Mg silicates, feldspars, and micas.
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BONDARENKO, S. M., V. O. SYOMKA, S. I. KURYLO, L. M. STEPANYUK, and N. A. DONSKOY. "Tin Mineralization in the Lithium Deposits of the Shpola-Tashlyk Ore District of Ukrainian Shield." Mineralogical Journal 41, no. 3 (2019): 3–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.15407/mineraljournal.41.03.003.
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Pavlova, G. G., A. G. Vladimirov, V. I. Gvozdev, P. G. Korostelev, B. I. Semenyak, V. G. Gonevchuk, and P. A. Tishin. "In-bearing potential of tin‒sulfide mineralization in ore deposits of the Russian Far East." Doklady Earth Sciences 471, no. 1 (November 2016): 1118–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1134/s1028334x16110088.
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Petrochenkov, D. A. "COLLECTION AND JEWELLERY CASSITERITES OF THE IULTIN DEPOSIT." Proceedings of higher educational establishments. Geology and Exploration, no. 1 (April 22, 2018): 76–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.32454/0016-7762-2018-1-76-80.
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The large crystals of the collection and jewellery quality (including the crystals unique by size) have been found at the Iultin deposit (Eastern Chukotka). The jewellery ones are connected with veined morphological type of the ore bodies and located in the mineralized cavities and muscovite fringes. A black colour of cassiterite is conditioned by large number of the zones of the growth which absorb passing light. Significant by volume colourless and different-coloured fragments can be found in crystals. They can be used for faceting of high quality. The cassiterite of collection and jewellery quality is an important factor of profitability's raising in exploitation of tin deposits.
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Abramov, B. "FORMATION FEATURES OF ORE-MAGMATIC SYSTEMS OF SHERLOVOGORSKY AND KHAPCHERANGINSKY TIN-POLYMETALLIC DEPOSITS OF EASTERN TRANSBAIKALIA." Transbaikal State University Journal 26, no. 6 (2020): 6–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.21209/2227-9245-2020-26-6-6-13.
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Mao, Wei, Hong Zhong, Jiehua Yang, Yanwen Tang, Liang Liu, Yazhou Fu, Xingchun Zhang, et al. "Combined Zircon, Molybdenite, and Cassiterite Geochronology and Cassiterite Geochemistry of the Kuntabin Tin-Tungsten Deposit in Myanmar." Economic Geology 115, no. 3 (May 1, 2020): 603–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.5382/econgeo.4713.
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Abstract The Kuntabin Sn-W deposit, located in southern Myanmar, is characterized by abundant greisen-type and quartz vein-type cassiterite and wolframite mineralization. We have conducted multiple geochronological methods and isotope and trace element analyses to reveal the age and evolution of the Kuntabin magmatichydrothermal system. Zircon U-Pb dating of the two-mica granite yielded a weighted mean 206Pb/238U age of 90.1 ± 0.7 Ma. Cassiterite U-Pb dating provided a lower intercept age of 88.1 ± 1.9 Ma in the Tera-Wasserburg U-Pb concordia diagram. Molybdenite Re-Os dating returned a weighted mean model age of 87.7 ± 0.5 Ma and an isochron age of 88.7 ± 2.7 Ma. These ages indicate a genetic relationship between granite and Sn-W mineralization in the Kuntabin deposit and record the earliest magmatism and Sn-W mineralization in the Sibumasu and Tengchong terranes related to subduction of the Neo-Tethys oceanic slab. Three generations of cassiterite have been identified with distinctive cathodoluminescence textures and trace element patterns, indicating the episodic input of ore-forming fluids and distinctive changes in the physical-chemical conditions of the Kuntabin magmatichydrothermal system. Sudden changes of fluid pressure, temperature, pH, etc., may have facilitated the deposition of Sn and W. Rhenium contents of molybdenite from the Kuntabin deposit and many other Sn-W deposits in Myanmar are characteristically low compared to porphyry Cu-Mo-(Au) deposits worldwide. In combination with zircon Hf isotope signatures, we infer that granites associated with Sn-W deposits in Myanmar were predominantly derived by melting of ancient continental crust and contain minimal mantle contribution. Subduction of the Neo-Tethys oceanic slab from west of the West Burma terrane reached beneath the Sibumasu terrane and led to magmatism and Sn-W mineralization at ~90 Ma when the Kuntabin deposit was formed. The Paleoproterozoic Sibumasu crust was activated during the subduction-related magmatism to form predominantly crust derived melts. After a high degree of fractional crystallization and fluid exsolution, physical-chemical changes of the hydrothermal fluid resulted in Sn and W precipitation to form the Kuntabin Sn-W deposit.
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Graupner, T., U. Kempe, E. Dombon, O. Pätzold, O. Leeder, and E. T. C. Spooner. "Fluid regime and ore formation in the tungsten(–yttrium) deposits of Kyzyltau (Mongolian Altai): evidence for fluid variability in tungsten–tin ore systems." Chemical Geology 154, no. 1-4 (February 1999): 21–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0009-2541(98)00123-5.
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Damian, Buzatu, Apopei, Szakács, Denuț, Iepure, and Bârgăoanu. "Valentinite and Colloform Sphalerite in Epithermal Deposits from Baia Mare Area, Eastern Carpathians." Minerals 10, no. 2 (January 30, 2020): 121. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/min10020121.
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Valentinite forms through the alteration of stibnite in sulphide deposits. Colloform sphalerite is a widespread mineral in low-temperature deposits, particularly those of the Mississippi-Valley type. We identified valentinite and colloform sphalerite in hydrothermal deposits occurring in the Baia Mare area. The Baia Mare metallogenic district of Neogene age occurs in the northwestern part of the Neogene volcanic chain within the Eastern Carpathians. The Neogene volcanism from Baia Mare area is related to the subduction processes of the East European plate under two microplates, Alcapa and Tisza-Dacia/Tisia, in the post-collisional compressive phase. We have identified valentinite in the Dealul Crucii and Baia Sprie deposits, associated with other epithermal minerals, in the absence of the stibnite. Valentinite is deposited in the final phase of the epithermal process after calcite and manganese-bearing calcite. Micro-Raman and microprobe determinations indicate the presence of valentinite. The formula of valentinite is close to stoichiometric Me2O3 and contains small amounts of tin as an antimony substituent. Colloform sphalerite was identified in the Baia Sprie ore deposit associated with minerals formed in the final epithermal phase. It was deposited on idiomorphic crystals of stibnite, which it corrodes. Its structure and an alternate banding, exhibited on the nano-/microscale, were identified by optical microscopy, SEM (scanning electron microscopy), and BSE (backscattered electron microscopy) imaging. These structures are typical for colloform sphalerite and suggest a genesis due to episodic precipitation. The spherical nano/micro-particles (nodules) are characteristic of the colloform sphalerite from Baia Sprie. Raman analysis indicates the presence of a colloform sphalerite with low iron content. The typical diffraction lines for sphalerite were identified in X-ray diffraction: 3.118 Å (111), 1.907 Å (220), 1.627 Å (311). Microprobe analysis certifies the presence of sphalerite with the stoichiometric formula close to ZnS. Iron content is low (0%–0.0613%), but Sb (0.7726%–2.6813%), Pb (0.56%–1.1718%), Bi (0%–0.1227%) are also present. The negative correlation between Zn and Sb suggests the simultaneous deposition from the same epithermal fluids. Valentinite and colloform sphalerite were formed at low temperatures (100–150 °C) at the end of the epithermal process.
