Journal articles on the topic 'Total Quality Management Extension Programs Level of Extent Programs'

This descriptive research design was conducted to determine the status of the increased number of private schools and its proliferation in Marawi City based on the 1998 Revised Manual for Private Education particularly in the compliance of government requirements and its implications to the quality of education. A total of twenty-six private schools served as the respondents of this study. Many developing nations lack adequate resources to fund public schools and universities. Faced with growing lower-and middle-class populations that are too often underserved, these nations increasingly rely upon private education to complement public education. The increase in the number of private schools could be alarming especially when it comes to quality education. Ideally, private schools should always be adjunct to quality education, yet it is sad to note that the prevailing perceptions on the proliferation of private schools are not accompanied by quality. Findings revealed that the relationship between the profile of the school and the extent of compliance with government requirements revealed no correlation at all, while the t-test revealed a not significant relationship between the teachers’ profile and the level of passing standardized and board examinations. For the relationship between the profile of the owners’/administrators and the extent of participation in extension and community outreach programs, except for the monthly income was found to have not significant relationship with extension and community outreach programs. Lastly, the test of difference between the owners’/administrators’ and teachers’ perceptions on the factors for the proliferation of private schools revealed a not significant difference.

Using data from a 1994 survey of U.S. establishments, the authors investigate how the incidence, content, and extent of employer-provided training were linked to workplace practices and characteristics, physical capital investments, and workers' education. Formal training programs were positively associated with establishment size, the presence of high-performance work systems (such as Total Quality Management), capital-intensive production, and workers' education level. “General” types of training programs in computing and basic education were most likely in establishments that were large, were part of a multi-establishment firm, had low employee turnover, or had high-performance work systems. The percentage of workers given training was highest in establishments that had made large investments in physical capital or had adopted new forms of work organization, especially in the manufacturing sector. These results suggest that employer-provided training complements rather than substitutes for investments in physical capital and education.

Introduction: Scholars consider leadership style as a powerful tool for improving school managers’ commitment on total quality management (TQM), yet few studies have empirically examined the linkages on organizational culture, leadership styles, and TQM in tertiary institutions. This study determined the mediating role of leadership style on organizational culture and TQM.
 Method: The researcher employed the descriptive correlational design to analyze the level of organizational culture, the extent of leadership style as mediating variable, the extent of TQM in education as perceived by the respondents, and the relationship between those variables among school managers. There were 295 school managers from 13 tertiary institutions in Asia who responded to the study.
 Result: The results of the study showed that the respondents have very high practices of organizational traits of involvement, adaptability, consistency, and mission with an indirect effect on leadership style. The extent of the respondents’ TQM is high on the following dimensions: a process-systems approach, customer-supplier focus, consistent quality leadership, continuous improvement and self-evaluation .The extent of leadership styles in both transformational and transactional as practiced by managers is high. However, the organizational culture had no direct effect on TQM. Thus, leadership style fully mediates organizational culture and TQM. Further, the school managers are committed to TQM in education regardless of age, civil status, educational attainment, and years of experience. As a contribution to the mediating mechanism, the emerging model showed that transformational and transactional being the components of leadership styles have loadings of .89 and .49, respectively. This means that the respondents’ leadership style practices have corresponding weights of 64.49% of transformational and 35.51% of transactional leadership style to fully mediate on the relationship between organizational culture and TQM. This research therefore, indicates the significance of the mediating role of leadership style on organizational culture and TQM in tertiary institutions.
 Discussion: The outcome of this study shall be utilized as basis for conducting seminar-workshops and training programs. The study will contribute to future research on other dimensions on OC, LS and moderating variables in relation to TQM.

Land degradation poses a major threat to agricultural production and food security in Ethiopia, and sustainable land management (SLM) is key in dealing with its adverse impacts. This paper examines the covariates that shape rural livelihood diversification and examines their effects on the intensity of adoption of SLM practices. Household-level data were collected in 2017 from 270 households in three drought-prone watersheds located in northwestern Ethiopia. We used the Herfindahl–Simpson diversity index to explore the extent of livelihood diversification. A stochastic dominance ordering was also employed to identify remunerative livelihood activities. A multivariate probit model was employed to estimate the probability of choosing simultaneous livelihood strategies, and an ordered probit model was estimated to examine the effect of livelihood diversification on the adoption intensity of SLM practices. In addition to mixed cropping and livestock production, the production of emerging cash crops (e.g., Acacia decurrens for charcoal, and khat) dominated the overall income generation of the majority of farmers. Stress/shock experience, extent of agricultural intensification, and agro-ecology significantly affected the probability of choosing certain livelihood strategies. Livelihood diversification at the household level was significantly associated with the dependency ratio, market distance, credit access, extension services, membership in community organizations, level of income, and livestock ownership. A greater extent of livelihood diversification had a significant negative effect on adopting a greater number of SLM practices, whereas it had a positive effect on lower SLM adoption intensity. Overall, we found evidence that having greater livelihood diversification could prompt households not to adopt more SLM practices. Livelihood initiatives that focus on increasing shock resilience, access to financial support mechanisms, improving livestock production, and providing quality extension services, while also considering agro-ecological differences, are needed. In addition, development planners should take into account the livelihood portfolios of rural households when trying to implement SLM policies and programs.

Agriculture is a major industry in California, with cool-season crops grown along the state’s coasts, warm-season crops grown in the hot deserts, and many temperate crops grown in the state’s valleys. In coastal communities such as Ventura County, the Calleguas Creek and the Santa Clara River watersheds have 50,000 and 60,000 irrigated acres of farm crops, respectively. These watersheds are considered impaired by nutrients, salts, pesticides, and other agricultural contaminants. Mitigation of chemical and sediment runoff through grower-implemented best management practices (BMPs) is therefore one of the highest priorities in the Los Angeles Regional Water Quality Control Board Basin Plan. A 3-year project was designed to assist Ventura County growers in meeting regional water quality objectives. The University of California Cooperative Extension Ventura County and the University of California, Riverside, collaborated with the Ventura County Resource Conservation District and the Ventura County Agricultural Irrigated Lands Group (VCAILG) to address three project goals: increase grower and landowner understanding of local agricultural water quality issues; identify gaps or deficiencies in current management practices in agricultural operations; and reduce the contribution of nutrients, pesticides, and other pollutants to impaired water bodies. To achieve these goals, 469 surveys of agricultural water quality management practices were collected to assess the extent of current adoption of BMPs. Over 160 growers who farm more than 14,000 acres that drain into Calleguas Creek and 7,000 acres that drain into the Santa Clara River watersheds were assisted. Using the survey, growers developed site-specific farm water quality plans and received on-farm recommendations for BMPs. Additionally, 12 water quality educational programs, “including demonstrations of successful BMPs,” were developed and more than 2500 copies of educational materials published by the University of California, the Resource Conservation District, and the Natural Resources Conservation Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture were distributed at on-farm visits, workshops, and other grower events. The project resulted in improved understanding, by growers and landowners, of water quality issues and significantly increased the implementation of appropriate on-farm BMPs to protect water quality. Nearly 100 new BMPs primarily aimed at managing erosion, sediment movement, and irrigation runoff were identified and documented through annual reassessments for more than 8000 acres draining into Calleguas Creek. A total of 518 people attended the educational programs, and over 90% of participants who completed evaluations rated the programs highly. In the final year of the project, 75% of attendees indicated they plan to implement new BMPs within the next 5 years, especially in the areas of irrigation, erosion, and pest management.

Background: Caring for individuals with mental disorders poses significant challenges for caregivers, often leading to compromised quality of life and mental health issues such as stress, anxiety, and depression. This study aims to assess the extent of these challenges among caregivers in Greece, identifying which demographic factors influence their well-being. Method: A total of 157 caregivers were surveyed using the SF-12 Health Survey for quality-of-life assessment and the DASS-21 questionnaire for evaluating stress, anxiety, and depression symptoms. t-tests, Kruskal–Wallis tests, Pearson’s correlation coefficients, and regression analyses were applied to understand the associations between demographics, quality of life, and mental health outcomes. Results: The study found that caregivers, especially women and younger individuals, faced high levels of mental health challenges. Marital status, educational level, and employment status also significantly influenced caregivers’ well-being. Depression was the most significant factor negatively correlating with the mental component of quality of life. The magnitude of the burden experienced by caregivers highlighted the urgency for targeted social and financial support, as well as strategic treatment programs that consider caregiver well-being. Conclusions: Caregivers of individuals with mental disorders endure significant stress, anxiety, and depression, influencing their quality of life. Demographic factors such as age, gender, marital status, education, and employment status have notable impacts. Findings emphasize the need for society-wide recognition of caregivers’ roles and the creation of comprehensive support and intervention programs to alleviate their burden, particularly in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic.

This research was conducted in Empelu Hamlet, Tanah Sepenggal District, Bungo Regency with the consideration that in the hamlet there were field agricultural extension agents with the Integrated Crop Management (PTT) program and as a food production center in Tanah Sepenggal District, Bungo Regency. The time of the research was carried out for 2 months. namely from 20 June 2021 to 20 August 2021. The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between socio-economic factors of farmers (Level of Education, Age of Farmers, Land Area, Farming Experience and Income of farmers) with the implementation of the Integrated Crop Management (PTT) program. in the research area and to find out the problems encountered in the implementation of Integrated Plant Management (PTT) in the research area. The method used to analyze the data is a quantitative descriptive method with interview techniques with farmers based on a questionnaire containing a series of questions regarding the problems encountered in paddy rice farming and efforts to overcome them. The results of this study showed that the age factor, farming experience and land area had no relationship with the Integrated Crop Management Program (PTT) for lowland rice farming, but the level of education and total income had a relationship with the Integrated Plant Management Program (PTT) in the study area. The problems faced by the sample farmers were plant pest disturbances, bad weather and irrigation which greatly affected the lowland rice farming because it could reduce the quality and quantity of the sample farmers' lowland rice plants. Meanwhile, to deal with weather and irrigation, farmers work in mutual cooperation

This study aims to identify the level of principals’ instructional leadership practices and their relationship with the school-based management in secondary schools in Tumpat district, Kelantan. This study was conducted in the form of survey using a quantitative method with a total of 286 respondents using a questionnaire as a research instrument. Quantitative data were analyzed descriptively and inferentially using SPSS software version 25.0. The result of this study showed that the level of principal's instructional leadership practices was high (mean=4.25, s.d.=0.444) where the dimension of forming a positive school environment scored the highest mean (mean=4.30, s.d.=0.459). The level of school-based management was also high (mean=4.24, s.d.=0.427) with the highest score mean dimension was the dimension of planning and evaluation (mean=4.29, s.d.=0.450). The Pearson correlation test showed a significant relationship between the level of principals’ instructional leadership practices and school-based management which was at a high correlation level (r=0.895). Therefore, the implication of this study is able to provide an exposure to the Ministry of Education Malaysia who can take initiatives to make improvements in the basic aspects of education and also leadership programs in order to strengthen the leadership practices of principals in schools. This study also has implications to school principals in re-evaluating all their practices and actions in managing schools to further improve the effectiveness and the quality of their administration. In conclusion, this study gives the impression that principals’ instructional leadership practices have impacts on school-based management which to some extent can affect the performance of teachers and students as well as the results of the effectiveness of school functions.

The aim of this research is to determine the extent to which Total Quality Management can be applied using a balanced scorecard according to the balanced scorecard dimensions from the perspective of the faculty and administrative staff at the Faculty of Politics and Economics, Suez University. To achieve this aim, the researchers used a descriptive research methodology based on the questionnaire for a sample of (33) faculty members, and the administrative staff at the Faculty of Politics and Economics, Suez University. Some faculties in Egyptian universities find it difficult to measure the effectiveness and efficiency of educational and administrative services performance which were provided to clients as well as the difficulty of measuring the outputs of these services, so Balanced Scorecard is the best tool for evaluating and measuring the performance of these services and outputs. The results of the study showed a statistically significant effect of the use of balanced scorecard dimensions (financial, internal processes, clients, and growth and learning indicators). One of the most important results of the research was that there is a clear variation in the level of awareness of the components of the use of balanced scorecard indicators in the application of total quality management, which reflects the importance of using the balanced scorecard in evaluating the university performance in light of the philosophy and mission of the university. The clients dimension is the most important dimension for it’s directly reflects on the satisfaction of clients from the provided service, and the financial perspective can be achieved by develop programs and academic services to increase the variety of revenues for the development of academic and administrative performance through the support of innovations and creative activities of scientific and professional efficiency of students, faculty members and administrators with the consolidation of a culture of technological knowledge of developments in the global academic arena.

Abstract Objectives Medical students are future physicians, and their attitude toward suicide attempters can impact outcome of patient management and quality of care. This study aimed to assess the effects of brief educational intervention on medical students' attitude toward suicide prevention. Materials and Methods The prospective study was conducted at a tertiary care center in northwestern India. The total enumeration method was employed to recruit 243 medical students. Attitude toward suicide prevention scale was applied before and after three hours’ training on management of suicide attempters and strategies for suicide prevention. Statistical Analysis Mean, median, standard deviation, frequencies, and percentages were calculated through descriptive statistics. Mean values were compared before and after the intervention through paired sample student's t-test. Chi-square test or Fischer exact test was used to compare categorical variables and p ≤ 0.05 was set for level of significance. Results Ten out of 14 attitudinal statements were significantly more favorable after imparting brief training on suicide prevention and management of suicide attempters. They reported lesser resentment, more responsible efforts, with greater competence and positive expectation associated with working for suicidal patients. They agreed on the need for multidisciplinary efforts for effective suicide prevention. After the intervention, they considered the possibility of suicidal ideas emerging due to the need for help, not for the purpose of attention-seeking, and instead of considering suicidal communication as individual's choice, they agreed on substantial preventability of suicide with comprehensive management. Their misconceptions were resolved to a greater extent. Conclusion Brief educational intervention was found effective in improving their attitude toward suicide prevention. The medical curriculum should incorporate regular educational programs, suicide prevention and comprehensive assessment, and management of suicide attempters.

It is becoming a topic of increasing significance on a global scale to encourage students in educational institutions of higher learning to behave in an entrepreneurial manner. It is especially true in the countries that make up the Middle East/North Africa (MENA) region, where there is a greater pressing need to cultivate and develop college students into business owners who can financially support themselves through their own businesses. Since only several studies considered the impact of education on aspiring business owners in fast-developing countries like Saudi Arabia, this study helps fill a gap in the existing body of academic research. The primary objective of this research is to evaluate the impact that participation in educational programs about entrepreneurship has on the possibility that college students will be engaged in entrepreneurial activities in the future. It is significant to give education’s central role in cultivating and encouraging entrepreneurship. This investigation utilized the theory of planned behaviour as its primary framework. A convenience sample was used to collect responses to a questionnaire that was administered online. The recruitment process resulted in the participation of a total of 250 individuals who had previously attended institutions in Saudi Arabia and engaged in entrepreneurship education. The findings indicated that an individual’s attitude toward entrepreneurship and their assessment of their level of behavioural control (perceived entrepreneurship abilities) significantly impact an individual’s intention to participate in entrepreneurial activity. On the other hand, subjective norms do not significantly impact the intention to engage in entrepreneurial activity. The most noteworthy finding is that the extent to which students aspire to launch their own businesses is significantly influenced by entrepreneurship education. An explanation of the study’s limitations and some suggestions for more research were presented and discussed further. The study is limited to participation in entrepreneurship education. However, additional research investigating both the quality and quantity of education is also advised.