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Zhao, He-Dong, Kui-Dong Zhao, Martin R. Palmer, Shao-Yong Jiang, and Wei Chen. "Magmatic-Hydrothermal Mineralization Processes at the Yidong Tin Deposit, South China: Insights from In Situ Chemical and Boron Isotope Changes of Tourmaline." Economic Geology 116, no. 7 (November 1, 2021): 1625–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.5382/econgeo.4868.
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Abstract Owing to the superimposition of water-rock interaction and external fluids, magmatic source signatures of ore-forming fluids for vein-type tin deposits are commonly overprinted. Hence, there is uncertainty regarding the involvement of magmatic fluids in mineralization processes within these deposits. Tourmaline is a common gangue mineral in Sn deposits and can crystallize from both the magmas and the hydrothermal fluids. We have therefore undertaken an in situ major, trace element, and B isotope study of tourmaline from the Yidong Sn deposit in South China to study the transition from late magmatic to hydrothermal mineralization. Six tourmaline types were identified: (1) early tourmaline (Tur-OE) and (2) late tourmaline (Tur-OL) in tourmaline-quartz orbicules from the Pingying granite, (3) early tourmaline (Tur-DE) and (4) late tourmaline (Tur-DL) in tourmaline-quartz dikelets in the granite, and (5 and 6) core (Tur-OC) and rim (Tur-OR), respectively of hydrothermal tourmaline from the Sn ores. Most of the tourmaline types belong to the alkali group and the schorl-dravite solid-solution series, but the different generations of magmatic and hydrothermal tourmaline are geochemically distinct. Key differences include the hundredfold enrichment of Sn in hydrothermal tourmaline compared to magmatic tourmaline, which indicates that hydrothermal fluids exsolving from the magma were highly enriched in Sn. Tourmaline from the Sn ores is enriched in Fe3+ compared to the hydrothermal tourmaline from the granite and displays trends of decreasing Al and increasing Fe content from core to rim, relating to the exchange vector Fe3+Al–1. This reflects oxidation of fluids during the interaction between hydrothermal fluids and the mafic-ultramafic wall rocks, which led to precipitation of cassiterite. The hydrothermal tourmaline has slightly higher δ11B values than the magmatic tourmaline (which reflects the metasedimentary source for the granite), but overall, the tourmaline from the ores has δ11B values similar to those from the granite, implying a magmatic origin for the ore-forming fluids. We identify five stages in the magmatic-hydrothermal evolution of the system that led to formation of the Sn ores in the Yidong deposit based on chemical and boron isotope changes of tourmaline: (1) emplacement of a B-rich, S-type granitic magma, (2) separation of an immiscible B-rich melt, (3) exsolution of an Sn-rich, reduced hydrothermal fluid, (4) migration of fluid into the country rocks, and (5) acid-consuming reactions with the surrounding mafic-ultramafic rocks and oxidation of the fluid, leading to cassiterite precipitation.
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Yang, Shuran, Tomas Danek, Xianfeng Cheng, and Qianrui Huang. "Risk Assessment of Heavy Metal Pollution in Soils of Gejiu Tin Ore and Other Metal Deposits of Yunnan Province." IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 95 (December 2017): 042078. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/95/4/042078.
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Petrishchevsky, A. M., and Yu P. Yushmanov. "Density contrast, deep structure, rheology and metallogeny of the crust and upper mantle of the Verkhoyano-Kolymsky region." LITHOSPHERE (Russia) 21, no. 4 (August 28, 2021): 491–516. http://dx.doi.org/10.24930/1681-9004-2021-21-4-491-516.
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Research subject. The Verkhoyano-Kolymsky areal of ore mineralization in the Far East of Russia.Data and methods. We used the state metallogenic map of Russia, Sc. 1: 2 500 000 (2000) and the gravity map of Russia Sc. 1: 2 500 000 (2001). Modeling was conducted by studying the deep structure of the earth’s crust and upper mantle from the anomalies of the density contrast of geological media in the intervals between the centers of density inhomogeneities and the surfaces of equivalent spheres.Results. 3D-distributions of density contrast (µz-parameter) in the crust and upper mantle of the Verkhoyano-Kolymsky region related to the rheological properties of geological media were analyzed. In the gravity models designed without attraction of external information, the structures of thrust, splitting, stretching, as well as the structures of central type (CTS) of the plume nature, were identified. In the regional stretching zone, at the border of lithospheric segments, the revealed Indigiro-Kolymsky and Verkhoyansk CTSs were described in 3D space. These structures are characterized by a mushroom-like upwelling of the asthenosphere, associated with heat flow anomalies. The identified structures differ in terms of asthenosphere depth, age and ore mineralization. The location of ore clusters and regions in the zones of CTS obeys concentric ore-magmatic zoning, typical for this type of structures. The central (trunk-like) zone of Indigiro-Kolymsky CTS features mainly high-temperature gold-quarts mineralization. On the periphery, along with gold areas, there are tin-tungsten, tin and complex ore mineralization areas. The majority of gold fields with low-temperature gold-sulfide, tin and polymetallic mineralization are attributed to the flanks of Indigiro-Kolymsky CTS. In the Verkhoyanska CTS, the majority of ore regions are characterized by multi-formation ore mineralization. In the central part of this structure, areas with mainly low-temperature tin, mercury-antimony and gold-silver ore mineralization are located. On the flanks, gold mineralization is either absent or subsidiary.Conclusions. As a result of a simple procedure, implying generalization of multiple decisions of the elementary inverse problem of gravity potential, main features of the deep structure of the Verkhyano-Kolima region were defined. In the regional stretch zone, at the boundary of lithospheric segments, the Indigiro-Kolimskaya and Verkhoyanskaya CTSs of the plume nature that control the location of ore deposits were identified and described in 3D space.
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Liu, Xiangchong, Wenlei Wang, and Dehui Zhang. "The Mechanisms Forming the Five–Floor Zonation of Quartz Veins: A Case Study in the Piaotang Tungsten–Tin Deposit, Southern China." Minerals 11, no. 8 (August 16, 2021): 883. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/min11080883.
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It is common among many vein–type tungsten deposits in southern China that the thickness of ore veins increases from <1 cm to >1 m with increasing depth. A five–floor zonation model for the vertical trend of vein morphology was proposed in the 1960s and has been widely applied for predicting ore bodies at deeper levels, but the causative mechanisms for such a zonation remain poorly understood. The Piaotang tungsten–tin deposit, one of the birthplaces of the five–floor zonation model, is chosen as a case study for deciphering the mechanisms forming its morphological zonation of quartz veins. The vertical trend of vein morphology and its link to the W–Sn mineralization in Piaotang was quantified by statistical distributions (Weibull distribution and power law distribution) of vein thickness and ore grade data (WO3 and Sn) from the levels of 676 m to 328 m. Then, the micro–scale growth history of quartz veins was reconstructed by scanning electron microscope–cathodoluminescence (SEM–CL) imaging and in situ trace element analysis. The Weibull modulus α of vein thickness increases with increasing depth, and the fractal dimensions of both vein thickness and ore grade data (WO3 and Sn) decrease with increasing depth. Their vertical changes indicate that the fractures that bear the thick veins were well connected, facilitating fluid focusing and mineralization in mechanically stronger host rocks. Three generations (Q1–Q3) of quartz were identified from CL images, and the CL intensity of quartz is possibly controlled by the concentrations of Al and temperature. From the relative abundance of the Q1–Q3 quartz at different levels, the vertical trend of vein morphology in Piaotang was initially produced during the hydrothermal event represented by Q1 and altered by later hydrothermal events represented by Q2 and Q3. Statistical distributions of vein thickness combined with SEM–CL imaging of quartz could be combined to evaluate the mineralization potential at deeper levels.