Abstract Somalia was the largest banana producer and exporter in Africa in early 1990, but both production and export collapsed due to improper use of good agricultural practices and post-harvesting constraints. The government and its partners tried to recover the banana sector, but nothing changed. Researchers hypothesized that studying and improving farmworkers’ knowledge of banana cultivation could contribute to recovering the country’s banana sector. Therefore, the study objective is to study the current knowledge level of banana farm workers on banana cultivation and contributing factors influencing farm workers’ knowledge of banana cultivation in the Lower Shabelle region of Somalia. A cross-sectional study participating 400 farmworkers was implemented in the selected six large-scale banana farms which are the largest production area of the Lower Shabelle region of Somalia by using a well-structured questionnaire. Bloom’s cut-of-point classification was used to categorize knowledge scores into three knowledge levels and data were analysed using descriptive statistics, Chi-square test, and Multiple linear regression at a p-value of <0.05, <0.10, and <0.01. Most of the farm workers (80.2%) were male with 31.57 mean age (SD=8.53) and 167.48 mean income age (SD=81.27). This study reported that 194 (48.5%) farm workers have low knowledge of banana cultivation, 127 (31.8%) have moderate knowledge, and only 79 (19.8%) have good knowledge. The Mean knowledge was 18.54 (SD=6.51) out of 30 maximum expected scores. The weakest knowledge section is pesticide management while the strongest is harvesting. The coefficient of farmworkers’ age, education, training participation, and banana farming experience are significantly associated with their knowledge of banana cultivation activities at p-value <0.05 while the total land size they cultivate has a significant association at p-value <0.10. This study reported almost half of the banana farm workers have a low level of knowledge of banana cultivation. To enhance farmworkers’ cultivation knowledge, agricultural extension and education programs must enhance pesticide management relating knowledge by specifically focusing on older and low-experience farmworkers, rural farmworkers that are far away from training centres, and those who do not have large land sizes. In addition, improving training quality by providing advanced training materials and mentors, increasing training frequency, and improving training effectiveness is highly recommended.

In Kenya, aflatoxin contamination in maize remains a persistent issue, with potential negative impacts on both public health and economic growth. Aflatoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by certain mold species, primarily Aspergillus flavus. The extent of Aspergillus fungal invasion in maize grains and the resulting increase in aflatoxin levels is heavily influenced by pre-and post-harvest practices. Before harvest, factors such as insect damage and exposure to warm, humid conditions increase the crop's susceptibility to Aspergillus infection and subsequent aflatoxin formation. Post-harvest, additional risks arise when kernels are damaged by pests like rats or when they are stored in unfavorable conditions for extended periods, leading to significant aflatoxin accumulation. This study examined the prevalence of aflatoxin contamination in maize and its association with the physical and nutritional characteristics of grains collected from 49 informal markets across eight sub-Counties in Meru County, Kenya. A total of 353 maize samples were collected from traders. A competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to determine aflatoxin levels, while proximate analyses of ground maize grain samples were conducted in duplicate, following the guidelines of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC). The physical characteristics of maize grains including the proportions of undamaged, broken, and insect-damaged grains along with moisture content, were also assessed. The average aflatoxin level in maize samples was 8.66 ppb, with 35.2% containing less than one ppb (low or none), 47.8% falling between 1–10 ppb (moderate), and 17.0% exceeding 10 ppb (high). Physical factors found to be positively correlated with aflatoxin contamination included high proportion of broken grains, insect damage, and elevated moisture content. However, nutritional parameters, including fat, starch, and protein content, were consistent across sub-Counties and did not significantly associate with aflatoxin levels. To mitigate aflatoxin contamination, the study recommends implementing management practices such as ensuring adequate drying of maize to a moisture content below 13%, proper storage and transportation, and optimizing threshing and harvesting times to improve kernel quality. Relevant government agencies should support farmers, traders, and consumers by disseminating information and providing training programs on these practices. Key words: Aspergillus flavus, Aflatoxin levels, Food handling practices, mitigate, Maize

The contemporary condition of soil cover in Ukraine is characterized. The attention is focused onto widespread degradation processes in soils. The causes that determine the development of these negative processes are considered. The contemporary informational support for the condition of soil cover in Ukraine is estimated. In general, the current available information is of narrow-departmental nature, obtained by different methods and non-correlated monitoring programs. As a rule, it is stored in under-structured databases, incompatible with other information systems; mainly recorded on paper media unusable with modern technologies, whereby such information resources are diffi cult to be compiled together. These disadvantages are strong constraints against consistent usage of materials for evaluation, forecast and management of changes in the soil cover. The Soil Observation program should thereby be combined with Agrochemical Passportization and ecology-ameliora- tive monitoring; in other words, the application of innovative soil-agrochemical methodology is considered. Each individual type of surveys shall complement the others, and taken altogether, they shall constitute a con- sistent Information System, capable of solving the problems of assessing the condition, forecasting, manage- ment, usage and protection of soil resources. The monitoring procedures should be conducted on the basis of a new soil concept in line with unifi ed programs and methods, so as to meet European approaches to the maxi- mum extent. Such a technical composition enables getting information on present-day processes in soils, and is the only combination that actually helps us to “ecologize” our knowledge of soils, which is the leading trend in the scope of global soil-science. Thus obtained results will serve as a State-owned tool which would subse- quently facilitate the use and protection of soil resources all over the country, to be involved in a united global soil-information scope. The attention is focused onto social signifi cance of the information on soils and their fertility in terms of land resources optimization, as well as the formation of sustainable land use in Ukraine. Aim. To demonstrate the long-term effect of different ways of tillage of typical low-humus chernozem on the change in humus content and composition and the direction of transformation processes of organic fertili- zers. To study the changes in the structure of energy reserves in group and fractional composition of humus in typical low-humus light-loamy chernozem of the Forest-Steppe of Ukraine. Methods. Field, laboratory, microbiological, computational, mathematical and statistical. Results. It was determined that in conditions of long-term subsurface tillage the most effi cient humus accumulation occurs in the 0–20 cm layer of chernozem with simultaneous increase in its content in the lower part of the processed layer without any accumulation differentiation. Surface tillage leads to expressed differentiation in humus accumulation in the 0–20 cm layer of soil (0.005 % per year). When 6 t/ha of humus are replaced by 7 t/ha of by-products the intensity of humus accumulation is decreasing regardless of the way of tillage, but humus accumulation was found to be the most effi cient for subsurface tillage. The application of subsurface tillage leads to the increase in the ratio of C HA : C FA , which is conditioned by the increase in the humifi cation of plant remains of by-products in the 0−20 cm layer of soil by 110–112 % – for subsurface tillage, and by 105 % – for surface tillage. Conclusions. It was established that systematic subsurface tillage of typical chernozem of the Left-Bank Forest-Steppe of Ukraine leads to the structuring both of the total reserves of energy С org , and its quality content, aimed at the increase in the intensity of the processes of humifi cation and accumulation of organic carbon, and the decrease in miner- alization. The ratio of energy reserves С org of humic acids to fulvic acids in the 0−30 cm layer of chernozem is 1.85−1.87 regardless of the way of tillage, which testifi es to the repeatability of humus accumulation, but the total reserves of energy С org was higher for subsurface tillage (+ 31 Teracalorie/ha) compared to deep plough- ing. As for the surface tillage, the energy enrichment was at the level of deep ploughing.

Due to the current geopolitical and economic threats (meaning the Russia-Ukraine war), the analysis of the issue of food supply to the population of Georgia is quite actual. The most important thing is to fully utilize the production potential of the existing agri-food products, use them efficiently and calculate the country's supply channels correctly. It is noteworthy that the diversification of pre-existing import and export markets is necessary and feasible, and also, anti-crisis management issues are definitely applicable when addressing the country's food supply issues. Defined and known to our country by the Statistics Service of Georgia, the main food products of strategic importance, which are necessary for the human body, are: wheat, corn, potatoes, vegetables, meat, milk and dairy products, eggs. Analysis of data on these high nutritional value products reveals that the state has a lot to do to meet the needs of the population in the face of existing challenges. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), food security can be measured by self-supply index, which can measure the extent to which a country can meet its local requirements for a given product. The share of food in the consumer basket of Georgia is the highest 30.23%, that is why it is interesting how much the country can provide the population with food products with basic nutritional value. According to the data of 2020-2021, for example, the wheat self-supply ratio of our country did not exceed 15%. Russia is the main importer of wheat in Georgia. Negative impacts as a result of the Russia-Ukraine war, the created deficit, the sanctions imposed on Russia can create problems for the cargo imported from Russia, taking into account all mentioned facts, the need to find new trading partners is on the agenda, from which the possible shortfall will be filled. According to 2021 data, 94% of wheat and 79% of corn were imported from Russia. The same is true for vegetables, whose self-supply rate is 63%. It seems that we can meet the needs of the country with vegetables, but we have to fill 1/3 with imported products. Georgia mainly imports dairy products (milk powder), according to 2021 data, 37% of the total products were imported from Ukraine and Belarus. Ukraine is the third largest importer of eggs and poultry and the second largest importer of meat. When a country is at war, it is natural that the supply chain of products will not be reliable, it is also possible that prices will increase, that is why we need to look for alternative ways of supplying products and alternative suppliers. The impact of hostilities will also be visible on the export of products from our country. Grape products, including wine, have a high rate of local exports. About 60% of these products are exported to Russia, up to 10% to Ukraine and up to 8% to China, while vegetables are also exported to Russia (64%). When such a level of crisis is created in the country, it is necessary for the government to intervene, develop anti-crisis measures and solve the problems in a timely manner. The state should act in 3 main directions: 1. To promote the development of small and medium-sized businesses, to improve the environment, to promote their cooperation, etc., all of which are necessary to reduce the negative consequences of the crisis; 2. Attracting investment to the country, which softens the background of the crisis and allows the country to breathe; 3. Maximum export promotion, the government should be the link between the business and the outside world, which should create all the conditions for the growth of exports. Business has no less role in crisis situations, its main obligation is to bring the country out of crisis. The main tasks of the business are: 1. To become more efficient, to refine the business strategy, the management system and to bring it in line with the decisions. The most important thing for a business is the proper work of each of its links and the perception of what benefits it creates for the society. 2. Improving the quality of the produced product and service, taking into account the needs of the priority customer. In times of crisis, all companies must take care to improve quality, otherwise businesses will not be able to increase exports. 3. To expand foreign contacts, there should be used both private and public opportunities. Taking into consideration all mentioned above, we can conclude that: 1. First of all, it is necessary to use the resources available in the country to improve the country's food supply ratio. 2. Prioritize projects to improve the country's food supply ratio when implementing state business support programs. 3. Search and timely detection of ways to diversify both import and export markets. 4. In the process of managing the state and companies, take into account the issues of anti-crisis management and risk management when making decisions.