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DENG, Ming-guo, Wen-chang LI, Bo LI, Li-hui LI, Shun-de JIANG, Guang-xu XIONG, Xue-shu ZHANG, and Hai-jun YU. "Application of Log Kriging on Estimated Reserves of the 10-9 Ore Body of Lutangba in the Gejiu Tin Deposits." Journal of China University of Mining and Technology 17, no. 2 (June 2007): 286–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s1006-1266(07)60090-x.
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Chi, Guoxiang, Jayanta Guha, and Huan-Zhang Lu. "Separation mechanism in the formation of proximal and distal tin polymetallic deposits, Xinlu ore field, southern China; evidence from fluid inclusion data." Economic Geology 88, no. 4 (July 1, 1993): 916–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.88.4.916.
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Jiang, Zhuwei, Nicholas H. S. Oliver, Terence D. Barr, William L. Power, and Alison Ord. "Numerical modeling of fault-controlled fluid flow in the genesis of tin deposits of the Malage ore field, Gejiu mining district, China." Economic Geology 92, no. 2 (April 1, 1997): 228–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.92.2.228.
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Lu, Lei, Chunxue Liu, Gang Chen, and Liang Guo. "Numerical estimation of fracture network permeability based on GEOFRAC model for groundwater modeling in a tin mine." Journal of Water and Climate Change 10, no. 2 (August 30, 2018): 243–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wcc.2018.283.
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Abstract Numerous geological research studies and mining operations have proved that fracture is one of the important factors controlling groundwater flow, mineralization, and ore distribution in metallic deposits. Most current approaches to groundwater flow simulation of naturally fractured media rely on the calculation of equivalent permeability tensors from a discrete fracture network (DFN). This study is aimed at developing a rational two-dimensional DFN by GEOFRAC, a geostatistical method of fracture direction and locations of sample data from a tin mine in the Gaosong area, Gejiu city, southwest China, and utilizing 3,724 outcrop fractures sampled on the ground of mountain Gaosong. Principal inputs of the DFN are density, direction, and continuity of disks that constitute a fracture plane. Fractures simulated by GEOFRAC were validated in that their directions corresponded well with those of the sample fractures. The permeability tensor of each modeling grid was then calculated based on the fracture network constructed. The results showed that GEOFRAC is valuable for two-dimensional DFN modeling in mines and other fracture-controlled geological phenomena, such as groundwater flow and slope failure.
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Pratama, Wahyu Vian, and Nomensen Ricardo Marbun. "INVESTIGASI SEDIMEN BAWAH LAUT MENGGUNAKAN SURVEY SEISMIK REFLEKSI DANGKAL: STUDI PENGEMBANGAN LAPANGAN ENDAPAN TIMAH PLASER." Prosiding Temu Profesi Tahunan PERHAPI 1, no. 1 (March 29, 2020): 305–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.36986/ptptp.v1i1.74.
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ABSTRAK Sejak 200 tahun yang lalu timah plaser telah dieksplorasi dan diproduksi di Indonesia. Studi pengembangan lapangan pada endapan timah plaser perlu dilakukan untuk mengetahui apakah masih ada potensi keterdapatan bijih timah pada lapangan-lapangan yang sudah berproduksi. Adanya lubang bor eksplorasi yang tidak menyentuh kong dan proses penambangan yang tidak mencapai batas bawah kaksa semakin memperkuat alasan studi ini dilakukan. Daerah penelitian berada di Perairan Tempilang, Bangka Barat, Provinsi Kepulauan Bangka-Belitung. Data yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini berupa 34 lintasan seismik 2D refleksi dangkal dan 9 lubang bor. Lintasan seismik dan data lubang bor diolah, dianalisis serta diinterpretasi menggunakan perangkat lunak, yang menghasilkan Sekuen A, Sekuen B, dan Sekuen C. Sekuen C diinterpretasikan sebagai geometri lembah purba yang terendapkan secara tidak selaras di atas kong, Sekuen B merupakan endapan sedimen yang terendapkan pada lingkungan transisi, dan Sekuen A menggambarkan batimetri dan kondisi dasar laut terkini. Mineral kasiterit (mineral pembawa bijih timah) terakumulasi pada Sekuen C dengan karakteristik material berupa kerikil, pasir kasar hingga pasir halus. Berdasarkan data lubang bor, urutan pengendapan sedimen secara vertikal menunjukkan karakter menghalus ke atas sebagai indikasi pendalaman lingkungan pengendapan. Berdasarkan hasil interpretasi seismik dan data lubang bor diketahui bahwa terdapat lembah berupa alur sungai purba pada bagian timur Blok B di daerah penelitian yang diduga masih berpotensi menghasilkan bijih timah dan belum diproduksi sampai saat ini. Alur sungai tersebut memiliki orientasi relatif baratdaya-timurlaut yang merupakan kemenerusan percabangan sungai purba utama. Ketebalan sedimen plaser di Perairan Tempilang yang berpotensi menghasilkan bijih timah berkisar antara 5-20 milidetik. Kata Kunci: timah, plaser, seismik, tempilang dan sungai purba. ABSTRACT Since 200 years ago tin placer had been explored and produced in Indonesia. The field development studies on tin placer deposits need to be carried out to determine whether the area still have potential or not. The two reasons why this study conducted are the existence of some exploration drill hole that does not reach basement (kong) and the mining process that does not reach the bottom limit of ore (kaksa). The research area is located in Tempilang Waters, West Bangka, Bangka Islands. Data that used in this study are 34 two dimension (2D) shallow reflection seismic and 9 drill holes. Seismic lines and drill hole data were processed geophisically, analyzed and interpreted geologically. Those produce three main horizons consisting of Sequence A, Sequence B, and Sequence C. Sequence C is interpreted as ancient valley geometry, Sequence B is the sediment layer that deposited in transitional zone and Sequence A describes as bathymetry. Cassiterite mineral (tin-bearing mineral) are accumulated at Sequence C with ore characteristics consist of gravel, coarse to fine sand sediment. Furthermore, from the bore hole data it can be seen that vertical succession shows deepening upward and fining upward. Based on seismic interpretation and borehole data it has been known that there are valley in the form of ancient channel path which are potentially contain tin ore and have not been produced untill now. The channel orientation has relatively northeast-southwest which is the continuity of branching of main ancient channel. Finally, the thickness of the