Abstract This study investigates the impact of micro-credentials on educational administrators' professional growth and development. The study was guided by two research questions and one hypothesis. The study adopted the descriptive design. The study's population consists of 1589 teaching staff of the Rivers State University. A sample size of 477 teachers, representing 30% of the study population was determined using the simple random sampling technique. The instrument for data collection was a questionnaire named "Investigating the Impact of Micro-credentials on Educational Administrators' Professional Growth and Development Questionnaire (IIMEAPGDQ)&rdquo; respectively which was developed by the researcher. The questionnaire consisted of three sections. The questionnaire was validated through the researchers&rsquo; supervisor and other expert reviews and the reliability was established using Cronbach's Alpha (&alpha; = 0.75). The reliability and validity of the instruments used were also evaluated to ensure consistent and accurate measurement. Data was analyzed using descriptive statistics, such as mean, and standard deviation to answer the research questions while the inferential statistics of the Independent t-test were used to test the hypotheses at a 0.05 level of significance which means that any results with a p-value less than 0.05 were considered statistically significant, with the aid of SPSS Version 26.0. The findings revealed that micro-credentials positively impact educational administrators' professional growth and development. The study concluded that micro-credentials enhance administrators' professional competence, job performance, and career prospects. Based on the findings, it was recommended among others that institutions should prioritize the integration of micro-credentials into their professional development programs, leveraging their potential to enhance educational administrators' skills and expertise. <em>Keywords:</em><em> </em>Micro-credentials, Professional Growth, Educational Administrators, Development. <strong>Introduction</strong> In the rapidly evolving education sector, professional growth and development of educational administrators have become increasingly important to the success of academic institutions. As the demands on schools and educational systems continue to expand, there is a growing recognition of the need for innovative approaches by professional development to close the gap with these changes (Westfahl &amp; Wilkins, 2017). One such approach that has gained significant attention in recent years is using micro-credentials. Micro-credentials are also known as digital badges, nano degrees, micro-certifications, web badges, mini degrees and open badges in the form of compact and competency-based recognitions that verify an individual's skills, knowledge, or achievements in a specific area (Parsons et al., 2023). Micro-credentials are short, focused credentials designed to provide in-demand skills, know-how and experience. Unlike traditional degrees or certifications that often require extensive time commitments and cover broad areas of study, micro-credentials are typically focused on discrete skills or competencies and can be earned in a relatively short period. This flexibility and specificity make micro-credentials an attractive option for continuous professional development, particularly in fields like educational administration where the needed skills and knowledge are constantly evolving. The Nigerian educational system, like many others around the world, faces several challenges in ensuring the quality and effectiveness of its educational administrators. As such, Kwaghbo (2021) noted that effective leadership is essential for improving the quality of education and student outcomes. However, he further added that many administrators lack the necessary skills and knowledge to effectively manage the complex challenges facing modern schools. This gap in professional competence emphasizes the need for innovative and effective approaches to professional development for educational administrators in Nigeria. The concept of micro-credentials is relatively new in the Nigerian educational landscape, but it holds significant potential to address the professional development needs of educational administrators. No wonder, Oluwafemi (2019) argued that the present global yearning for education to gainful living and self-reliance indicates that there is an urgent need for effective and well-trained individuals who would be able to take care of themselves and contribute meaningfully and productively to the development of the society mentally, socially and economically. Micro-credentials compromise an invaluable opportunity to turn an ability you spent years developing into something traceable and proven (Flintberg, 2022). A credential provides information about the extra educational or professional steps someone has taken in search of constant improvement. If vocational, they will often be tagged with terminology related to skills and competencies. When finding qualified or dedicated professionals is increasingly challenging and time-consuming, micro-credentials can give individuals an edge and indicate to recruiters that they are committed to constant learning. For educational institutions, offering micro-credentials can be a means of commitment to celebrating all types of experiences and learning opportunities, valuing these moments and outcomes as part of a professional journey. Educational administrators therefore, can choose to pursue micro-credentials in specific areas where they need to develop their skills or knowledge, rather than being constrained by the one-size-fits-all approach of many traditional professional development programs. This aligns well with the principles of adult learning theory, which emphasizes the importance of self-directed and relevant learning experiences for adult learners. Moreover, micro-credentials can provide a more flexible and accessible means of professional development. In a country like Nigeria, where geographical and resource constraints can often limit access to traditional professional development opportunities, the digital nature of many micro-credential programs could potentially democratize access to high-quality professional learning. Olatunji and Adewumi (2021) noted that the integration of technology in teacher professional development in Nigeria has the potential to overcome many of the barriers associated with traditional face-to-face training programs. It is clear that micro-credentials are ultimately situated in the business models of companies and how they compete. For companies, whether private or public, that operate in a volatile and fast-changing environment, the commitment and the ability to continue learning are key aspects of customer quality and competitiveness. For employers, the implications are they have to organise work in ways that give employees opportunities to use their competencies in full and to further learn through work, as well as more structured learning. Giving people an opportunity to grow in their jobs and showcase their achievements is an excellent way to encourage personal and professional development and the DNA of customer centricity and innovation (Shapiro in Alangari, 2024).&nbsp; Moreover, micro-credentials can boost engagement and motivate people to transform their skills into shareable achievements, and for employers having insights into the competence base increases company agility. Micro-credentials can also highlight a learning path for a dedicated learner, being the first block of learning and a stacked credential in a shift to a new occupation or a step up the career ladder to a new job role. This can motivate and encourage the learner while helping the education institution nudge the learner to the next level, building stronger partnerships and having a visible role in professional communities and the labour market. Since micro-credentials are not about time dedicated to learning a craft or the amount of money invested into improving, this type of certificate is more inclusive and respectful of people&rsquo;s time. <strong>Statement of the Problem</strong> Educational administrators certainly have proven their creativity and flexibility in the past few years by growing skills in virtual instruction, connecting with students, and cooperating with colleagues as well as recognizing their growth. These allow them to participate in professional learning that is personalized, directly connected to their work and competency-based. Micro-credentials are closely tied to educational administrators' identifying their career paths to fulfil workforce demands suited to a knowledge-based economy, as well as provide exposure to the higher education environment for those individuals seeking a career change. However, the adoption and effectiveness of micro-credentials in the Nigerian context are not without challenges.&nbsp; The system is characterized by unequal access to technology and internet connectivity, which could limit the accessibility of digital micro-credential programs. There are arguments that for micro-credentials to be an effective tool for professional development in Nigeria, efforts must be made to address these infrastructural challenges and ensure equitable access to digital learning opportunities. Despite these challenges, the potential benefits of micro-credentials for the professional growth and development of educational administrators in Nigeria warrant further investigation. This study aims to explore the impact of micro-credentials on educational administrators' professional growth and development. The specific objectives are to examine the extent micro-credentials enhance educational administrators' professional growth and development as well as the perceived challenges of implementing micro-credentials in educational administration. <strong>Research Questions</strong> The study was guided by the following research questions: 1.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; To what extent do micro-credentials enhance educational administrators' professional growth and development? 2.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; What are the perceived challenges educational administrators face while undergoing micro-credentials? <strong>Hypotheses</strong> The following was formulated and statistically tested at a 0.05 level of significance: There is a significant difference between the mean rating on the extent to which micro-credentials enhance male and female educational administrators' professional growth and development. <strong>Social Cognitive Theory</strong> Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) started as the Social Learning Theory (SLT) in the 1960s by Albert Bandura. It developed into the SCT in 1986 and posits that learning occurs in a social context with a dynamic and reciprocal interaction of the person, environment, and behaviour (LaMorte, 2022). The unique feature of SCT is the emphasis on social influence and its emphasis on external and internal social reinforcement. SCT considers how individuals acquire and maintain behaviour, while also considering the social environment in which individuals perform the behaviour. The theory considers a person's past experiences, which factor into whether behavioural action will occur. These past experiences influence reinforcements, expectations, and expectancies, all of which shape whether a person will engage in a specific behaviour and the reasons why a person engages in that behaviour. The goal of SCT is to explain how people regulate their behaviour through control and reinforcement to achieve goal-directed behaviour that can be maintained over time (LaMorte, 2022). The SCT is built on five key principles. Observational learning (O'Leary, 2020), modelling influences behaviour, self-efficacy, and reinforcement, whether through rewards or punishments, shapes behaviour, while cognitive processes like attention, motivation, and memory mediate learning. In educational administration, SCT holds significant relevance. Teacher development programs can be designed to emphasize observation, modelling, and practice, while administrative training can focus on observational learning, self-efficacy, and reinforcement. SCT also helps administrators understand how to foster a positive school culture through modelling and reinforcement. <strong>Conceptual Clarification</strong> <strong>Micro-credentials </strong> Micro-credentials are innovation opportunities in higher education that allow administrators to acquire specific skills or knowledge to help advance their careers and also improve their profession. According to Ahsan et al. (2023), these skills or training are designed to provide more flexible learning pathways than traditional degrees which require less time to improve on specific competencies demanded by employers. Sharma et al. (2024) further added that micro-credentials help to bridge the gap between academic learning and university requirements by offering targeted career and skill development opportunities. These credentials are particularly valuable in today's rapidly evolving university requirements, where specific technical and professional competencies need frequent updating. Ghasia et al. (2019) emphasized the potential of micro-credentials in democratizing education, particularly in developing contexts like Tanzania. Their research reveals that micro-credentials can provide a more accessible pathway in education for administrators who are willing to advance in their professional growth and development. The value of micro-credentials lies in their ability to provide targeted, administrators-relevant skills while maintaining academic administrative rigour. Ahsan et al. (2023) noted that successful implementation requires careful consideration of market demands, pedagogical approaches, and technological infrastructure. Their systematic review suggests that micro-credentials are most effective when they align with both industry needs and academic standards. In the same vein, Sharma et al. (2024) argued that micro-credentials are becoming increasingly important in creating a more flexible and responsive higher education ecosystem. They suggest that blended learning approaches, combining online and face-to-face instruction, can enhance the effectiveness of micro-credential programs while improving academic administrators' growth and development. In Nigeria, micro-credentials in the university education system, offer the potential for administrators to respond more quickly to current contemporary issues facing university education through the requisition of significant skills for effective university administration and educational goal attainment. Halim et al. (2024) asserted that successful implementation requires a multi-stakeholder approach, involving educators, administrators, industry partners, and students in the design and delivery of micro-credential programs. The evidence from these studies suggests that micro-credentials are not merely a temporary trend but rather a fundamental shift in how administrators can certify learning to advance their professional growth and development.&nbsp; <strong>Micro-Credentials and Educational Administrators' Professional Growth and Development</strong> The emergence of micro-credentials has revolutionized higher education, transforming the way professionals like administrators acquire skills and advance their careers. In today's fast-paced, ever-evolving educational system, adaptability and agility are crucial. Micro-credentials create a focused, efficient, and flexible approach to learning, concentrating on specific skills or knowledge areas. The university system in Nigeria operates on a unique framework, where administrative promotions are heavily based on academic accomplishments. To ascend the administrative ladder, individuals must demonstrate exceptional scholarly competency, evident through publications in reputable journals and active participation in conferences. Academic contributions serve as a vital metric for evaluating an administrator's suitability for promotion. The quantity and quality of publications in reputable journals hold significant weight, as they feature an administrator's proficiency and commitment to advancing knowledge, growth and development in their field. Conference attendance and presentations are equally crucial, unveiling an administrator's ability to engage with peers, share research findings, and stay abreast of global educational trends. These scholarly pursuits not only enhance personal credibility but also reflect positively on the institution. In this context, administrators must strike a balance between their managerial responsibilities and academic pursuits. They must allocate time and resources to conduct research, author papers, and participate in conferences, all while ensuring the seamless operation of their departments. This system fosters a culture of scholarship and intellectual consistency within Nigerian universities, encouraging administrators to remain active contributors to their fields when they tie promotions to academic achievements, institutions incentivize excellence, driving administrators to excel as both managers and scholars. In essence, this approach enhances the overall quality of university administration, as leaders are equipped with the knowledge, expertise, and networks necessary to navigate complex academic landscapes effectively. They also offer enhanced career prospects, increased flexibility and accessibility, continuous learning and upskilling, and personalized education pathways. Additionally, micro-credentials complement traditional degree programmes where educational administrators must embrace this shift, leveraging micro-credentials to foster professional growth, enhance employability, and redefine the future of higher education. <strong>Challenges Educational Administrators Face while Undergoing Micro-Credentials</strong> Micro-credential which promotes administrators' professional growth and development is also faced with several challenges in terms of implementation. They include: <strong>1. Technological Integration Barriers: </strong>During the initial rollout of micro-credentials, educational administrators struggled significantly with integrating new digital systems into existing institutional infrastructure. Research by Dane (2024), asserted that institutions faced persistent challenges with their student information systems in tracking and recording micro-credential completions because most administrators had unexpected technical conflicts between their legacy systems and new micro-credential platforms, leading to manual workarounds that consumed significant staff time and resources. <strong>2. Professional Development Gaps: </strong>Educational administrators encountered substantial difficulties in preparing faculty for micro-credential delivery and assessment. According to Kıbaru F. (2018), administrators across multiple institutions face significant challenges in providing adequate training for faculty. Most critically, administrators struggled to help instructors transition from traditional assessment methods to competency-based evaluation systems required for micro-credentials, often resulting in inconsistent assessment practices and delayed program implementations. <strong>3. Promotion Compliance Issues: </strong>One of the most pressing challenges administrators faced was navigating accreditation requirements while implementing micro-credential programs. Van der Hijden and Martin (2023), several administrators grappled with maintaining compliance with existing accreditation standards while introducing micro-credentials. Sometimes as a result of significant delays in programme launches due to uncertainties about how micro-credentials align with traditional accreditation frameworks, particularly regarding credit hour equivalencies and learning outcome documentation. <strong>4. Budget Allocation Difficulties: </strong>Administrators encountered severe financial planning challenges during micro-credential implementation phases. Brown et al. (2022) asserted that administrators consistently underestimated academic publications, training and development costs during the early stages of micro-credential adoption. The study showed that unexpected expenses arose primarily from technology infrastructure upgrades, staff training, and marketing efforts, forcing many administrators to reallocate resources from other educational programs or seek additional funding sources mid-implementation. <strong>5. Stakeholder Resistance Management: </strong>Managing resistance from various stakeholders proved to be a significant challenge for administrators during micro-credential rollout. According to Aharonian and Schatz Oppenheimer (2024), administrators faced active resistance from multiple stakeholder groups in the institutions. Faculty members expressed concerns about academic rigour and workload increases, while department chairs worried about resource allocation and program cannibalization. Additionally, administrators struggled to address concerns from traditional degree program students who feared their credentials might be devalued by the introduction of micro-credentials. These challenges provide valuable insights into the complexities administrators face during micro-credential implementation.&nbsp; <strong>Review of Related Empirical Studies</strong> Oluwafemi (2019), examined the effects of programmed instruction, questioning and assignment teaching methods on the academic achievement of students in business studies in Oyo state, Nigeria. The study sought to determine the effect of programmed instruction, questioning and assignment teaching methods as well as gender on the academic achievement of students in Business Studies. Five research questions guided the study and five null hypotheses were tested at a 0.05 level of significance. Pretest, post-test non-equivalent group, and quasi-experimental research design were used for the study. The population of the study comprised all junior secondary II business studies students in Oyo state. A purposive sampling technique was used to comprise a sample of 201 students for the study. The instrument for data collection was a self-designed Business Studies Achievement Test (BSAT) which was validated by three experts. A reliability coefficient of 0.77 was obtained for the test items using Kuder-Richardson (KR20). Mean was used to analyze data relating to the research questions while analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used to test the hypotheses at a 0.05 level of significance. Findings revealed that students taught business studies using programmed instruction, questioning and assignment teaching methods performed better with higher post-test scores than those taught using conventional teaching methods. Students taught using the assignment method performed best with the highest post-test scores than those taught using programmed instruction and questioning methods. The three methods favoured both genders in the classroom but males benefitted more from programmed instruction while females benefitted more from the assignment teaching method. All the null hypotheses were rejected except the hypothesis on gender. Based on the findings of the study, it was concluded that the three teaching methods have the potential to improve students&rsquo; academic achievement in Business Studies. The study therefore recommended among others that business studies teachers should use programmed instruction, questioning and assignment teaching methods to enhance students' academic achievements in Business Studies. School administration and stakeholders in education should provide adequate training and resources needed to employ the three teaching methods for teaching business studies. Pirkkalainen et al. (2023), examined how might micro-credentials influence institutions and empower learners in higher education. A four-step Delphi study approach was used to explore how micro-credentials may shape higher education (HE) in the next 5&ndash;10 years. Educational experts undertook a consensus-building activity utilising workshops and surveys: (1) initial identification of enabling factors (i.e. drivers) and beneficial outcomes (i.e. impacts) of micro-credentials; (2) prioritisation based on importance; (3) identification of enabling factors considered essential for each beneficial outcome and (4) analysis of the extent to which micro-credentials might be accepted in HE, with participants reflecting on the importance of the previously identified enablers and outcomes for alternative scenarios. The findings of the study light on three alternative possible futures for micro-credentials. Expert consensus indicated that the potential of micro-credentials lies especially among educational institutions and the networks of institutions innovating beyond, and within, traditional study offerings and programmes. Future wide-scale adoption of micro-credentials was considered unpredictable, due to external factors at the ecosystem level, and beyond institutions&rsquo; strategies and control. The study concluded that, for the successful uptake of micro-credentials, the same benefits do not need to accrue for institutions and learners: a &lsquo;one-size-fits-all&rsquo; approach is not necessary or optimal. For the wider-scale influence of micro-credentials to be felt, there is a need for considerable international and national strategy development and implementation to overcome a variety of policy- and technology-related barriers that HEIs cannot influence or tackle on their own. Tee et al. (2024 conducted a study on marketing micro-credentials: understanding learners' engagement and willingness to pay more. A survey questionnaire was used to collect data from 354 respondents who are working adults living in the major economic states in Malaysia. Data analysis was performed using the analysis of a moment structures (AMOS) statistical software and SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) PROCESS macro. The results show the significance of programme design factors (i.e., flexibility, system quality and content quality) in determining the learning experience. The learning experience is found as a mediator in the relationship between programme design factors learner engagement and WTPM. In addition, the moderation assessment confirms that enjoyment during learning strengthens the relationship between experience and behavioural responses. <strong>Methodology</strong> This study employed a descriptive research design to investigate the impact of micro-credentials on educational administrators' professional growth and development. The population consisted of 1589 teaching staff of Rivers State University. A sample size of 477 teachers, representing 30% of the population, was selected using simple random sampling. The data collection instrument was a questionnaire titled "Investigating the Impact of Micro-credentials on Educational Administrators' Professional Growth and Development Questionnaire (IIMEAPGDQ)". The questionnaire comprised three sections: Section A collected demographic data, while Section B addressed the research questions using a 4-point Likert scale, with options ranging from Very High Extent (VHE),&nbsp;High Extent (HE),&nbsp;Low Extent (LE) and Very Low Extent (VLE), assigned values of 4, 3, 2, and 1 respectively. To ensure validity, the questionnaire underwent expert reviews, including the researcher's supervisor. Reliability was established using Cronbach's Alpha, yielding a coefficient of 0.75.Data analysis involved descriptive statistics, specifically mean and standard deviation, to address the research questions. Inferential statistics, particularly the Independent t-test, tested hypotheses at a 0.05 significance level. Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 26.0 facilitated data analysis. Results with a p-value less than 0.05 were deemed statistically significant. <strong>Data Presentation and Results</strong> A total of 477 copies of questionnaires were distributed among the teaching staff of Rivers State University and after two weeks, upon retrieval, 432 were valid representing 90.5% of the total population and were coded into the SPSS for the analysis. <strong>Answers to Research Questions</strong> <strong>Research Question 1: </strong>To what extent do micro-credentials enhance educational administrators' professional growth and development? Table 1: Showed Response Rate on Descriptive Statisticsmicro-credentials enhance educational administrators' professional growth and development &nbsp; Items N Mean Std. D. Remark &nbsp; 1. Micro-credentials enhance my professional growth and development as an educational administrators 432 2.862 .974 High Extent &nbsp; 2. My academic publication in reputable journals enhances my administrative promotion 432 2.781 1.001 High Extent &nbsp; 3. My work time allocated to research, authoring papers, and conference participation enhances my professional growth and development 432 3.015 1.192 High Extent &nbsp; 4. My tying promotions to academic achievements incentivize excellence among educational administrators. 432 3.162 1.102 High Extent &nbsp; 5. I pursue micro-credentials to enhance my skills and career prospects as an educational administrator 432 2.912 1.095 High Extent Grand Mean &nbsp; 2.94 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The analysis of the extent to which micro-credentials enhance educational administrators' professional growth and development yielded a grand mean of 2.94. This result indicates that educational administrators generally perceive micro-credentials as having a moderate to high impact on their professional growth and development. This implies that micro-credentials are viewed as a valuable tool for educational administrators' ongoing professional development. <strong>Research Question 2: </strong>What are the perceived challenges of implementing micro-credentials in educational administration? Table 2: Showed Response Rate on Descriptive Statistics on the perceived challenges of implementing micro-credentials in educational administration &nbsp; &nbsp; N Mean Std. D. Remark &nbsp; 6.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Technological Integration Barriers 432 3.126 .985 High Extent 7.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Professional Development Gaps 432 2.905 3.215 High Extent 8.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Promotion Compliance Issues 432 3.174 .994 High Extent 9.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Budget Allocation Difficulties 432 2.960 1.089 High Extent 10.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Stakeholder Resistance Management 432 3.074 1.570 High Extent Grand Mean 432 3.04 &nbsp; High Extent &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The analysis of the perceived challenges of implementing micro-credentials in educational administration revealed a grand mean of 3.04. This result indicates that educational administrators strongly agree that implementing micro-credentials poses significant challenges. This implies that the respondents overwhelmingly acknowledge the existence of substantial obstacles to successful micro-credential implementation. These challenges may encompass technological integration, professional development gaps, accreditation compliance issues, budget allocation difficulties, and stakeholder resistance. <strong>Test of Hypothesis</strong> <strong>Hypothesis 1: </strong>There is a significant difference between the mean rating on the extent to which micro-credentials enhance male and female educational administrators' professional growth and development. Summary of independent t-test analysis on the difference between the mean responses of male and female teaching staff on the extent to which micro-credentials enhance male and female educational administrators' professional growth and development. &nbsp; Students N <strong>x̅</strong> S.D <strong>Df</strong> <strong>t</strong> <strong>t_tab</strong> <strong>Sig.</strong> <strong>Decision</strong> Male teaching staff 304 24.67 1.96 475 6.41 1.96 0.00 Significant Female teaching staff 173 22.82 1.92 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The results of Hypothesis One reveal a statistically significant difference in the perceived impact of micro-credentials on professional growth and development between male and female educational administrators. The calculated t-value of 6.41 exceeds the critical t-value of 1.96, and the p-value of 0.00 is less than the level of significance of 0.05, leading to the rejection of the null hypothesis. This finding revealed that micro-credentials have a differing impact on the professional growth and development of male and female administrators, with gender playing a significant role in shaping their perceptions of micro-credentials effectiveness. The significant difference between the mean ratings of male and female teaching staff implies that institutions should consider gender-specific strategies to optimize the effectiveness of micro-credentials.&nbsp; <strong>DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS</strong> <strong>Impact of micro-credentials on professional growth and development&nbsp;</strong> The findings of this study reveal that micro-credentials have a positive impact on the professional growth and development of educational administrators. This result aligns with existing literature, which suggests that micro-credentials can empower learners and transform institutions in higher education (Pirkkalainen et al., 2023). Their finding added that flexible, and accessible learning opportunities and micro-credentials enable administrators to acquire new skills and knowledge, enhancing their professional competence. This, in turn, contributes to improved job performance, increased confidence, and enhanced career prospects. The study's results also emphasised the potential of micro-credentials to address specific professional development needs, bridging gaps in administrative expertise. As Pirkkalainen et al. (2023) noted, micro-credentials can facilitate institutional innovation, fostering a culture of continuous learning and professional growth. <strong>Conclusion</strong> The advent of micro-credentials has revolutionized professional development in higher education, offering a flexible, focused, and accessible approach to learning. As educational administrators navigate the challenges of their roles, micro-credentials have emerged as a vital tool for enhancing their professional growth and development. This study investigated the impact of micro-credentials on educational administrators' professional growth and development. There exists a positive impact of micro-credentials on educational administrators' professional growth and development. This implies that micro-credentials enhance administrators' professional competence, job performance, and career prospects. The flexibility, accessibility, and focus of micro-credentials make them an attractive option for administrators seeking to address specific professional development needs. <strong>Recommendations</strong> Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations were made: &middot;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Institutions should prioritize the integration of micro-credentials into their professional development programs, leveraging their potential to enhance educational administrators' skills and expertise. This may involve providing accessible and flexible learning pathways, recognizing and rewarding micro-credential completion, and encouraging a culture of continuous learning. &middot;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Institutions should proactively address the significant challenges hindering micro-credential implementation by investing in technological infrastructure, providing targeted training and support, clarifying accreditation and compliance procedures, allocating sufficient resources, and fostering stakeholder engagement and buy-in. &nbsp; <strong>REFERENCES</strong> Aharonian, N., &amp; Schatz Oppenheimer, O. (2024). &lsquo;If you do not write, you dry up&rsquo;: Tensions in teacher educator research and academic writing.<em> Education Sciences, 14(9), 972.</em> Ahsan, K., Akbar, S., Kam, B., &amp; Abdulrahman, M. D. A. (2023). Implementation of micro-credentials in higher education: A systematic literature review.&nbsp;<em>Education and Information Technologies</em>,&nbsp;<em>28</em>(10), 13505-13540. Alangari, H. (2024). Transforming learning: The rise of micro-credentials in higher education. In <em>Digital Transformation in Higher Education, Part A</em> (pp. 83-100). Emerald Publishing Limited. Brown, M., McGreal, R., &amp; Peters, M. (2023). A strategic institutional response to micro-credentials: Key questions for educational leaders<em>. Journal of Interactive Media in Education, 3</em>(1), 45-57. Dane, Z. R. (2024). <em>Providing engaging and relevant professional learning opportunities: An evaluation of the perceived efficacy of micro-credentials &amp; digital badges upon k-12 educators in a large urban school district</em> (Doctoral dissertation, Northeastern University). Flintberg, B. (2022). <em>Digital micro-credentials for upskilling and reskilling in the vocational sector: A study on the potential use of a blockchain-based ICT system for micro-credentials in Sweden.</em> Unpublished Dissertation. University Press. Ghasia, M., Machumu, H., &amp; Smet, E. (2019). Micro-credentials in higher education institutions: An exploratory study of its place in Tanzania.&nbsp;<em>International Journal of Education and Development Using ICT</em>,&nbsp;<em>15</em>(1), 56-62. Halim, F. S. A., Luaran, J. E., &amp; Jill, L. S. S. (2024). Unravelling challenges of higher education institutions in implementing effective micro-credentials: A multi-stakeholder qualitative study.&nbsp;<em>Asian Journal of University Education</em>,&nbsp;<em>20</em>(1), 114-126. Kıbaru, F. (2018). Supporting faculty to face challenges in the design and delivery of quality courses in virtual learning environments. <em>Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 19</em>(4), 176-197. Kwaghbo, T. M. (2021). Organizing and managing business teacher education and training programs in higher educational institutions in Nigeria for quality business education delivery. <em>Nigerian Journal of Business Education, 8</em>(1), 51-59. LaMorte, W. W. (2022). <em>The social cognitive theory.</em> Boston University School of Public Health. https://sphweb.bumc.bu.edu/otlt/mph Liu, X., Peng, M. Y. P., Anser, M. K., Chong, W. L., &amp; Lin, B. (2020). Key teacher attitudes for sustainable development of student employability by social cognitive career theory: the mediating roles of self-efficacy and problem-based learning. <em>Frontiers in Psychology, 11</em>, 1945. Olatunji, T. I., &amp; Adewumi Adebisi, T. (2021). Comparative analysis of operational structures in single-and dual-mode distance learning institutions in Nigeria. <em>International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 22</em>(1), 59-77. O'Leary, M. (2020). <em>Classroom observation: A guide to the effective observation of teaching and learning.</em> Routledge. Oluwafemi, P. A. (2019). <em>Effects of programmed instruction, questioning and assignment teaching methods on academic achievement of students in business studies in Oyo State, Nigeria.</em> University Press. Parsons, D., Sparks, H., Vo, D., &amp; Singh, A. (2023). MOOCS and micro-credentials as launch pads to further education: Challenges and experiences. In <em>Massive Open Online Courses-Current Practice and Future Trends. IntechOpen.</em> Pirkkalainen, H., Sood, I., Padron Napoles, C., Kukkonen, A., &amp; Camilleri, A. (2023). How might micro-credentials influence institutions and empower learners in higher education? <em>Educational Research, 65</em>(1), 40-63. Sharma, H., Jain, V., Mogaji, E., &amp;Babbilid, A. S. (2024). Blended learning and augmented employability: a multi-stakeholder perspective of the micro-credentialing ecosystem in higher education.&nbsp;<em>International Journal of Educational Management</em>, 3(1), 78-86. Smith, M. J. O. (2021). <em>The impact of self-efficacy on personalized professional learning for google certification. </em>Widener University. Tee, P. K., Cham, T. H., Aw, E. C. X., Khudaykulov, A., &amp; Zhang, X. (2024). Marketing micro-credentials: understanding learners' engagement and willingness to pay more. <em>International Journal of Educational Management, 38</em>(4), 1001-1020. Van der Hijden, P., &amp; Martin, M. (2023). Short courses, micro-credentials, and flexible learning pathways: A blueprint for policy development and action. <em>International Institute for Educational Planning, </em>1-56. Wang, Y., Chaw, L. Y., Leong, C. M., Lim, Y. M., &amp; Barut, A. (2024). Massive open online courses learners' continuance intention: shaping a roadmap to micro-credentials. <em>International Journal of Educational Management, 38</em>(4), 978-1000. Westfahl, S. A., &amp; Wilkins, D. B. (2017). The leadership imperative: A collaborative approach to professional development in the global age of more for less.&nbsp;<em>Stan. L. Rev.</em>,&nbsp;<em>69</em>, 1667.