potentially tin placer sediment in the Tempilang Waters ranges from 5-10 milliseconds. Keywords: tin, placer, seismic, tempilang, and ancient channelABSTRAK Sejak 200 tahun yang lalu timah plaser telah dieksplorasi dan diproduksi di Indonesia. Studi pengembangan lapangan pada endapan timah plaser perlu dilakukan untuk mengetahui apakah masih ada potensi keterdapatan bijih timah pada lapangan-lapangan yang sudah berproduksi. Adanya lubang bor eksplorasi yang tidak menyentuh kong dan proses penambangan yang tidak mencapai batas bawah kaksa semakin memperkuat alasan studi ini dilakukan. Daerah penelitian berada di Perairan Tempilang, Bangka Barat, Provinsi Kepulauan Bangka-Belitung. Data yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini berupa 34 lintasan seismik 2D refleksi dangkal dan 9 lubang bor.Lintasan seismik dan data lubang bor diolah, dianalisis serta diinterpretasi menggunakan perangkat lunak, yang menghasilkan Sekuen A, Sekuen B, dan Sekuen C. Sekuen C diinterpretasikan sebagai geometri lembah purba yang terendapkan secara tidak selaras di atas kong, Sekuen B merupakan endapan sedimen yang terendapkan pada lingkungan transisi, dan Sekuen A menggambarkan batimetri dan kondisi dasar laut terkini. Mineral kasiterit (mineral pembawa bijih timah) terakumulasi pada Sekuen C dengan karakteristik material berupa kerikil, pasir kasar hingga pasir halus. Berdasarkan data lubang bor, urutan pengendapan sedimen secara vertikal menunjukkan karakter menghalus ke atas sebagai indikasi pendalaman lingkungan pengendapan.Berdasarkan hasil interpretasi seismik dan data lubang bor diketahui bahwa terdapat lembah berupa alur sungai purba pada bagian timur Blok B di daerah penelitian yang diduga masih berpotensi menghasilkan bijih timah dan belum diproduksi sampai saat ini. Alur sungai tersebut memiliki orientasi relatif baratdaya-timurlaut yang merupakan kemenerusan percabangan sungai purba utama. Ketebalan sedimen plaser di Perairan Tempilang yang berpotensi menghasilkan bijih timah berkisar antara 5-20 milidetik. Kata Kunci: timah, plaser, seismik, tempilang dan sungai purba. ABSTRACT Since 200 years ago tin placer had been explored and produced in Indonesia. The field development studies on tin placer deposits need to be carried out to determine whether the area still have potential or not. The two reasons why this study conducted are the existence of some exploration drill hole that does not reach basement (kong) and the mining process that does not reach the bottom limit of ore (kaksa). The research area is located in Tempilang Waters, West Bangka, Bangka Islands. Data that used in this study are 34 two dimension (2D) shallow reflection seismic and 9 drill holes.Seismic lines and drill hole data were processed geophisically, analyzed and interpreted geologically. Those produce three main horizons consisting of Sequence A, Sequence B, and Sequence C. Sequence C is interpreted as ancient valley geometry, Sequence B is the sediment layer that deposited in transitional zone and Sequence A describes as bathymetry. Cassiterite mineral(tin-bearing mineral)are accumulated at Sequence C with ore characteristics consist of gravel, coarse to fine sand sediment. Furthermore, from the bore hole data it can be seen that vertical succession shows deepening upward and fining upward. Based on seismic interpretation and borehole data it has been known that there are valley in the form of ancient channel path which are potentially contain tin ore and have not been produced untill now. The channel orientation has relatively northeast-southwest which is the continuity of branching of main ancient channel. Finally, the thickness of the potentially tin placer sediment in the Tempilang Waters ranges from 5-10 milliseconds. Keywords: tin, placer, seismic, tempilang, and ancient channel
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Robb, L. J., L. A. Freeman, and R. A. Armstrong. "Nature and longevity of hydrothermal fluid flow and mineralisation in granites of the Bushveld Complex, South Africa." Earth and Environmental Science Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 91, no. 1-2 (2000): 269–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0263593300007434.
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The Lebowa Granite Suite of the Bushveld Complex is a large, 2054 Ma old, A-type batholith, characterised by numerous relatively small magmato-hydrothermal, polymetallic ore deposits. The mineralisation is represented by a three-stage paragenetic sequence: early magmatic Sn-W-Mo-F ores (600°C > T > 400°C), followed by a Cu-Pb-Zn-As-Ag-Au paragenesis (400°C > T > 200°C) and then late-stage Fe-F-U mineralisation (< 200°C). The first stage of mineralisation (typified by the endogranitic Zaaiplaats tin deposit) is related to incompatible trace element concentration during crystal fractionation and subsequent fluid saturation of the magma. Evolution of the late magmatic fluids as they were channelled along fractures, as well as mingling with externally derived connate or meteoric fluids, resulted in the deposition of the second stage of mineralisation (typified by the fracture-related, endogranitic Spoedwel and Albert deposits and the exogranitic, sediment-hosted Rooiberg mine) which is dominated by polymetallic sulphide ores. As the externally derived fluid component became progressively more dominant, oxidation of the polymetallic sulphide assemblage and precipitation of hematite, pitchblende and fluorite occurred generally along the same fracture systems that hosted the earlier sulphide paragenesis.Small hydrothermal zircons trapped along quartz growth zones from the Spoedwel deposit yield a U-Pb concordia age of 1957 ± 15 Ma. Whole-rock Rb-Sr age determinations from the Lebowa Granite Suite fall in the range 1790 ± 114 Ma to 1604 ± 70 Ma and are interpreted to reflect alkali element mobility and isotopic resetting during exhumation of the Bushveld granite. In contrast to thermal modelling which indicates that hydrothermal activity should have ceased within 4 my of emplacement, isotopic evidence suggests that mineralisation was long-lived, but episodic, and that fluid flow events were linked to major periods of Palaeo- and Mesoproterozoic orogenic activity along the margins of the Kaapvaal Craton. During these orogenic episodes, fluid flow was enhanced by tectonically induced fluid over-pressuring and/or exhumation of the Bushveld Complex.
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Rayhana, Elda, and Azwar Manaf. "Perolehan Tio2 Dari Iron Ore Mengandung Titanium Melalui Proses Reduksi Karbon Dan Pelarutan Asam." INDONESIAN JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYSICS 2, no. 02 (May 22, 2016): 37. http://dx.doi.org/10.13057/ijap.v2i02.1288.
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<span>REDUCTION AND LEACHING PROCESSES<span><strong>. </strong><span>Indonesia has a large source of iron ore <span>which is quite tempting for the purposes of exploitation in form of raw materials as well as <span>for the production of pig iron. However, not all sources of iron ore are proved useful since <span>not only because the present of deposit is scattere dinamounts of less significant but also <span>because it contains element of tin oxide compounds with iron like ilmenite or FeTiO<span>3<span>. <span>However,ilmenite can actually be used as a source of titanium metal which is much more <span>valuable than Fe it self. In order to recover the Ti from their respective compound it is <span>required the release of strong bonds between the atoms in the compound. This paper reports <span>the recovery of Ti oxide of ilmenite containing iron ore which was obtained through a <span>combination of carbon reduction and acid leaching processes. Carbon reduction of iron ore <span>was carried out through mechanical milling between iron ore and carbon with a ratio of 1:1. <span>This was successively followed by a sintering at a temperature of 1000 <span>o<span>C employing a <span>heating rate of 10 ° C/min for 0-3 hours. The reduction process has resulted in the <span>formation of 27.83wt% TiO2. In order to improve the recovery level of TiO<span>2<span>, further <span>reduction process was conducted through an HCl leaching. This successive stage produced <span>fine powders in the form of deposits. Based on our quantitative analysis, the recovery of <span>TiO<span>2 <span>increased to a level of 73.73%.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br /></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
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Harlaux, Matthieu, Kalin Kouzmanov, Stefano Gialli, Oscar Laurent, Andrea Rielli, Andrea Dini, Alain Chauvet, Andrew Menzies, Miroslav Kalinaj, and Lluís Fontboté. "Tourmaline as a Tracer of Late-Magmatic to Hydrothermal Fluid Evolution: The World-Class San Rafael Tin (-Copper) Deposit, Peru." Economic Geology 115, no. 8 (August 18, 2020): 1665–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.5382/econgeo.4762.
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Abstract The world-class San Rafael tin (-copper) deposit (central Andean tin belt, southeast Peru) is an exceptionally large and rich (>1 million metric tons Sn; grades typically >2% Sn) cassiterite-bearing hydrothermal vein system hosted by a late Oligocene (ca. 24 Ma) peraluminous K-feldspar-megacrystic granitic complex and surrounding Ordovician shales affected by deformation and low-grade metamorphism. The mineralization consists of NW-trending, quartz-cassiterite-sulfide veins and fault-controlled breccia bodies (>1.4 km in vertical and horizontal extension). They show volumetrically important tourmaline alteration that principally formed prior to the main ore stage, similar to other granite-related Sn deposits worldwide. We present here a detailed textural and geochemical study of tourmaline, aiming to trace fluid evolution of the San Rafael magmatic-hydrothermal system that led to the deposition of tin mineralization. Based on previous works and new petrographic observations, three main generations of tourmaline of both magmatic and hydrothermal origin were distinguished and were analyzed in situ for their major, minor, and trace element composition by electron microprobe analyzer and laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry, as well as for their bulk Sr, Nd, and Pb isotope compositions by multicollector-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry. A first late-magmatic tourmaline generation (Tur 1) occurs in peraluminous granitic rocks as nodules and disseminations, which do not show evidence of alteration. This early Tur 1 is texturally and compositionally homogeneous; it has a dravitic composition, with Fe/(Fe + Mg) = 0.36 to 0.52, close to the schorl-dravite limit, and relatively high contents (10s to 100s ppm) of Li, K, Mn, light rare earth elements, and Zn. The second generation (Tur 2)—the most important volumetrically—is pre-ore, high-temperature (>500°C), hydrothermal tourmaline occurring as phenocryst replacement (Tur 2a) and open-space fillings in veins and breccias (Tur 2b) and microbreccias (Tur 2c) emplaced in the host granites and shales. Pre-ore Tur 2 typically shows oscillatory zoning, possibly reflecting rapid changes in the hydrothermal system, and has a large compositional range that spans the schorl to dravite fields, with Fe/(Fe + Mg) = 0.02 to 0.83. Trace element contents of Tur 2 are similar to those of Tur 1. Compositional variations within Tur 2 may be explained by the different degree of interaction of the magmatic-hydrothermal fluid with the host rocks (granites and shales), in part because of the effect of replacement versus open-space filling. The third generation is syn-ore hydrothermal tourmaline (Tur 3). It forms microscopic veinlets and overgrowths, partly cutting previous tourmaline generations, and is locally intergrown with cassiterite, chlorite, quartz, and minor pyrrhotite and arsenopyrite from the main ore assemblage. Syn-ore Tur 3 has schorl-foititic compositions, with Fe/(Fe + Mg) = 0.48 to 0.94, that partly differ from those of late-magmatic Tur 1 and pre-ore hydrothermal Tur 2. Relative to Tur 1 and Tur 2, syn-ore Tur 3 has higher contents of Sr and heavy rare earth elements (10s to 100s ppm) and unusually high contents of Sn (up to >1,000 ppm). Existence of these three main tourmaline generations, each having specific textural and compositional characteristics, reflects a boron-rich protracted magmatic-hydrothermal system with repeated episodes of hydrofracturing and fluid-assisted reopening, generating veins and breccias. Most trace elements in the San Rafael tourmaline do not correlate with Fe/(Fe + Mg) ratios, suggesting that their incorporation was likely controlled by the melt/fluid composition and local fluid-rock interactions. The initial radiogenic Sr and Nd isotope compositions of the three aforementioned tourmaline generations (0.7160–0.7276 for 87Sr/86Sr(i) and 0.5119–0.5124 for 143Nd/144Nd(i)) mostly overlap those of the San Rafael granites (87Sr/86Sr(i) = 0.7131–0.7202 and 143Nd/144Nd(i) = 0.5121–0.5122) and support a dominantly magmatic origin of the hydrothermal fluids. These compositions also overlap the initial Nd isotope values of Bolivian tin porphyries. The initial Pb isotope compositions of tourmaline show larger variations, with 206Pb/204Pb(i), 207Pb/204Pb(i), and 208Pb/204Pb(i) ratios mostly falling in the range of 18.6 to 19.3, 15.6 to 16.0, and 38.6 to 39.7, respectively. These compositions partly overlap the initial Pb isotope values of the San Rafael granites (206Pb/204Pb(i) = 18.6–18.8, 207Pb/204Pb(i) = 15.6–15.7, and 208Pb/204Pb(i) = 38.9–39.0) and are also similar to those of other Oligocene to Miocene Sn-W ± Cu-Zn-Pb-Ag deposits in southeast Peru. Rare earth element patterns of tourmaline are characterized, from Tur 1 to Tur 3, by decreasing (Eu/Eu*)N ratios (from 20 to 2) that correlate with increasing Sn contents (from 10s to >1,000 ppm). These variations are interpreted to reflect evolution of the hydrothermal system from reducing toward relatively more oxidizing conditions, still in a low-sulfidation environment, as indicated by the pyrrhotite-arsenopyrite assemblage. The changing textural and compositional features of Tur 1 to Tur 3 reflect the evolution of the San Rafael magmatic-hydrothermal system and support the model of fluid mixing between reduced, Sn-rich magmatic fluids and cooler, oxidizing meteoric waters as the main process that caused cassiterite precipitation.
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Mi, Kui‐Feng, Zhi‐Cheng Lü, Ting‐Jie Yan, Xiao‐Feng Yao, Yi‐Xing Ma, and Cheng‐Gui Lin. "Zircon geochronological and geochemical study of the Baogaigou Tin deposits, southern Great Xing'an Range, Northeast China: Implications for the timing of mineralization and ore genesis." Geological Journal 55, no. 7 (December 20, 2019): 5062–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/gj.3729.
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Gale, Noel. "Archaeology, science-based archaeology and the Mediterranean Bronze Age metals trade: a contribution to the debate." European Journal of Archaeology 4, no. 1 (2001): 113–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/eja.2001.4.1.113.