Original Research Paper <strong>Quality of Life of Mothers Having Children with Chronic Renal Failure</strong> <strong>Authors: </strong> <strong>¹</strong><strong>Dr. Lamyaa Jumaa Jihad M.B.Ch.B. FIBMS /Family Medicine ²</strong><strong>Professor, Dr. </strong><strong>Wijdan Akram Hussein</strong> <strong>M.B.Ch.B. FICMS/CM, ³</strong><strong>Ahmed Akram Hussein General surgeon (FICMS. CABMS)</strong> <em>¹</em><em>Ministry of Health, Baghdad, Iraq</em> <em>²</em><em>Al- Kindy College of Medicine /University of</em> <em>Baghdad, Iraq</em> <em>³</em><em>Al-Emamain Al-Kadhymain Medical City/ Ministry of Health/Iraq</em> Corresponding Author: Dr. Wijdan Akram Hussein M.B.Ch.B. FICMS/CM, Al- Kindy College of Medicine /University of Baghdad, Iraq <strong>Article Received:</strong>&nbsp; 04-08-2022&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <strong>Revised:</strong>&nbsp; 25-08-2022&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <strong>Accepted:</strong> 15-09-2022 <strong>ABSTRACT:</strong> <strong>Background: </strong>During the last several decades, significant improvements had been achieved in management of children suffering from end stage chronic kidney disease (ESCKD), with advancements in dialysis care whether in predialysis period or dialysis technology which lead to prolong long-term survival of affected children. But these medical achievements saddle families (especially mothers) of ESCKD children with significant psychosocial, social, environmental and physical burdens. <strong>Aims of study: </strong>To assess the overall Health Related QoL among mothers of ESCKD children in Child Protection Teaching Hospital in Baghdad. To find out the association of socio-demographic and socio-economic variables with physical, psychological, social and environmental domains of QoL.<strong> Methods</strong><strong>: </strong>A descriptive cross sectional study was conducted on a sample of 108 mothers of less than 16 years old children diagnosed with ESCKD attending hemodialysis unite in Child Protection Teaching Hospital in Baghdad during the 1^st half of 2019.Mothers` health-related quality of life was assessed using World Health Organization &ndash; Health Related QoL BREF questionnaire.&nbsp; Chi-square test was used to find out significance of associations between related variables where P. value ˂0.05was considered statistically significant. <strong>Results: </strong>&nbsp;Social relationships Health Related QoL is the most impaired domain in studied mothers (43.8/100), while the least affected domain is the physical health (52.2/100). <strong>Conclusion: </strong>physical health quality of life of Mothers who were caring for children with ESRD on hemodialysis was affected but to lesser extent than other QoL&nbsp; domains, while&nbsp; social relationships&nbsp; was the most affected domain followed by psychological wellbeing&nbsp; then environmental domains. <strong><em>Key wards</em></strong><strong><em>: Quality of life, end stage renal failure, Baghdad.</em></strong> &nbsp; &nbsp; <strong>INTRODUCTION:</strong> Regarding care in the management of various chronic illnesses in children and adolescents indicate that it is the mothers who are the main people involved in the care process<sup> (1)</sup>. Important assertions depend on this fact, such as the burden of the mothers who are the caregivers, who in addition to domestic responsibilities undertake complex activities which are not part of their routine, arising from the care for their children with chronic illnesses. Caregiver burden can culminate in acute and chronic physical disorders, resulting in isolation and depression, as well as financial disequilibrium, reduction in libido and self-accusation<sup> (2)</sup>. The caregiver&#39;s burden is defined as objective when it corresponds to the physical and/or mental effects arising from the act of caring; and as subjective when related to the negative sensation which the act of caring provokes in the caregiver<sup> (3)</sup>. The conceptualization and measurement of quality of life (QoL) in the early days, followed later by health-related quality of life (HRQoL) has been of interest to researchers from the fields of sociology and healthcare for several decades now. Increasingly, HRQoL is seen as a measurable outcome of healthcare<sup> (4)</sup>. Providing round-the-clock care for a kid is only part of being a parent. When it comes to a kid with a chronic illness who will be dependent for the rest of his or her life, the nature and significance of this care shift dramatically. Taking care of these kids has a ripple effect on the whole family, especially the parents, lowering their quality of life and affecting their physical and emotional health (QoL). When a parent&#39;s own physical or mental health prevents them from providing the care and support a kid needs, that youngster is more likely to fall short of his or her full potential in terms of functioning and independence. How parents manage stress, build resilience, and deal with novel circumstances all have a role in how well their children do in their care. It has been shown via research that a parent&#39;s mental health declines the more time they spend with their impaired kid, especially if that parent is the mother <sup>(5)</sup>. Unlike in adult patients, Childhood Chronic Kidney Disease CKD presents clinical features that are specific and totally peculiar to the pediatric age, such as the impact of the disease on growth. This impact is often under-recognized but should not be neglected. Moreover, Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) has a great psychosocial impact, both on the patient and his family. The parents not only have to fulfill the role of parents, but also take on many tasks we normally associate with nurses and doctors. Therefore, we must be aware that the increasing survival of pediatric patients with CKD, due to the improvement in the clinical and therapeutic management, will lead to a large number of effects on HRQoL mainly that of mothers. In Iraq, there is a strong emotional relationship between family members. Parents are directly affected by the whole family and have a special commitment towards their children. This traditional structure is an important source of support for the diseased children.&nbsp;Unfortunately, in the context of health care in Iraq, the needs and problems of family caregivers have not been addressed effectively and they don&rsquo;t receive appropriate support. The concept of care is a process of taking care activities and its associated responsibilities <sup>(6)</sup>. In addition to physical pressure, caring a chronically diseased child by his mother as a care giver bears all features for the chronic stress since it is associated with high levels of unpredictability and uncontrollability. These factors cause the secondary stress in different aspects of life, including work and family relationships. Stress-making factors to which caregivers are exposed result in mental stress and disorder in health behaviors, which in turn stimulate physiological responses, illness and even death<sup> (7)</sup>. The term &lsquo;caregiver&rsquo; refers to those who, during the treatment procedure, are mostly involved in looking after the patient and help the patient to handle and adopt with that chronic disease<sup> (8)</sup>. Caregivers are vital and national source of health care and families (especially mothers) are often the first source of home health care. <strong>Aims of study</strong> To assess the overall HR QoL&nbsp; of mothers of&nbsp;&nbsp; children with chronic renal failure on hemodialysis &nbsp;To find out the association between socio-demographic and socio-economic variables (e.g. age, gender, education, occupation, residency, marital status) and physical, psychological, social, and environmental domains. <strong>METHODS:</strong> <strong>Study design and duration of data collection</strong> A descriptive cross-sectional study. Data collection was carried out during the period from 1st of April to 30<sup>th</sup> of June 2019; during the working hours of the hemodialysis unite Child Protection Teaching Hospital Medical City <strong>Study Setting </strong> The study was conducted in hemodialysis unit at Child Protection Teaching Hospital Medical City, Baghdad. This unite offers services to people lived everywhere in Baghdad, mainly in Al-Russafa district and the rural areas around. <strong>Study population and sampling procedure</strong> All mothers of children with ESCKD attending Child Protection Teaching Hospital Medical City for hemodialysis for their children were included. <strong>Tools of data collection</strong> Data was collected by using self-administered questionnaire consisted of two parts <strong>Part one</strong> This part ask about demographic information of patients: gender , age and duration of hemodialysis of ESCKD child, while each mother was asked to mention her age, educational level,&nbsp; her and her husband occupation, house and car property, Marital status, and residence. <strong>Part Two</strong> The researcher employed the Arabic version of WHOQOL-BREF, a shorter version of WHOQOL 100 survey tool, which was developed by the WHO to capture the broad aspects of HRQOL. There are a total of 24 satisfaction items in the WHOQOL-BREF questionnaire, split between four categories: physical health (DOM1), mental health (DOM2), social relationships (DOM3), and environmental health (DOM8). The questionnaire includes two items measuring both overall quality of life and general health (DOM4). This instrument emphasizes the subjective responses of person rather than their objective life conditions, with assessment made over the preceding two weeks. It was developed in a wide range of languages in different cultural settings and yields comparable scores across cultures <strong><sup>(9)</sup></strong>. The scale includes 5-point Likert response ranging from 1 (very dissatisfied/very poor) to 5 (very satisfied/very good). The scores for each domain are scaled in a positive direction, that is, a higher score indicates a higher QOL rating <strong><sup>(9)</sup></strong>. The scale was prepared so as to be filled by the individual. Scoring of domains was carried out according to WHOQOL user manual <sup>(10)</sup>, where domain scores are scaled in a positive direction&nbsp; &nbsp;with 3 questions in negative direction. A score of mean &plusmn; SD on each domain is considered fair, a score of ˂ mean-1 SD is poor and a score of ˃ +1SD is good. <sup>(11,12) </sup>The dependent variable for this study was the quality of life of studied mothers, while the independent variables of this study included: child age, child gender duration of HD, mother age, residence and SES. The socioeconomic status (SES) was calculated using Wali Omer and Tariq Al-Hadithi method<sup> (13)</sup>. SES= Education + Occupation + House ownership*1 + Car ownership0.5 + [(AGE-20)/100] - retired/unemployed <strong>Ethical approval and permission</strong> 1. Permissions obtained from Ministry of Health by official letters directed to the authorities of Children Care Hospital. 2. Conduction of the study had been approved by the ethical committee at &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Iraqi Council of Medical Specializations. 3. The mothers of patients gave informed consent to participate after the &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; objectives of the study were explained to them. <strong>Statistical analysis</strong> The data were entered into Microsoft Excel. Then they were loaded into Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software (version 23). For descriptive analysis categorical variables were presented as frequencies and percentages. Continuous variables were presented as (Means &plusmn; SD). Pearson Chi square test has been used to examine the effects of socio-demographic data on the domains of parents&rsquo; QoL. &nbsp;P-value level of &lt; 0.05 was considered for significant association. <strong>RESULTS:</strong> One hundred and eight mothers of children with ESCKD met the criteria to be included in this study.Sixty-three (58.3%) of CKD children were males, the mean age of children was 10&plusmn;1.5 years,&nbsp; 55(50.9%) aged less than 10 years, the duration of hemodialysis was equal or less than 1 year in&nbsp; 61(56.5%), 48(44.4%) of children had severe complicated form of ESCKD, Characteristics of diseased children , the mean age of mothers was 38&plusmn;4.12 years, 63 (58.3%) of them aged less than 40 years, 80(74.1%) lived in urban areas. Regarding the socioeconomic status of studied mothers; 28(25.9%), 39(36.1%), 25(23.1%) and 16(14.8%) related to poor, fair, good and excellent socioeconomic state levels respectively,as in table 1. &nbsp; &nbsp; <strong>Table 1 General characteristics of studied subjects </strong> &nbsp; No.(total 108) &nbsp;% &nbsp;Child&nbsp; gender &nbsp;Male 63 58.3 &nbsp;Female 45 41.7 Child&nbsp; age&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Mean &plusmn;SD&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 10&plusmn;1.5 years Child&nbsp; age &le;10 years 55 50.9 &gt;10 years 53 49.1 Duration of HD &le;1 year 61 56.5 &gt;1 year 47 43.5 Disease severity Severs 48 44.4 less severe 60 55.6 Mother&nbsp; age&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Mean &plusmn;SD&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 38&plusmn;5.12 years Mother&nbsp; age &lt; 40 years 63 58.3 &ge;40 years 45 41.7 Residence Urban 80 74.1 Rural 28 25.9 Socioeconomic status Poor 28 25.9 Fair 39 36.1 Good 25 23.1 Excellent 16 14.8 &nbsp; &nbsp; <strong>Table 2 shows the QoL domain scores were lowest in social health (43.8&plusmn;9.2) and the highest in physical health&nbsp; (52.2&plusmn;11.4).</strong> <strong>Table 2&nbsp; distribution of studied mothers according to mean scores of QoL domains </strong> &nbsp; Mean Std. Deviation Physical health 52.2 11.4 Psychological wellbeing 44.8 10.5 Social relationships 43.8 9.2 Environmental health 49.3 12.3 &nbsp; &nbsp; Regarding impression of study subjects about GQOL (general quality of life), 27% had poor, 45% fair and 28% had good impression. Gender was the only variable to be significantly associated with GQOL (Pv= 0.028).&nbsp; As in figure 1 and table 3 &nbsp; &nbsp; <strong>Figure1:&nbsp; Distribution of studied sample according to GQOL</strong> <strong>Table 3 association between studied variables and patients` perception regarding their general QOL</strong> &nbsp; <strong>Total</strong> <strong>N= 108</strong> <strong>Poor</strong> <strong>N= 29</strong> <strong>Fair</strong> <strong>N= 49</strong> <strong>Good </strong> <strong>N=30</strong> <strong>P value</strong> <strong>N</strong> <strong>C %</strong> <strong>N</strong> <strong>R%</strong> <strong>N</strong> <strong>R%</strong> <strong>N</strong> <strong>R%</strong> <strong>Child&nbsp; gender</strong> <strong>Male</strong> 63 58.3 23 36.5 25 39.7 15 23.8 0.028 <strong>Female</strong> 45 41.7 6 13.3 24 45 15 33.3 <strong>Child&nbsp; age groups</strong> <strong>&le;10 y</strong> 55 50.9 15 27.3 26 47.3 14 25.5 0.854 <strong>&gt;10 y</strong> 53 49.1 14 26.4 23 43.4 16 30.2 <strong>Duration of HD</strong> <strong>&le;1 y</strong> 61 56.5 18 29.5 28 45.9 15 24.6 0.641 <strong>&gt;1 y</strong> 47 43.5 11 23.4 21 44.7 15 31.9 <strong>Disease severity</strong> <strong>Severs</strong> 48 44.4 10 20.8 22 45.8 16 33.3 0.345 <strong>Less sev.</strong> 60 55.6 19 31.7 27 45 14 23.3 <strong>Mother&nbsp; age</strong> <strong>&lt; 40 y</strong> 63 58.3 17 27 28 44.4 18 28.6 0.969 <strong>&ge;40 y</strong> 45 41.7 12 26.7 21 46.7 12 26.7 <strong>Residence</strong> <strong>Urban</strong> 80 74.1 20 25 35 43.8 25 31.3 0.384 <strong>Rural</strong> 28 25.9 9 32.1 14 50 5 17.9 <strong>SES</strong> <strong>Poor</strong> 28 25.9 9 32.1 13 46.4 6 21.4 0.758 <strong>Fair</strong> 39 36.1 10 25.6 15 38.5 14 35.9 <strong>Good</strong> 25 23.1 7 28 13 52 5 20 <strong>Excellent</strong> 16 14.8 3 18.8 8 50 5 31.3 &nbsp; &nbsp; In relation to GH, 25% of mothers had poor, 44% fair and 31% had got good perception. SES had been shown to have significant association with general health of the participating subjects (P value= 0.001). As in figure 2 and table 4. &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <strong>Table 4 Association between studied variables and patients` perception regarding their general&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; health </strong> &nbsp; <strong>Total</strong> <strong>N=108</strong> <strong>Poor</strong> <strong>N= 27</strong> <strong>Fair </strong> <strong>N=48</strong> <strong>Good</strong> <strong>N=33</strong> <strong>P value</strong> &nbsp; N % N % N % N % <strong>Child&nbsp; gender</strong> <strong>Male</strong> 63 58.3 15 23.8 30 47.6 18 28.6 0.732 <strong>Female</strong> 45 41.7 12 26.7 18 40 15 33.3 <strong>Child&nbsp; age groups</strong> <strong>&le;10 y</strong> 55 50.9 14 25.5 29 52.7 12 21.8 0.103 <strong>&gt;10 y</strong> 53 49.1 13 24.5 19 35.8 21 39.6 <strong>Duration of HD</strong> <strong>&le;1 y</strong> 61 56.5 15 24.6 28 45.9 18 29.5 0.939 <strong>&gt;1 y</strong> 47 43.5 12 25.5 20 42.6 15 31.9 <strong>Disease severity</strong> <strong>Severs</strong> 48 44.4 11 22.9 21 43.8 16 33.3 0.828 <strong>less sev.</strong> 60 55.6 16 26.7 27 45 17 28.3 <strong>Mother&nbsp; age</strong> <strong>&lt; 40 y</strong> 63 58.3 15 23.8 31 49.2 17 26.9 0.475 <strong>&ge;40 y</strong> 45 41.7 12 26.7 17 37.8 16 35.5 <strong>Residence</strong> <strong>Urban</strong> 80 74.1 23 28.75 35 43.75 22 27.5 0.258 <strong>Rural</strong> 28 25.9 4 14.3 13 46.4 11 39.3 <strong>SES</strong> <strong>Poor</strong> 28 25.9 11 39.3 15 53.6 2 7.1 0.001 <strong>Fair</strong> 39 36.1 8 20.5 21 53.8 10 25.6 <strong>Good</strong> 25 23.1 7 28 8 32 10 40 <strong>Excellent</strong> 16 14.8 1 6.3 4 25 11 68.8 &nbsp; &nbsp; <strong>Figure 2</strong><strong>:&nbsp; Distribution of studied sample according to GH</strong> Regarding physical health figure 3 showed that 34(32.5%), 27(25%) and 47(43.5%) mothers presented with poor, fair and good physical health respectively. &nbsp; <strong>Figure 3: Distribution of studied subjects according to physical health</strong> Regarding psychological wellbeing: figure 4 showed that 37(34.3%), 49(45.4%) and 22 (20.3%) patients presented with poor, fair and good psychological wellbeing respectively. &nbsp; <strong>Figure 4 Distribution of studied subjects according to psychological wellbeing</strong> Regarding social relationships figure 5 showed that 34(31.5%), 40 (37%) and 34 (31.5%) mothers presented with poor, fair and good social relationships respectively. &nbsp; <strong>Figure 5:</strong><strong> Distribution of studied subjects according to</strong><strong> social relationships</strong> Figure 6 showed that 30(27.8%), 43(39.8%) and 35 (32.4%) patients presented with poor, fair and good environmental health status respectively. &nbsp; &nbsp; <strong>Figure 6</strong><strong> Distribution of studied subjects according to</strong><strong> environmental health</strong> &nbsp; &nbsp; <strong>DISCUSSION:</strong> <strong>General health and QoL</strong> The results of this study showed that studied mothers scored low general score according to both their personal rating and according to domains measured one where the score are less than 50/100 for both. These results agreed with results of other studies discussing association between low HRQL of parents and presence of chronically ill sons or daughters like that found by Benjak in Croatia during 2011 when the study concluded that parents of children with Autism reported a poor QoL and general health perception<sup>(14).</sup> Studies were done by Bih- Ching Shu 2009, Mugno 2007 and Yamada 2012 pointed similar results that poor QoL were recorded among parents of children suffered from chronic diseases<sup> (15-16) </sup>&nbsp; Gender of the diseased child had no significant association with HRQOL of mothers in any studied domains and this result goes similar to Wicks results 1997, which reflects no gender discrimination in mothers` feeling towards their diseased child ^(14). <strong>Social relationships </strong> Mothers in this study recorded lowest scores in social domain with significant association between poor social relationships and younger age of affected child.&nbsp; Poor SES condition of the family was also associated with poor social relationships. This results goes in line with Allison Tong conclusion in 2008 that, parents lived with constant uncertainty about their child&#39;s medical prognosis and future prospects. At a time when their own support systems were being tested, parents were expected to manage the child&#39;s rigorous medical schedule, learn about the illness and its treatment, make travel and housing arrangements, budget for and stick to dietary restrictions, and keep up with household chores (15). In some studies focusing on the QOL of caregivers of children with a chronic condition, the social domain was the most significant indicator of poor QOL. Caregivers often have significantly poorer social relationships compared with parents of healthy children ^(17). <strong>Psychological wellbeing </strong> The second affected QoL domain was psychological wellbeing with significant association between poor psychological wellbeing and younger child age, older mother age and lower SES status. These results were also pointed by Fernanda Stella and co researchers 2014^(18),when they found that the need for hemodialysis not only causes a challenging routine for mothers, but intense distress for having to live with the existence of&nbsp;the machine. With the need for hemodialysis, an unknown reality brings about instant change to their lives. The outcome of this study is also similar to the results of Freidman in 2006 who stated that &quot;amongst caregivers of children on peritoneal dialysis, the prevalence of depression was higher than that in a control group of parents with healthy children. More striking is the fact that only 56% of these caregivers were aware of their tendency toward depression. Parents tend to report being less healthy overall if one of their children is unwell, and this correlation increases with the severity of the child&#39;s illness (19). This study&#39;s findings corroborated those of Wiedebusch et al., who found that parents of children with CKD experience significant psychological distress, poor quality of life, and depression while their kid is on dialysis (20) Findings from this research corroborated the findings of Richard Schulz (2008), who found that the physical and mental health of family care grievers was more negatively impacted when the care receiver suffered from acute pain or a worsening condition, even for mothers (21). <strong>Environmental health </strong> The third affected QoL domain is the environmental one with significant association between poor environmental condition and poor SES status, younger child age and older mother age, the explanation of that association may be related to low socioecomic status of mother families in general which the same explanation adopted by Dardas 2014 in his study about Jordanian parents of children with autistic disorder ⁽²²⁾. Medway et&nbsp;al &nbsp;inform this understanding by exploring the role of financial stress in relation to a parent&rsquo;s ability to care for a child with CKD⁽²³⁾. <strong>Physical health </strong> The least mothers` QoL domain affected by being care givers to their ESCKD children is the physical health, although this study showed significant association between older age female and poor physical health but this association could be attributed to the effect of age on physical health, another significant association was noticed between poor SES and poor physical health, which may reflect that shortage of money may prevent mothers from looking after their children and their own health. Regarding association between physical health and&nbsp; care giver burden , Martin Pinquat and Silvia Sarensen 2003, concluded that differences&nbsp; in&nbsp; the&nbsp; levels&nbsp; of&nbsp; physical&nbsp; health&nbsp; among caregiver in&nbsp; favor&nbsp; of&nbsp; noncaregivers&nbsp; were statistically significant, but small <sup>(24).</sup> The low&nbsp; effects on physical health of mothers in comparison with social relationships and psychological well-being in this study is consistent with&nbsp; Richard Schulz,&nbsp; and&nbsp;Paula R. Sherwood in 2008 conclusion, that The detrimental physical effects of caregiving&nbsp; are generally less intensive than the psychological effects, regardless of whether they are assessed by global self-report instruments or physiologic measures such as stress hormone levels<sup>(20).</sup> <strong>Limitations of this study </strong> 1. The major limitations of this study are the one center based sample in that it may not be representative of patients with ESCKD throughout Baghdad city, although it is the main center in the medical city which is the biggest medical campus in Iraq 2. There are no previous studies on QOL of mothers of children with ESCKD using the (WHOQOLBREEF) in Iraq, direct comparison with other studies is difficult. <strong>CONCLUSION:</strong> This study showed that, the physical health quality of life of Mothers who were caring for children with ESRD on hemodialysis was affected but to lesser extent than other QoL&nbsp; domains, while &nbsp;social relationships&nbsp; was the most affected domain followed by psychological wellbeing&nbsp; then environmental domains. <strong>Recommendation</strong> 1. Planning and implementing education programs for mothers of children with ESRD. 2. Involvement of family members of children with ESRD in responsibility for care of those children. 3. 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The study delve at determining the extent of total qualitymanagement of Laguna State Polytechnic UniversitySystem Services along sustainable development, genderadvocacy, development, community development, community development and good governance and environmental conservation program and management The study was conducted at LSPU System involving its four campuses during the academic year 2015-2016.A total of 164 faculty from four campuses. Descriptive method of research was employed to describe the TQM of extension programs and services Of LSPU System. Based on the analysis of data, the findings showed that indicators of TQM were all perceived high by the respondents .The total quality management of extension services along with sustainable development is significantlypredicted by adaptability as it deals of how a certain activity that is being developed and extended To the community can be continuously sustained for a long period of time to further benefit the clientele, coordinating administrative support and objective, goals and thrusts of the university. Gender advocacy and development significantly predicted by skills development, coordinating, objectives, goals and thrusts of the university. Community development and good governance is significantly predicted by the skills development, faculty development and coordinating while environmental conservation and management is predicted by skillsby skills development, administration support and adaptability. The overall results of the study came to a conclusionthat the extension services of LSPU System extended thecommunity is high or generally effective and can be sustained at some extent The null hypothesis indicating that the independent variables do not predict significantly the dependent variables is rejected.