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The current consensus is outlined about the application of lead isotope analyses to metal provenance studies and to the unravelling of the Mediterranean Bronze Age copper trade, with special reference to copper oxhide ingots. Various misconceptions, especially some of those contained in Knapp (1999, 2000), are corrected. It is shown that there is no need to fall back on hypotheses based upon the Mediterranean-wide mixing/recycling of copper metals to explain the lead isotope characteristics of post-1250 BC copper oxhide ingots, since there is a good isotopic coincidence between these ingots and the Apliki region ore deposits in Cyprus. Weaknesses are exposed in the hypotheses of direct or indirect pooling of Cypriot ores, and of the proposed widespread recycling of metals in a Mediterranean-widekoine, particularly since there is no evidence for a homogeneity of lead isotope composition in artefacts and no tin in the oxhide ingots.
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Figueiredo, Vila, Fiúza, Góis, Futuro, Dinis, and Martins. "A Holistic Approach in Re-Mining Old Tailings Deposits for the Supply of Critical-Metals: A Portuguese Case Study." Minerals 9, no. 10 (October 17, 2019): 638. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/min9100638.
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Demand growth for metallic minerals has been faced with the need for new techniques and improving technologies for all mining life-cycle operations. Nowadays, the exploitation of old tailings and mine-waste facilities could be a solution to this demand, with economic and environmental advantages. The Panasqueira Mine has been operating for more than a century, extracting tungsten and tin ore. Its first processing plant, “Rio”, was located near the Zêrere river, where mineral-processing residues were deposited on the top hillside on the margin of this river in the Cabeço do Pião tailings dam. The lack of maintenance and monitoring of this enormous structure in the last twenty years represents a high risk to the environment and the population of the surrounding region. A field-sample campaign allowed the collection of data, and resulted from laboratory tests to use regression optimization. Re-mining the tailings by hydrometallurgical methods was considered to satisfy the two conditions of metal demand and environmental risk. The metal content in Cabeço do Pião was shown be enough for environmental restoration. The re-mining solution was studied, taking into account the technical, economic, social, and environmental aspects.
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Begemann, Friedrich, Sigrid Schmitt-Strecker, Ernst Pernicka, and Fulvia Lo Schiavo. "Chemical composition and lead isotopy of copper and bronze from Nuragic Sardinia." European Journal of Archaeology 4, no. 1 (2001): 43–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/eja.2001.4.1.43.
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We present data on the chemical and lead isotope composition of copper and bronze objects from Nuragic Sardinia. The sample suite comprises, inter alia, objects from the hoard finds at Arzachena (21 objects), Bonnanaro (10), Ittireddu (34), and Pattada (20), all in northern Sardinia. With one exception, all ingot fragments (49) consist of unalloyed copper; the exception comes from Ittireddu and contains 11 per cent tin. In contradistinction, all implements (21) are made from standard bronze with a mean tin content of 10.8 per cent. A dozen sword fragments from the Arzachena hoard, all of fairly uniform small size, are pieces of a large number of different swords. The low tin content of only about 1 per cent would have made for poor weapons, confirming the archaeological identification of the fragments as pieces of votive swords. Scrap metal from Arzachena is remarkable for its wide range of trace element contents and lead isotope abundance ratios. It is dissimilar to all other metal samples investigated, possibly representing metal from local smelting experiments using a variety of different copper ores. Lead isotope data and trace element patterns, alone or in conjunction, do not allow us to tell oxhide ingots from plano-convex (bun) ingots. Most ingot fragments have a lead isotope signature similar to those of Cypriot copper ores but there are also a number of ingots whose lead isotope fingerprints are fully compatible with them being local products. Of the bronzes, none has lead with an isotopic composition characteristic of copper ingots from Cyprus. All contain local lead, suggesting the bronze implements were manufactured locally. Isotopically-fitting lead is found in copper and lead ore deposits from the Iglesiente-Sulcis district in south-west Sardinia and from Funtana Raminosa in central Sardinia.
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Macqueen, R. W. "Symposium: Role of organisms and organic matter in ore deposition/Le rôle des organismes et de la matière organique dans la formation des gisements métallifères." Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 22, no. 12 (December 1, 1985): 1890–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/e85-203.
Full textAbstract:
The following seven papers were presented on May 16, 1984, at the Geological Association of Canada and Mineralogical Association of Canada joint annual meeting. The special session, organized by R. W. Macqueen and J. A. Coope, contained 10 papers and was sponsored by the Mineral Deposits Division of the Geological Association of Canada.Our objective in organizing the special session was to examine organically based processes and relationships that may be of major importance to the origin of ore deposits. As noted by Fyfe (1984), the concept of the geochemical cycle focuses attention on pathways of chemical elements and isotopes of the Earth's system during geologic history. It is clear from the chemistry of carbon-rich materials that a wide range of elements is concentrated directly or indirectly by biological processes operating as part of the geochemical cycle. Two of the papers of the special session examine some of these concentration processes, although definitive links to actual ore deposits cannot be made yet. Beveridge and Fyfe document the remarkable ability of the anionic cell walls of certain bacteria to concentrate metals and to provide sites for nucleation and growth of minerals. In a related paper, Mann and Fyfe show that several species of simple freshwater green algae readily concentrate large amounts of uranium under both experimental and natural conditions (Elliot Lake and Thames River, Ontario).Two papers deal with aspects of sulphate reduction. Birnbaum and Wireman describe controlled experiments that suggest that sulphate-reducing bacteria may be involved in the selective replacement of sulphate-evaporite minerals by silica and in the precipitation of silica in association with sulphide mineral phases in banded iron formations. Their work focuses directly on the effect that bacterial sulphate reduction has on silica solubility. Trudinger et al. examine the question of mechanisms of sulphate reduction at temperatures less than 200 °C and the bearing this has on origin of sulphide for low-temperature sulphide ore deposits. Although there is empirical evidence favouring abiological sulphate reduction at temperatures in the vicinity of 100 °C, Trudinger et al. have not been able to demonstrate abiological reduction of sulphate under controlled laboratory conditions and at temperatures under about 200 °C. Perhaps catalysts, as yet undiscovered, are involved in this process in nature.Impressive progress has been made in understanding the diagenetic evolution of organic matter in response to heat and pressure in geological environments: excellent reviews are found in Barnes et al. (1984) and Bustin et al. (1985). Simoneit's paper examines and reviews the genesis of petroleum in a most unusual setting, that of the active ocean ridge spreading centre of Guaymas Basin, Gulf of California. There, in the vicinity of black smokers and associated metallic sulphide deposits, petroleum originates instantaneously geologically as a result of hydrothermal activity. The question of genetic involvement of organic matter in the origin of the metallic sulphides (e.g., reduction of sulphate to H2S) cannot be answered yet for this setting with the available data.The final two special session papers included here are concerned with organic matter associated with mineralization in Canadian Shield Precambrian settings. Willingham et al. demonstrate that Elliot Lake – Blind River Early Proterozoic uranium deposits with minor amounts of associated gold also contain kerogen-like organic matter. Some of this organic matter has anomalously rich amounts of gold and uranium and appears to have originated as mats of cyanobacteria, possibly with the ability to concentrate these metals. For a number of settings in the Archean-aged Abitibi greenstone belt of Ontario and Quebec, Springer demonstrates that carbon, at least partly of organic origin, is closely associated with some gold deposits. Her interpretation is that carbon activated by shear-zone-associated hydrothermal fluids has provided sites for fixing some of the gold.Three of the papers given at the special session are not included here. H. T. Shacklette reviewed metal uptake by young conifer trees, demonstrating that nursery-grown seedlings of several species readily concentrated a variety of metals, including lead, zinc, tin, and gold, over a 7 year period. This work is of interest to those involved in geochemical prospecting and is now published elsewhere (King et al. 1984). R. W. Macqueen presented quantitative data on the genesis of sulphide by abiological bitumen–sulphate reactions at the Pine Point lead–zinc property, Northwest Territories, Canada (Macqueen and Powell 1983; Powell and Macqueen 1984). Although Trudinger et al. have not been able to demonstrate abiological reduction of sulphate at temperatures approximating those of Pine Point [Formula: see text], the data presented by Macqueen (Powell and Macqueen 1984) are consistent with the amounts, alteration, and composition of bitumens at Pine Point, as well as with the presence of native sulphur and the sulphur isotope compositions of the various Pine Point sulphur species. This work is continuing, and a more extensive account is in preparation. J. R. Watterson examined relationships between freezing climates and the local chemical behaviour of gold in the weathering cycle, concluding that ice-induced accumulation of organic acids, bacteria, and other organic matter at mineral surfaces may increase rates of chemical attack, leading to dissolution of normally insoluble metals such as gold (Watterson 1986).Interest in organic aspects of the geochemical cycle, including ore deposition, is growing dramatically (e.g., Fyfe 1984). Although the following papers address a limited range of topics within the field, they do indicate some of the diversity and variety of active processes and associations between metallic elements and organic components. Perhaps, in the not too distant future, we will be able to identify or even discover whole classes of ore deposits that owe their origin directly to organic influences operating within the geochemical cycle.
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DVORNIK, Gennadiy Petrovich. "Types of metasomatic rocks: temperature conditions, buildups, features of composition, minerageny." NEWS of the Ural State Mining University 1, no. 1 (March 23, 2020): 63–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.21440/2307-2091-2020-1-63-72.
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The relevance of the work is due to the importance of metasomatic rocks associated many ore and non-metallic mineral resources. Purpose of the work: study of temperature conditions of formation, the characteristics of the chemical and mineral composition, the mineralogy of metasomatites. Results. The extended classification of the main types of metasomatic rocks (alkaline, basic, acidic) formed in the early alkaline and acid stages of the hydrothermal process is given. Temperature conditions of formation, features of chemical and mineral composition and metasomatite mineralogeny are considered. Alkaline metasomatites are subdivided into potassium (pyroxene phenites, microclinites, biotite-orthoclase metasomatites, gumbaites) and sodium (nepheline-pyroxene phenites, albites, sodic alterations). Deposits of tungsten, molybdenum, gold and uranium are associated with potassium metasomatites (gumbaites), and deposits of beryllium, lithium, tantalum, and niobium are associated with sodium metasomatites (albite). The main metasomatic rocks (basificates) include calcium and iron-magnesian metasomatites (calcareous and magnesian skarns, diopside-lapis lazuli metasomatites, rhodingites, kamaforites, carbonatites, apocarbonate calcites, dolomite-ankerite, magnesite and sideroplesite metasomatites). The formation of deposits of iron, boron, and phlogopite is associated with skarn; deposits of rare-earth elements, tantalum, niobium, and apatite are associated with carbonatites. Acid metasomatites are subdivided into aluminous and siliceous. Aluminous metasomatites include propylites, chloritolites, microcline-sericite and tourmaline-sericite metasomatites, secondary quartzites, argillizated rocks. Alumina deposits (kaolins, bentonites) are associated with secondary quartzites. Siliceous metasomatites include the largest number of species: uralite metasomatites, greisens, listvenites and berezites, chlorite-sericite-quartz and sericite-quartz metasomatites, charoitites, serpentinites, nephrites, anthophyllite metasomatites, carbonate-talc metasomatites and talcites, magnetite quartzites, jaspers, jasperoids. There is a group of metasomatites among them consisting of quartz in association with hydrous alumosilicates (muscovite, topaz, and chlorite). The other group includes low-alumina metasomatites, the mineral composition of which is dominated by hydrous calcium and magnesian silicates (charoite, serpentine, antophyllite, tremolite, talc). The third group is represented by metasomatites of quartz composition (magnetite quartzites, jaspers, jasperoids). The formation of deposits of iron, tin, tungsten, molybdenum, gold, polymetals, nonmetallic raw materials (asbestos, talc, charoite, nephrite, jasper) is associated with siliceous metasomatites. Conclusions. According to the formation temperature, high-temperature (above 500o С), medium-temperature (500–300о С) and low-temperature (below 300o С) metasomatic rocks are distinguished. The average compositions of alkaline metasomatites are characterized by high concentrations of potassium or sodium oxides, the predominance of feldspars (orthoclase, microcline, albite) in association with pyroxenes, carbonates. The main metasomatites are distinguished by high contents of calcium, magnesium and iron oxides at low silica concentrations prevailing in the mineral composition of silicates (pyroxenes and garnets) or carbonates (calcite, dolomite, magnesite, breunnerite). The composition of acid metasomatites is characterized by high concentrations of alumina or silica, the predominance of hydrous aluminosilicates, silicates and quartz.
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Sharma, Renu. "Characterization of TiSi2/TiN thin films on Si by HREM." Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 50, no. 2 (August 1992): 1360–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424820100131437.
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Titanium Nitride is commonly used as a diffusion barrier layer in Al-Si contacts. There are different techniques employed to deposit TiN layers on silicon, out of them thermally grown and reactively sputtered are most common. Reactive sputtering is a one step process and is favoured for manufacturing. The orientation of TiN thin films controls the orientation of Al films deposited. As sputtered films has random orientation hence the overlying Al films is randomly oriented as well. In order to achieve higher electromagnetic resistance, Al films should be well oriented. Thermally grown TiN thin films are highly oriented but their thickness is limited to about 20nm. We have used HREM and micro-analytical techniques to analyze the thickness, structure and compositions of various layers formed during thermal growth of TiN layers deposited under different conditions.Thermally grown Ti films on Si <100> wafers of varying thicknesses were deposited and annealed in NH3 atmosphere at different temperatures and times. Second layer of titanium was deposited and processed on some of the samples (double process) in order to increase the thickness of TiN layer.
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Sato, K., S. V. Kovalenko, N. P. Romanovsky, M. Nedachi, N. V. Berdnikov, and T. Ishihara. "Crustal control on the redox state of granitoid magmas: tectonic implications from the granitoid and metallogenic provinces in the circum-Japan Sea Region." Earth and Environmental Science Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 95, no. 1-2 (March 2004): 319–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0263593300001103.