There is increasing enthusiasm around the concept of soil health, and as a result, new public and private initiatives are being developed to increase soil health-related practices on working lands in the United States. In addition, billions of U.S. public dollars are dedicated annually toward soil conservation programs, and yet, it is not well quantified how investment in conservation programs improve soil health and, more broadly, environmental health. The Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP) is one of the major U.S. public conservation programs administered on privately managed lands for which public data are available. In this research, we developed a multi-dimensional classification system to evaluate over 300 EQIP practices to identify to what extent practices have the potential to improve different aspects of soil and environmental health. Using available descriptions and expert opinion, these practices were evaluated with a classification system based on the practice's potential to exhibit the following environmental health outcomes: (i) principles of soil health to reduce soil disturbance and increase agrobiodiversity; (ii) a transition to ecologically-based management to conserve soil, water, energy and biological resources; and (iii) adaptive strategy to confer agroecosystem resilience. Further, we analyzed nearly $7 billion U.S. dollars of financial assistance dedicated to these practices from 2009 through 2018 to explore the potential of these investments to generate environmental health outcomes. We identified nine practices that fit the highest level of potential environmental health outcomes in our classification systems. These included wetlands and agroforestry related practices, demonstrating that ecologically complex practices can provide the broadest benefits to environmental health. Practices with the greatest potential to improve environmental health in our classification system represent 2–27% of annual EQIP funding between 2009 and 2018. In fiscal year 2018, these practices represented between $13 and 121 million, which represented ~0.08% of total annual USDA expenditures. These classifications and the subsequent funding analysis provide evidence that there is tremendous untapped potential for conservation programs to confer greater environmental health in U.S. agriculture. This analysis provides a new framework for assessing conservation investments as a driver for transformative agricultural change.