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ABSTRACTFelsic magmatism has occurred over a large region of East Asia since Jurassic times and has provided important mineral resources such as tin, tungsten, base metals and gold. The circum-Japan Sea region preserves various geological records of active continental margins, including Jurassic to Early Tertiary magmatic arcs and subduction zones and pre-Jurassic continental basements, which were separated by the opening of the Japan Sea during the Miocene. The felsic magmatism in this region shows a wide variation in terms of redox state and related mineralisation, encompassing east–west contrasts around the Pacific Ocean. A review of granitoids and associated ore deposits in this region indicates that the character of the crust, sedimentary versus igneous, is an essential factor to control the redox state, and a tectonic setting may be an additional factor in some cases.The reduced-type granitoids, characterised by tin mineralisation, were generated in carbonbearing sedimentary crust which was composed mainly of accretionary complex material and not influenced by previous magmatism. Involvement of sedimentary materials is corroborated by oxygen, sulphur and strontium isotope data. The oxidised-type granitoids, characterised by gold or molybdenum mineralisation, were generated in igneous crust which was depleted in reducing agents as a result of previous magmatism. Granitoid magmatism in a given area tends to become more oxidised with time.Jurassic accretionary complexes in East Asia are thought to have been largely displaced from the original place of accretion and stacked up against the northeastern margin in the Khingan and Sikhote–Alin Mountains. This region, dominated by sedimentary crust, was subsequently subjected to Cretaceous felsic magmatism and converted to a large province of reduced-type granitoids and tin–tungsten mineralisation. Diverse geodynamic processes, including the change of the arc-trench system, the creation and collapse of the back-arc basin and the collision of continents, may have prepared many favourable sites for the generation of reduced-type granitoids in northeast Asia. These processes may have resulted in a remarkable contrast with the Pacific margin of North America, where repeated arc magmatism during the Mesozoic formed granitoid batholiths of the oxidised-type.The granitoid types may also be controlled by the tectonic setting and mode of magma emplacement. In the northern Kitakami area of Northeast Japan, Early Cretaceous episodic magmatism occurred in a Jurassic accretionary complex, and formed the oxidised-type granitoids accompanied by submarine bimodal volcanism associated with kuroko mineralisation. Granitoids of fissure-filling type emplaced under extensional environments may be oxidised, irrespective of basement geology, because of insignificant crustal input.
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Zhao, Kui-Dong, Shao-Yong Jiang, Yao-Hui Jiang, and Ru-Chen Wang. "Mineral chemistry of the Qitianling granitoid and the Furong tin ore deposit in Hunan Province, South China: implication for the genesis of granite and related tin mineralization." European Journal of Mineralogy 17, no. 4 (July 25, 2005): 635–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1127/0935-1221/2005/0017-0635.
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Degtyareva, A. D., N. B. Vinogradov, S. V. Kuzminykh, and M. A. Rassomakhin. "METAL PRODUCTS OF THE ALEKSEYEVKA-SARGARY CULTURE FROM THE MIDDLE AND UPPER TOBOL AREAS." VESTNIK ARHEOLOGII, ANTROPOLOGII I ETNOGRAFII, no. 4(47) (December 30, 2019): 28–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.20874/2071-0437-2019-47-4-3.
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The article describes morphological and typological characteristics of non-ferrous metal, determines the for-mulae of alloys, as well as identifies techniques used for the production of tools by the Alekseyevka-Sargary cul-ture from the South Trans-Urals (15th/14th and 12th/11th BC). We carried out the morphological and typological study of the non-ferrous metal along with the X-ray fluorescence (Institute of Archaeology RAS, Institute of Mine-ralogy UB RAS; X-MET3000TX analysers from Oxford Instruments Analytical, M1 Mistral from Bruker Nano GmbH) and metallographic (Tyumen Scientific Centre SB RAS; Zeiss Axio Observer D1m microscope) analyses. A total of 19 tools exhibiting morphology inherent to the tool collections of the Alekseyevka-Sargary culture were selected for the study. These tools comprised random finds and items from the settlements of the Chelyabinsk and Kurgan regions of Russia, as well as from the Kostanay Region of Kazakhstan: daggers, а spearhead, sick-les, socketed chisels, a spear end cap and single-blade knives. A group of tools and weapons characteristic of all Eurasian cordoned-ware cultures was distinguished — daggers with handguards and socketed grooved chisels. In addition, weapons characteristic of the sites attributed to the Alekseyevka-Sargary culture (Saryarka, Altai, and Semirechye) were identified within the weapon complex of the South Trans-Urals. These weapons included bush hooks of the Sosnovaya Maza type, knives having marked handles, spearheads with holes and socketed straight-blade chisels. The metal of the South Trans-Urals is distinguished by the marked heterogeneity of its chemical composition with the predominance of low-alloyed bronzes Cu–Sn, Cu–Sn–As and Cu–As (66.7 %). There are 4 pure copper items, as well as products from the complex alloy Cu–Sn–As–Ni–Co and products with elevated iron concentrations (up to 2.68 %). These data indicate that the population experimented in the course of metal-lurgical processing of raw materials; they transitioned to smelting metal from sulphide ores or to the smelting of copper with sulphide or silicate nickel ores of the Ufaley Massif (deposits in the Chelyabinsk Region). South Ural craftsmen produced bronze and copper primarily using technologies for casting tools in one-sided (with flat cov-ers) and two-sided moulds. The casting was followed by refining operations using the cold forming technology with the intervals of low-temperature forging modes. This choice of temperature is justified in the procession of low-alloyed bronze. Clearly, the centre for metal production of the Alekseyevka-Sargary culture in the South Trans-Urals was a metallurgical one, with the development of both oxidised and sulphide deposits in the South Urals. Innovative technologies of smelting copper with chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite, and nickel-containing ores were introduced. The complex of tools attributed to the Alekseyevka-Sargary tribes from the Tobol area is generally identical to the bronze inventory from Saryarka, Altai and Kyrgyzstan. Local craftsmen employed the traditional technologies of processing copper and bronze commonly used in the centres for metal production throughout the area of the Alekseyevka-Sargary culture, working primarily with bronzes low-alloyed by tin. As in previous eras, tin ingots and products were delivered from Central Kazakhstan and Ore Altai, but in much smaller quantities. The small number of products and the data of an analytical study indicate the relocation of the main centres for metal production of the Alekseyevka-Sargary culture from the Urals region (as compared to the big centres of Petrovka and Alakul cultures) to Central and Eastern Kazakhstan, up to Xinjiang in China.
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Dai, Mingjian, Yunbiao Peng, Chenjun Wu, Yangquan Jiao, Lu Liu, Aisheng Miao, Chengyong Zhang, Zilong Zhang, and Shuang Chen. "Ore characteristics of the sandstone-type Daying uranium deposit in the Ordos Basin, northwestern China." Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 54, no. 8 (August 2017): 893–901. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/cjes-2016-0158.
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The Ordos Basin is one of the top oil-, gas-, and coal-producing basins in China and is increasingly recognized as an important uranium mineralization province. Uranium deposits occur near the margin of the basin and are mainly hosted in the sandstones of the Jurassic Zhiluo Formation. The Daying uranium deposit in the Ordos Basin is one of the most important large sandstone-type uranium deposits in China. Based on thin section analysis and electron microprobe measurements, we used analytical chemical data to study the characteristics of the Daying uranium deposit, including the type, structure, particle size, material composition, chemical composition, form, and valence state of the uranium. The uranium mainly exists in three forms: an absorbed form, independent minerals, and uranium-bearing minerals. Most of the uranium in the ore is U4+, and the proportion of U6+ ranges from 18% to 55%, with an average of 33%. The proportion of U6+ is relatively high in the cores containing low-grade ore. This study provides a reference for determining the best smelting technology with which to further develop this deposit.