This Research Paper aims to evaluate the Performance of the Heads of Maintenance Department of the Ministry of Awqaf and Islamic Affairs in the mosques of Qatar in light of the Total Quality Management (TQM) principals. To achieve this goal, the researcher conducted a field study consisting of a questionnaire containing 32 questions. The study targeted a random sample of 263 individuals (Stake Holders) in three grand mosques at different praying times and locations to measure their understanding about the role of the Maintenance Department and its employees, and the extent of involvement, as mosque users, in the process of decision-making. In addition, the level of their knowledge about the maintenance work was also studied. After analyzing the data, the most important results have been concluded; That There is a strong relationship between continuous evaluation and good performance of the Heads of Maintenance, and the External users are very important in improving and evaluation performance process. Finally, the most important recommendations is that the Heads of Maintenance should implement in all areas and at all levels TQM in order to reach a good standard of performance, and to adopting ambitious programs to increase the interaction and awareness of the internal and external users and to establish solid understanding about mosques maintenance among the users.

The problem of developing the country's human resources potential is highly relevant in modern conditions. The development of an innovative economy and its digitalization necessitates accelerating the response of the higher education system to the demands of the dynamically changing labor market. In the Russian reality, the implementation of the Bologna system was not quite effective, which caused problems within the educational system to worsen, since the performers of the goals and objectives outlined in the reform projects did not have enough time and resources to adapt the Western experience to Russian conditions. The study found that the country is reducing the total number of students in undergraduate programs, and, to a greater extent, it affected those who study on a contractual basis. At the same time, there were imbalances in the labor market due to the delayed response of the higher education system to the demands of this market and the lack of an effective system for stimulating public interest in professions that are necessary for the economy in the medium term. The dynamics of the study show a high rate of reduction in the number of students in the fields of Economics, management and law, which are still the most popular among other specialties. At the same time, there is an overabundance of University graduates with diplomas of these specialties in the labor market, and the quality of training for the vast majority of them is at a low level.

ObjectiveTo support streamlining of VPD surveillance into integrated diseases surveillance and response (IDSR) system in TanzaniaIntroductionTanzania adopted IDSR as the platform for all disease surveillance activities. Today, Tanzania’s IDSR guidelines include surveillance and response protocols for 34 diseases and conditions of public health importance, outlining in detail necessary recording and reporting procedures and activities to be taken at all levels. A total of 15 disease-specific programs/sections in the Ministry of Health, Community Development, Gender, Elderly and Children (MOHCDGEC) are linked to the IDSR, though the extent to which each program uses IDSR data varies. Over the years, IDSR procedures and the structures that support them have received significant government and external resources to maintain and strengthen detection, notification, reporting and analysis of surveillance information. However, with the imminent phasing out of programs (such as the Polio eradication program) that have supported IDSR strengthening and maintenance in the past, resources for surveillance will become more limited and the government will need to identify additional resources to sustain the country’s essential surveillance functions.Maternal and Child Survival Program (MCSP), a USAID Funded Program supported MOHCDGEC managing active and passive surveillance systems in improving coordination and strengthen the system taking into consideration declining resources as well as transitioning to polio end game where most of the financial resources were derived from to support vaccine preventable diseases surveillance. The support complements other Global health security agenda (GHSA) on the key thematic areas (Prevent, Detect and Report) support to the MOHCDGEC and working with the newly formed Emergency Operations Center (EOC) to improve response.MethodsBetween February and November 2018, the MOHCDGEC and MCSP undertook activities to generate information for future plans to strengthen Tanzania’s disease surveillance system to address the Global Health Security Agenda (GHSA): 1) desk review of country’s disease surveillance 2) meetings with stakeholders involved in surveillance; 3) workshop where stakeholders discussed and developed strategies for streamlining disease surveillance; 4) asset mapping to identify assets (human, financial, physical 5) stakeholders meeting to further discuss and agree on future strategies, activities.ResultsThe Disease surveillance system review found the functions for surveillance being implemented at different levels (Figure 1). These include identifying cases; reporting suspected cases, conditions, or events; investigating and confirming suspected cases, outbreaks and events. To facilitate decision making at different levels, it was found that analysing and response are done at all levels. A total of 15 disease-specific programs/sections in the MOHCDGEC are linked to the IDSR, though the extent to which each program uses IDSR data varies.Key strengths and opportunitiesThe government’s adoption of the IDSR platform and the fact that the MOHCDGEC has a dedicated department to monitor IDSR performance has been a great achievement of the program. The system is fully adaptable to support all disease surveillance with clear supervisory structures in place at regional and council levels. At the operational level there is presence of full-time, competent and dedicated government employees and exhibiting awareness of their responsibilities, and resourcefulness. The entire surveillance program benefits from government and external funding for disease-specific surveillance-related programs (e.g. funds for polio eradication and malaria program).Despite the achievements, there are notable challenges faced by the program including disease-specific programs often requiring additional information and opting to set up parallel surveillance systems rather than integrating with the IDSR; surveillance activities often not being considered high priority at council level relative to curative service and/or surveillance not being a line item in budgets; electronic data transmission platforms not being able to support transmission of all e-IDSR data with the result that health facility data (including diseases for immediate notification) may not get reported in weekly transmissions; high turnover of surveillance staff and unsystematic orientation of newly-deployed staff; discrepancies in reported HMIS, IDSR, and disease-specific program data indicating data quality issues.Asset mapping: At the time of the review, the number of staff available varied widely between programs, with the national laboratory and the National AIDS Control program (NACP) reporting the highest number at council level and Immunization and Vaccine Development (IVD) having significant number of persons supporting vaccine preventable disease surveillance. At the time of the review, most of the funds were allocated in capacity building through training and supportive supervision compared to core surveillance function.Key inteventions to streamlining and harmonizing of surveillance Supported the roll out of electronic IDSR to ensure real time surveillance through DHIS2Supported proceedures to establishement of surveillance expert working group (EWG);Development of Term of reference for EWG to guide implementation of IDSR activitiesDevelopment of transition plan highlighting key stakeholders and the support they provide to strengthening surveillance in the country;Development of workplan to guide implementation of agreed recommendations which includes;1. Coordinating activities of all stakeholders involved in surveillance,2. Developing or advocating for an interoperable and harmonized reporting system through DHIS2 that will accommodate the needs ofthe various disease- and event-surveillance programs,3. Promoting synergies at national level so that active surveillance is expanded as appropriate to other diseases and supports casebased surveillance,4. Building capacity of RHMTs/CHMTs in leadership and management to manage human and financial resources and prioritizesurveillance;5. Coordinating and strengthening disease and event-surveillance at community level by having at least one trained focal person at thecommunity for all disease surveillance.ConclusionsStreamlining and strengthening of the surveillance system could be achieved by existing coordination structures within MOHCDGEC. Strengthening IDSR by implementing an interoperable of reporting systems including integration of laboratory data will achieve harmonization, consistency in data and appropriate response. At the Regional and council level, priority activities identified include strengthening coordination, orientation and training for financial and human resources management for surveillance aimed at strengthening surveillance and response teams. The IDSR should strengthen active surveillance to adopt case based surveillance as deemed appropriate for more diseases. A proposed plan for implementing key activities to achieve integration and streamlining of disease surveillance has been developed and it is hoped that resources will be made available for immediate implementation.

&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <strong>1.</strong><strong>INTRODUCTION </strong> Risks are present in all parts of the construction work regardless of size, resources, funds etc. Since each construction project is unique and dynamic, the construction performance presumes several uncertainties about the complexity of the construction project (Chandra, 2015). Risk management suggests that risks should be distributed to minimize their harm since they cannot be completely eliminated, which would have been the easiest option (Szymański, 2017). To amplify the profitability perimeters of construction contracts, it is wise to assess and evaluate the possible positive risk factors(Chandra, 2015). Identifying, classifying and assessing potential risk factors that may affect the functioning of projects is prudent. Therefore, the focus of this research is to identify the harmful characteristics of factors encountered along with the risk management of the progress of a project. A handful of researchers looked at the risk management procedure in a specific project phase, such as conceptual and feasible phase, construction phase and design phase, rather than from the point of view of the project life circle (Rostami &amp; Oduoza, 2017). Recognizing external and internal risks of construction projects is imperative in order to properly record unpredictable incidents of construction projects. Various risk recognition and further risk assessment processes reduce the pessimistic influence of risks and expand efficiency and productivity in business (Motiar Rahman &amp; Kumaraswamy, 2002). Consequently, to articulate and manage key risks related to construction projects, this paper introduces the results of a thorough review of the literature and seeks to draw attention to the major factors affecting risk management in developing countries. &nbsp; <strong>2.</strong><strong>LITERATURE REVIEW</strong> Projects and organizations are full of unpredictable situations in our daily life (Olsson, 2007) representing an obvious problem for the construction business (Vallabh Vidyanagar). The topic of construction risk management has been the subject of several research works. Some of the earliest researchers to structure construction risk tests was Chapman and Cooper (C. Chapman &amp; Cooper, 1983). Their research resulted in a risk engineering approach that led to many useful risk management tooling techniques (Jarkas &amp; Haupt, 2015). Risk management as defined is a risk recognition and assessment procedure, then applying methods to minimize it to a reasonable extent (Tohidi, 2011). After Edward and Bowen (Bowen, 1998)research on construction risk management issued in the early years of 1960-1970 to notice shortages and inconsistencies in understanding and conducting towards construction risks. The results suggest that social, financial, economic and political risk factors deserve more attention as far as research is concerned compared to other factors such as occupational health and safety and quality assurance. (Al-Bahar &amp; Crandall, 1990) conducted research and categorized risk factors in construction in 6 classes, one of which was financial risk. Financial risk suggests that a construction company may fail to meet its financial targets, so it is a potential for financial instability that could lead to severe loss and uncertainty about its extent. The past / earlier author identified that inflation, improper cost plan, industry recession, cash flow availability could increase financial risks 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(Edwards &amp; Bowen, 1998; El-Sayegh, 2008). (Ameyaw &amp; Chan, 2015) recognized laws and regulations as a risk management factor in construction. Legal and regulatory risks are risks that the production targets of construction firms will be enforceable as they cannot meet the country&#39;s legal and regulatory standards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(Assaf &amp; Al-Hejji, 2006; Barlish, De Marco, &amp; Thaheem, 2013) observes that a delay in the construction project could result if this factor is not addressed. (Tadayon, Jaafar, &amp; Nasri, 2012)in the Iranian Construction Risk Identification Assessment, notes that frequent changes in statutory regulations affect risk management in construction. (Zou, Zhang, &amp; Wang, 2007) after conducting a survey in Chinese construction states that it takes a long time to obtain legal and regulatory approval, hence it is essential for project members to maintain good relations with government officials. &nbsp; (Szymański, 2017) identifies natural and environmental risks as a threat to construction risk management, the previous / earlier author noted that natural risks are environmental risks and cannot be anticipated. Natural risks are a natural phenomenon that sometimes has a negative impact on people or the environment, examples of such are classified as meteorological and geological phenomena, under these two we have earthquakes, floods, landslides, wildfires, cyclone storms, etc. Air pollution, spread of diseases, land degradation, water pollution, natural disasters are a threat in Nigerian constructions(Akinbile, Ofuyatano, Oni, &amp; Agboola, 2018). (San Santoso, Ogunlana, &amp; Minato, 2003) conducted a survey in Jakarta and recognized design issues as a factor affecting construction risk management. Design risk is the likelihood of a design being unsuccessful to meet a project&#39;s requirements. Included are designs that are unsound, inefficient, unstable or just not attaining customer standards(R. J. Chapman, 2001). Design is a stage which forms the backbone of the project(Szymański, 2017). Szymanski further states that at the design stage we have risks such as improper designer selection, the risk of overestimating the cost of the project. Giving design to unqualified planners and defective designs is a threat to risk management, states (Enshassi, Mohamed, &amp; Abu Mosa, 2008)after conducting a survey in Palestine. (Wiguna &amp; Scott, 2005) identified the owner&#39;s design change as one of the factors affecting the risk management of Indonesian construction. (Z. Wu, Nisar, Kapletia, &amp; Prabhakar, 2017). Further research on the project success of the Chinese construction industry identified inadequate program scheduling, inadequate site information, as factors affecting risk management in construction. Both(Sharaf &amp; Abdelwahab, 2015)and(Mhatre, Thakkar, &amp; Maiti, 2017) noted that design drawing errors are a serious threat to a project,(Mhatre et al., 2017) further identified poor construction plan, inappropriate design, and poor engineering as design risk factors. After reviewing the literature on factors affecting risk management, the researcher identifies political risks as one of the major factors affecting risk management in construction(Matthee, 2011). The earlier / past researcher defines political risks as the risk that an investment&#39;s profit might suffer as a result of changes in policies or instability in the country. (Goh &amp; Abdul-Rahman, 2013) Country economic instability, risk of inflation, risk of recession in industry and disagreements among funding parties, etc., are highly impacting factors identified by the previous / former author. (Sharaf &amp; Abdelwahab, 2015)State that political changes, frequent change of government, protests for change of government and disputes between political parties are also factors to be recognized. Furthermore (Deng, Low, Li, &amp; Zhao, 2014)and(Famiyeh, Amoatey, Adaku, &amp; Agbenohevi, 2017) emphasize that the major risks at the top due to political differences and economy are currency infatuation, changes in tax rates, changes in security officials, workers strikes and fire risk. After a survey in Ghana (Famiyeh et al., 2017) identified government pressure, inspectors, government bureaucracy to obtain license conflicts as major factors affecting risk management under political risks. (Enshassi et al., 2008) conducted a survey in Palestine and found that frequent border closures as a political factor affect construction progress. The findings revealed that safety risk falls under risk management factors(Hallowell &amp; Gambatese, 2009). (Aminbakhsh, Gunduz, &amp; Sonmez, 2013). Safety risks are defined as the likelihood that a person or machines under construction may be harmed if they are a person who may suffer adverse health effects if they are exposed to a certain hazard. (Hwang, Zhao, &amp; Toh, 2014) also identified safety and health as a factor affecting construction risk management. More so after categorizing risks into major classes Safety and health were among them (Ghosh &amp; Jintanapakanont, 2004), justifying how serious an issue this factor is following a survey in Malaysia (Goh &amp; Abdul-Rahman, 2013)accidents were recognized as a major threat in Malaysian constructions. Older researcher on Palestine noted that workers were working in dangerous areas, putting their lives at great risk(Famiyeh et al., 2017) states that inadequate safety equipment for workers also put employees at enormous risk. Old author further notes that construction accidents are usually caused by material and equipment failures,(San Santoso et al., 2003)further elaboration that construction equipment maintenance is the most significant. (Famiyeh et al., 2017) also stated that air pollution and pollution of water bodies pose a serious health risk and disease spread are very serious threats in the construction of Ghana. After reviewing literature the author considered resource unavailability as a major factor affecting risk management, past authors like (Akinbile et al., 2018)further noted that it is a very important factor because of its global implications. John Spacey also gave an example of resources, as stated, including funding, skilled workers, time and anything else needed to support the process to a particular obligation. (Hwang et al., 2014) identified the human resource as a risk affecting construction projects. Moreover, following a survey conducted in Nigeria(Akinbile et al., 2018), insufficient resource availability was identified as a major risk. (El-Sayegh, 2008) conducted a survey on the construction sites of the UAE, the previous / earlier author recognized a shortage of materials and labor supply as a risk. In their survey in Indonesia, the same results were obtained in 2005 by(Wiguna&amp; Scott, 2005), identifying the availability of labor, material and equipment as a problem suggesting that these are serious risks not to be ignored in construction. (Amoatey, Famiyeh, &amp; Andoh, 2017). In Ghana it was found that there was a shortage of skilled labor in construction. (Mhatre et al., 2017) It came to the same conclusion that there was insufficient experience and skill in construction workers. Technological risk is any potential for disruption of technology failures, the project, for example, information security, bad site communication, just to name a few (Nelkin, 1989). Change in technology also affects risk management in construction, (Dey, Tabucanon, &amp; Ogunlana, 1994) also states that technology change is a risk in the life of the project. (Mhatre et al., 2017) notes that the shortage of required equipment that is technology is also a major risk in construction and can cause slow progress of the project. Social risks for a construction company include actions that affect their surrender(Johnson &amp; Covello, 2012). There are other issues that may also be relevant to social risks, such as public health issues, which may have an impact on absenteeism and the morale of workers. If the construction company doesn&#39;t have a good understanding of the local power structure.(Famiyeh et al., 2017) identified the displacement of communities and high living costs, as well as the lack of community acceptance as a social risk following a survey in Ghana. (Mhatre et al., 2017) identifies the increase in material prices and the cost of studies as a social risk. &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Table 1: Factors Affecting Risk Management in Construction <strong>FACTORS</strong> <strong>SUBFACTORS</strong> <strong>REFERENCES</strong> 1.Financial risks - Market inflation - Capital cost - Project funding problems - Inaccurate cost estimation - Price infatuation - An estimate of quantity of resources - Cash flow availability (Ghosh &amp; Jintanapakanont, 2004; Wiguna &amp; Scott, 2005) 2.Legaland regulation risks - Changes in law and regulations - Requirements and permit approval - Contract selection and administration - Delayed dispute resolution (Chandra, 2015; Ghosh &amp; Jintanapakanont, 2004) 3.Naturalrisks/ Acts of God - Earthquakes - Weather - Ecological - Natural hazards (Al-Bahar&amp; Crandall, 1990) 4.Design risks - Design change - Errors and omissions in design - Inadequate specifications (Dosumu &amp; Aigbavboa, 2017) (Mhatre et al., 2017) (Jarkas &amp; Haupt, 2015) (R. J. Chapman, 2001) 5.Technological risks - Change in technology - Lack of qualified equipment users - Shortage of required equipment (Al-Bahar &amp; Crandall, 1990; Mhatre et al., 2017) 6.Safety/Health risks &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; - Pollution - Fire outbreaks - Spread of diseases - Sanitation (Aminbakhsh et al., 2013) (Hallowell &amp; Gambatese, 2009) (Ringen, Seegal, &amp; England, 1995) 7. Social risks - Belief - Moral values - Morality - Social status - Culture (Cernea, 2004) (Y. Wu, Deng, &amp; Zhang, 2011) (Johnson &amp; Covello, 2012) (Nelkin, 1989) &nbsp; 8. Political risks - Change in government - Disagreements in funding parties - Civil wars - Corruption (Akinbile et al., 2018) 9. Resource risks - Availability of equipment - Availability of labor - Defective materials (Akinbile et al., 2018) 10. Environmental risks - Ecological - Pollution &nbsp;(Dione, Ruwanpura, &amp; Hettiaratchi, 2005) 11.Human resource risks - Availability of labor - Availability of skilled labor (Gudienė, Banaitis, &amp; Banaitienė, 2013; Windapo, 2016) <strong>3.</strong><strong>METHODOLOGY</strong> The review of literature carried out assisted in having a finer comprehension and gathering of data of investigating factors affecting risk management in construction. It led to the identification of 11 main factors and their sub-factors. Adopted was a survey method to solidify the factors in this study. Several papers with past reliable information were reviewed. Data from the reviewed literature was to be gathered and compared to the other method the author used to collect information. An online questionnaire was developed; the author designed and distributed the questionnaire to get huge sample details for a comprehensive analysis and understanding. The questionnaire consisted of 3 parts. First included the introduction and the study objectives. The second part had the basic profile of the respondent, including their work experience, job position, understanding of risk management in project and their education level. The third section was made to evaluate and grade factors according to their effect with respect the respondent&rsquo;s opinion. The respondents were asked to evaluate the risk factors on a five-point Likert scale, were {(5=strongly agree)(4=agree)(3=no opinion)(2=disagree)(1=strongly disagree)}. Amongst the respondents were project managers, contractors, architects, site engineers, consultants and site experts. Designing the questionnaire an expert&rsquo;s opinion was taken into consideration. A total of 100 survey questionnaires were set out to different people and countries. Only 70 people managed to complete the questionnaire both from the private and public sector of construction. Amongst the respondents were people from different developing countries such as Zimbabwe, Zambia, Cameroon, Nepal, China, Bangladesh ,South Africa ,Botswana, Tunisia only to name a few. Data was analyzed by using the Relative Importance Index (RII) and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), these methods of analysis reduces biased results both as far as ranking of factors and the analyses of variance is concerned. ANOVA gives a fair estimation of variance between two groups which in this case is our private and public sector Relative Importance Index (RII) is carried out by using Microsoft excel software. &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; (1) &nbsp; W = respondent&rsquo;s given weighting to each factor ranging from 1-5 A = highest weight&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; N = total number of respondents The RII results ranges from 0-1. &nbsp; <strong>3.1</strong><strong>&nbsp;Analysis of variance (ANOVA)</strong> Analysis of variance is the gathering of statistical models and their estimation procedures, such as the difference among and between groups. Results below 0. 05 suggest that there is a significant difference between 2 groups however results above 0. 05 suggest that there is no significant variation between our chosen groups(reference). (ANOVA) is carried out by using SPSS version 23 software. &nbsp; <strong>3.2 Hypothesis</strong> H1: there was no difference between private and public sector construction projects in the perception of significance level of factors affecting risk management in developing countries. &nbsp; <strong>4.</strong><strong>RESULT</strong> Table 2: Factor Rating by Relative Information Index (RII) <strong><em>Factors affecting risk management</em></strong> <strong><em>Frequency of severity</em></strong> <strong><em>Rating</em></strong> <strong><em>1</em></strong> <strong><em>2</em></strong> <strong><em>3</em></strong> <strong><em>4</em></strong> <strong><em>5</em></strong> <strong><em>RII</em></strong> <strong><em>Rank</em></strong> Government instability 2 6 5 23 31 0.8200 1 Shortage or required equipment 4 7 2 24 31 0.8057 2 Inflation 3 4 7 33 22 0.7829 3 Lack of skilled labor 4 6 7 26 24 0.7771 4 Corruption 5 7 8 24 26 0.7686 5 Capital cost 4 9 8 20 26 0.7571 6 Culture 4 7 15 20 24 0.7514 7 Change in laws and regulations 3 9 8 30 17 0.7514 8 Error and omission in design 2 9 9 36 14 0.7457 9 Improper design selection 5 9 9 28 18 0.7286 10 Improper technology selection 5 9 13 22 20 0.7229 11 Unavailability of labor 9 9 7 20 22 0.7200 12 Change in technology 2 12 12 23 19 0.7171 13 Sanitation 4 10 11 34 11 0.7086 14 Contract selection and administration 2 12 22 18 16 0.6971 15 Delayed dispute resolution 5 10 16 23 15 0.6914 16 Inaccurate cost estimation 4 12 19 16 18 0.6914 17 Fluctuation of currency 11 6 14 21 17 0.6829 18 Recession in industry 3 15 18 19 15 0.6800 19 Change in government 5 10 22 23 9 0.6657 20 Moral values 2 6 36 19 5 0.6657 21 Improper cost plan 17 10 17 17 16 0.6543 22 Perception 4 12 26 16 11 0.6514 23 Weather 9 12 16 19 13 0.6486 24 Decrease in aesthetic level(client) 4 12 28 16 8 0.6343 25 Inadequate specification 3 10 35 15 6 0.6257 26 Disagreement in funding parties 6 16 23 15 10 0.6200 27 Ecology 7 4 42 11 5 0.6143 28 Social status 5 14 35 8 8 0.6000 29 Over estimating project cost 5 26 15 17 6 0.5857 30 Design change 10 25 11 16 7 0.5571 31 Pollution 7 30 14 12 7 0.5486 32 Requirement of permits and approval 15 22 12 12 8 0.5371 33 Fire outbreak 15 20 13 16 3 0.5343 34 Pollution 20 17 12 14 6 0.5314 35 Spread of diseases 9 34 10 12 5 0.5114 36 Defective material 15 29 4 16 6 0.5000 37 Natural hazards 28 13 8 8 13 0.5000 38 Civil wars 34 8 8 6 12 0.4657 39 The table above presents an analysis for factors affecting risk management in developing countries using the Relative importance index. The table shows the importance and the impact of the stated factors from the most important to the less important one. &nbsp; Table 3: Analyses of Variance between Public and Private Sector (ANOVA) &nbsp; <strong>Sum of Squares</strong> <strong>Df</strong> <strong>Mean Square</strong> <strong>F</strong> <strong>Sig.</strong> FR1 Between Groups 0.386 1 0.386 0.32 0.57 Within Groups 81.1 68 1.193 &nbsp; &nbsp; Total 81.486 69 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; FR2 Between Groups 7.243 1 7.243 4.15 0.05 Within Groups 118.6 68 1.744 &nbsp; &nbsp; Total 125.843 69 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; FR3 Between Groups 2.519 1 2.519 1.33 0.25 Within Groups 128.467 68 1.889 &nbsp; &nbsp; Total 130.986 69 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; FR4 Between Groups 1.458 1 1.458 1.06 0.31 Within Groups 93.342 68 1.373 &nbsp; &nbsp; Total 94.8 69 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; FR5 Between Groups 0.011 1 0.011 0.01 0.94 Within Groups 111.775 68 1.644 &nbsp; &nbsp; Total 111.786 69 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; FR6 Between Groups 1.071 1 1.071 0.73 0.4 Within Groups 100.3 68 1.475 &nbsp; &nbsp; Total 101.371 69 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; LR1 Between Groups 0.805 1 0.805 0.64 0. 43 Within Groups 86.067 68 1.266 &nbsp; &nbsp; Total 86.871 69 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; LR2 Between Groups 0.144 1 0.144 0.08 0. 78 Within Groups 122.942 68 1.808 &nbsp; &nbsp; Total 123.086 69 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; LR3 Between Groups 1.63 1 1.63 1.13 0. 29 Within Groups 97.742 68 1.437 &nbsp; &nbsp; Total 99.371 69 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; LR4 Between Groups 0.344 1 0.344 0.28 0. 6 Within Groups 85.142 68 1.252 &nbsp; &nbsp; Total 85.486 69 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; NE1 Between Groups 11.433 1 11.433 4.98 0. 03 Within Groups 156.067 68 2.295 &nbsp; &nbsp; Total 167.5 69 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; NE2 Between Groups 1.144 1 1.144 0.62 0. 43 Within Groups 125.842 68 1.851 &nbsp; &nbsp; Total 126.986 69 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; NE3 Between Groups 6.001 1 6.001 6.73 0. 01 Within Groups 60.642 68 0.892 &nbsp; &nbsp; Total 66.643 69 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; NE4 Between Groups 0.005 1 0.005 0 0. 96 Within Groups 118.867 68 1.748 &nbsp; &nbsp; Total 118.871 69 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; DR1 Between Groups 0.305 1 0.305 0.21 0. 65 Within Groups 99.767 68 1.467 &nbsp; &nbsp; Total 100.071 69 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; DR2 Between Groups 0.043 1 0.043 0.03 0. 86 Within Groups 90.6 68 1.332 &nbsp; &nbsp; Total 90.643 69 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; DR3 Between Groups 2.976 1 2.976 2.85 0. 1 Within Groups 70.967 68 1.044 &nbsp; &nbsp; Total 73.943 69 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; DR4 Between Groups 0.686 1 0.686 0.44 0. 51 Within Groups 105.1 68 1.546 &nbsp; &nbsp; Total 105.786 69 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; DR5 Between Groups 0.576 1 0.576 0.62 0. 43 Within Groups 63.267 68 0.93 &nbsp; &nbsp; Total 63.843 69 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; DR6 Between Groups 0.076 1 0.076 0.07 0. 79 Within Groups 71.767 68 1.055 &nbsp; &nbsp; Total 71.843 69 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; TR1 Between Groups 0.144 1 0.144 0.09 0. 76 Within Groups 104.442 68 1.536 &nbsp; &nbsp; Total 104.586 69 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; TR2 Between Groups 0.011 1 0.011 0.01 0. 93 Within Groups 102.975 68 1.514 &nbsp; &nbsp; Total 102.986 69 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; TR3 Between Groups 1.144 1 1.144 0.78 0. 38 Within Groups 99.942 68 1.47 &nbsp; &nbsp; Total 101.086 69 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; TR4 Between Groups 1.001 1 1.001 0.67 0. 41 Within Groups 100.942 68 1.484 &nbsp; &nbsp; Total 101.943 69 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; SHR1 Between Groups 1.071 1 1.071 0.7 0. 41 Within Groups 104.7 68 1.54 &nbsp; &nbsp; Total 105.771 69 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; SHR2 Between Groups 0.171 1 0.171 0.14 0. 71 Within Groups 83.2 68 1.224 &nbsp; &nbsp; Total 83.371 69 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; SHR3 Between Groups 0.305 1 0.305 0.22 0. 64 Within Groups 93.067 68 1.369 &nbsp; &nbsp; Total 93.371 69 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; PR4 Between Groups 0.576 1 0.576 0.44 0. 51 Within Groups 88.567 68 1.302 &nbsp; &nbsp; Total 89.143 69 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; PR1 Between Groups 1.376 1 1.376 1.11 0. 3 Within Groups 84.067 68 1.236 &nbsp; &nbsp; Total 85.443 69 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; PR2 Between Groups 1.458 1 1.458 1.07 0. 31 Within Groups 92.842 68 1.365 &nbsp; &nbsp; Total 94.3 69 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; PR3 Between Groups 0.001 1 0.001 0 0. 98 Within Groups 167.442 68 2.462 &nbsp; &nbsp; Total 167.443 69 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; PR4 Between Groups 0.233 1 0.233 0.2 0. 66 Within Groups 80.067 68 1.177 &nbsp; &nbsp; Total 80.3 69 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; RR1 Between Groups 0.096 1 0.096 0.06 0. 8 Within Groups 105.175 68 1.547 &nbsp; &nbsp; Total 105.271 69 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; RR2 Between Groups 0.058 1 0.058 0.03 0. 87 Within Groups 136.742 68 2.011 &nbsp; &nbsp; Total 136.8 69 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; RR3 Between Groups 0.096 1 0.096 0.06 0. 81 Within Groups 115.175 68 1.694 &nbsp; &nbsp; Total 115.271 69 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; SR1 Between Groups 0.043 1 0.043 0.06 0. 82 Within Groups 53.4 68 0.785 &nbsp; &nbsp; Total 53.443 69 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; SR2 Between Groups 4.43 1 4.43 3.19 0. 08 Within Groups 94.442 68 1.389 &nbsp; &nbsp; Total 98.871 69 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; SR3 Between Groups 0.805 1 0.805 0.66 0. 42 Within Groups 82.567 68 1.214 &nbsp; &nbsp; Total 83.371 69 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Between Groups 0.233 1 0.233 0.22 0. 64 SR4 Within Groups 73.767 68 1.085 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Total 74 69 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The table above presents an analysis of results for private and public sector of constructions in developing countries as far as factors affecting risk management are concerned. Here it is clearly shown that private and public sectors are affected the same way by the stated factors. &nbsp; <strong>5.</strong><strong>DISCUSSION</strong> After the collection of our data using questionnaires data was analyzed. The RII method provided a non-biased ranking of our risk factors according to how people responded. The top 10 major factors in our ranking and also concretized by the review of literature are as follows. Government instability was number one on our ranking using the RII method. Government instability is a key risk factor to consider because it is interlinked with many major risk factors that affect construction management in developing countries such as inflation, corruption, lack of equipment only to name a few. (Bekr, 2006) did a study in Iraq as a country which had an unstable government and noted that government instability leads to a lot of risks in a construction project since it affects time, cost, safety and quality of the project. In the research the previous author shows that government instability also affects the project&rsquo;s performance, hence making it hard for project managers to manage risks in the project&rsquo;s life circle. In the data analysis done resource availability ranks second amongst all other risk factors affecting construction management in developing countries. (Sharaf &amp; Abdelwahab, 2015) Resource availability also had a high rating in the stated authors study for risk factors for Egyptian constructions. (Akinbile et al., 2018)research paper also shows a high rating of resource availability as a risk factor in Nigerian. The author notes that this factor is amongst the top major factors, maybe due to its influence to the project&rsquo;s objectives if not well managed, hence(Zou et al., 2007)also supports the notion in construction projects. Market inflation holds the third position in the authors ranking using the RII method. Market inflation refers to the rise of prices of goods and services in the economy of a country over a period of time. (Sharaf &amp; Abdelwahab, 2015) also rates this factor as one of the major risk factors affecting construction management, Sharaf further notes that when prices rise the currency buys less. We see this in construction projects in developing countries like Zimbabwe that was highly affected by market inflation in 2008. The instability of currency leading to the price instability of goods and services was making it hard to plan, and manage projects within Zimbabwe. (Moyo &amp; Crafford, 2010). Furthermore several authors recognize market inflation as a key risk affecting construction management in developing countries amongst them is (Wiguna &amp; Scott, 2005) and (Goh &amp; Abdul-Rahman, 2013). On the fourth spot of the authors ranking using the RII method of analyzing there is the unavailability of skilled labor as a factor affecting risk management in construction projects in developing countries. This is also one of the major factors because it does not affect developing countries only. A study in an article published in 2015 by the General Contractors Of America also revealed that nearly 80% of American construction businesses are finding it hard to get skilled labor for their constructions businesses. (Tshele &amp; Agumba, 2014)in the research paper shows how key this factor is in developing countries by providing a critical research in South African construction industry, the noted author further states that this shortage of skilled labor has prompted the South African government to be reactive. However, (Windapo, 2016) argues that there is shortage of skilled labor in developing countries with the high population of educated young unemployed people. Several authors note that corruption is one of the major key risks in construction projects in developing countries. (Kenny, 2007)notes that corruption levels in developing countries affects risk management in construction projects to a greater extent since the impact of corruption goes way beyond bribery to low economic returns, poor projects results and low funding for maintenance. (Kenny, 2009). Corruption as a factor holds the fifth position in the author&rsquo;s analysis results. Capital cost is a major factor affecting risk management in construction industry for developing countries. This is because most of the developing countries do not have enough funds to fund their desired construction projects. Hence, they depend mostly on foreign funders, this leads to a delay in project completion time and over spending in a project. (Ofori, 2000)in a research about challenges of construction industry in developing countries states that developing country&rsquo;s local construction firms have no funds to sponsor privatized projects hence this imposed a huge risk to any started private project. Culture also qualifies to be on top ten major factors affecting risk management in developing countries. This is because culture plays a vital role whenever there are a huge number of people like work places. Culture affects work days, dress codes ,gender equality, salaries, values, religion, only to name a few. (Kivrak, Ross, Arslan, Tuncan, &amp; Dainty, 2009) Change in laws and regulations as a result of trying new effective ways in developing countries have a greater impact on risk management in construction industries. This may be a result of change in government or any other major changes in the ruling party of a particular country hence it has a direct impact on construction business. (Chandra, 2015)Also recognizes this factor as a key factor affecting risk management in developing countries. Error and omission in design also qualifies to be in the top ten according to the RII rating. A design with errors is misleading and also a design with insufficient details is misleading hence this has a direct impact on many aspects of the project&rsquo;s life circle it also affects the financial side of the projects. There will be a lot of time wasting trying to solve and re-interpret the new designs hence delays are prone to happen in such cases. Design change is recognized as a key factor with a high rating in its effect on risk management in construction for developing countries, several authors support this point(Akinbile et al., 2018). The change in design is time consuming and also costs a lot of money. &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; After carefully observing the data from the survey collected using questionnaires, most of the respondents were from the private sector with a difference of ten from the public sector. The author then used the Analysis of variance to analyze the data so as to get a none biased result of variance between the private and public sector. The results of the analysis were helpful as they proved that the private sector of developing countries is affected by the same factors with the public sector to a greater extent. Our analysis proves to be authentic since most of our compared results seem to be the same. The author concludes that private and public sector are affected in the same way by the most stated factors as far as risk management in construction of developing countries is concerned. However, there are three factors that vary in response according as suggested by the data, improper cost plan (FR2), natural hazards (NER1) and ecology (NER3). &nbsp; <strong>6.</strong><strong>Conclusion</strong> Results of research show that the most significant factors affecting risk management in developing countries are government instability, lack of skilled labor and inflation. These factors have the highest percentage as shown by the relative information index in table 2 above. The most significant factors that affect risk management in construction are the ones that are common and noticeable in developing countries construction projects. Besides, we need to concentrate on top 10 major factors from RII method as major factors affecting risk management in most construction projects in developing countries. 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<strong>Gyeongsang University Turnitin Trash Files</strong> <strong>HUMAN CAPITAL NEXUS AND GROWTH OF NIGERIA ECONOMY</strong> <strong>CHAPTER ONE</strong> <strong>INTRODUCTION</strong> <strong>Background to the Study </strong> Government expenditure equally known as public spending simply refers to yearly expenditure by the public sector (government) in order to achieve some macroeconomic aims notably high literacy rate, skilled manpower, high standard of living, poverty alleviation, national productivity growth, and macro-economic stability. It is also expenditure by public authorities at various tiers of government to collectively cater for the social needs of the people. Generally, it has been revealed that public expenditure plays a key role in realizing economic growth. This is because providing good education to individuals is one of the principal avenues of improving human resource quality in any economy. From this perspective, advancing school enrolment may subsequently lead to economic growth. Therefore, education remains the effective way to subdue poverty, illiteracy, underfeeding and accelerate economic growth in the long-term. Much attention has been channeled towards clarifying the relationship between education and economic growth, and so, has led to series of studies by economists over the past 30 years. There is substantial literature to back the fact that correlation exists between the two. (Sylvie, 2018). In line with the views of Hadir and Lahrech (2015), the fact that humans are the most worthy assets remains undisputable in both developed and developing countries. Therefore efficiency in human resource management is pertinent if development must be realized. In this sense, the major gateway to development is adequate investment in human capital which may be described as an individual&rsquo;s potential economic value in terms of skills, knowledge, and other intangible assets. In order to realize the well-known macroeconomic objective of economic growth, Nigeria being a developing country embarked on some programs in the educational sector with the aim of boosting human capital development. However, these programs have only served as conduits for enriching the corrupt political elite. Given the high prospects of achieving economic growth in Nigeria and the place of human capital development in its actualization, education, therefore, remains a top priority for the Nigeria government as well as concerned researchers. Thus, this study is one among other concerned studies that will attempt to examine economic growth and human capital nexus in Nigeria through education variables. In particular, using education as a measure of human capital, it will attempt to explore the impact of education variables on the growth of Nigeria&rsquo;s economy. According to Wamboye, (2015), education makes way for vital knowledge, skills, techniques and information for individuals to function in family and society. Education can groom a set of educated leaders to take on jobs in government services, public and private firms, and domestic and foreign firms. The growth of education can provide all kinds of grooming that would foster literacy and basic skills. Though alternative investments in the economy could generate more growth, it must not deviate from the necessary contributions; economic as well as non-economic, that education can make and has made to expediting macroeconomic growth (Clark, 2015). Todaro and Smith in Clark (2015), likewise called attention to the fact that, extension of education lead to an increasingly gainful labor force and provide it with expanded information and abilities, and boost employment and income-earning avenues for educators, schools, and employees. Economic growth, proxied by Gross Domestic Product (GDP), gives numerous advantages which include increasing the general living standard of the masses as estimated by per capita pay (income), making the distribution of income simpler to accomplish, thus, shortening the time span needed to achieve the fundamental needs of man to a considerable majority of the masses. The main source of per capita yield (output) in any nation, regardless of whether it is advanced or developing, is really increment in &#39;human productivity&#39;. Per capita yield (output) growth is notwithstanding a significant aspect of economic prosperity (Abramowitz, 1981). For the most part, it has been uncovered that individuals are the most important source of productivity growth and economic prosperity. Technology and technological hardware are the results of human inventions and innovativeness. The suggestion of UNESCO, that 26% of yearly planned expenditure (budget) in developing nations should be dedicated to education has become intangible, particularly in Nigeria. Planned expenditure on education in Nigeria ranges from only 5%-7% of total planned expenditure. The impact of the above situation on the economic prosperity of the nation as it concerns human capital development, capacity building, infrastructural advancement, etc, is troubling. On this note, the necessity of a well-thought out plan for rectifying this unwanted situation can&#39;t be over stressed. &nbsp; <strong>1.2 Statement of the Problem </strong> Sikiru (2011) as cited in Ajibola (2016) rightly pointed out that the role of education in any economy is no longer business as usual because of the knowledge based globalized economy where productivity greatly depends on the quantity and quality of human resource, which itself largely depends on investment in education. Governments continue to increase spending on education with a view toward enhancing the standard of education, build human capacity and attainment of economic growth. Ironically, this effort by government is still a far cry of UNESCO&rsquo;s recommendation of 26% total annual budget to education, and so, has not yielded the expected results. Thus, researchers sought to understand the relationship between government expenditure on education and economic growth and how they influence each other. These researches on the above subject matter, have given rise to divergent school of thoughts. Over time, Nigeria has indicated willingness to develop&nbsp; education in order to curtail illiteracy and quicken national development. Anyway regardless of the irreproachable evidence that education is key to the improvement of the economy; there exists a wide loop-hole in accessibility, quality and fairness (equity) in education (Ayo, 2014). Empirically verifiable facts in recent years have indicated that the Nigeria&nbsp;education system has continuously turned-out graduates who overtime have defaulted in adapting to evolving techniques and methods of production; due to inadequate infrastructure, underfunding, poor learning aids, outmoded curriculum, dearth of research and development. This has resulted to drastic reduction in employment and the advent of capacity underutilization. This paper assesses growth of Nigeria economy in relation to government expenditure on education and school enrollment from 1981 to 2018. Frequent adjustments and changes in education system in Nigeria, points to the fact that, all is not well with the countries education system. Government have experimented 6-3-3-4, 9-3-4 systems of education, among others. Enrollment in schools forms the main part of investment in human capital in most of the world&rsquo;s societies (Schultz, 2002). There are several explanations concerning why improvement in scholastic quality is not forthcoming in Nigeria as regards the above subject matter. Researchers disagree on whether changes in education attainment levels alters economic growth rate in the long-term. &nbsp;&ldquo;In Nigeria, average public education expenditure to total government expenditure between 1981 and 2018 is 5.68 per cent. It ranged between 0.51 and 10.8 per cent during the period under review&rdquo; (CBN Statistical Bulletin, 2019). However, the major problem therefore, is that despite an increase in the numeric value of budgetary allocation to education in Nigeria over the years, they still fall short of 26 % UNESCO,S recommendation. For instance, 2014, 10.6%; 2015, 9.5%; 2016, 6.1%, 2017, 5.41%, 2018, 7.0% and 2019, 7.2% percent respectively of total annual budget to education. The statistics presented above indicates that investment in education has not produced the desired level of human capital and economic growth in Nigeria. These uncertainties as it relates to government expenditure on education, school enrollment and growth of Nigeria economy gave birth to this research work. Furthermore, most studies relating to the subject matter, conducted analysis on times series data without subjecting these data sets to structural breaks, thereby giving rise to spurious results and therefore, unreliable recommendations. For instance, unit root test with structural breaks were not employed in majority of these studies. <strong>1.3 Research Questions </strong> The issues raised above have provoked series of questions which this study attempts to provide answers. These questions include; i. To what extent does government expenditure on education affect growth of Nigeria economy? ii. To what extent does primary school enrollment affect growth of Nigeria economy? iii. To what extent does secondary school enrollment affect growth of Nigeria economy? iv. To what extent does tertiary school enrollment affect growth of Nigeria economy? <strong>1.4 Objectives of the Study </strong> The main objective of the study is to access the effect of government expenditure on education and growth of Nigeria economy. Specific objectives of the study are to; i. Access the effect of government expenditure on growth of Nigeria economy. ii. Access the effect of primary school enrollment on growth of Nigeria economy. iii. Access the effect of secondary school enrollment on growth of Nigeria economy. iv. Access the effect of tertiary school enrollment on growth of Nigeria economy. <strong>1.5 Hypotheses of the Study </strong> The following hypotheses were tested in this study. i. Government expenditure on education has no significant effect on growth of Nigeria economy. ii. Primary school enrollment has no significant effect on growth of Nigeria economy. iii. Secondary school enrollment has no significant effect on growth of Nigeria economy. iv. Tertiary school enrollment has no significant effect on growth of Nigeria economy. <strong>1.6 Scope of the Study </strong> The study covers the time series analysis of government expenditure on education, school enrolment; primary, secondary and tertiary, and growth of Nigeria economy from 1981 to 2018. Based on available data. Justification for this study is on the premise that, time series data used for the study is a current data on government expenditure on education, education enrolment and economic growth in Nigeria. This study used annual data for the period 1981-2018, collected from the CBN Statistical Bulletin (2019) and World Bank databank. Variables employed for the study include; Real GDP Per Capita, government expenditure on education, primary, secondary and tertiary school enrolment. <strong>1.7 Significance of the Study </strong> Models of economic growth provide useful predictions that inform decisions made by policy makers. Agreeing with policy options based on inaccurate research studies could undermine government intervention particularly in the education sector. A good perception of the interaction among investment in education, its outcome, school enrolment and economic growth is appropriate policy measure, guarantees human capital development. Thus, a representative model that take cognisance of inter-play among public education expenditure, school enrolment and growth of the economy will lead to adequate disbursement and utilization of government funds. The outcome of this research will serve as a tool for policy makers in the Ministries of Finance, Education and the National Planning Commission including regulatory agencies not mentioned here. It will also serve as a reference material for subsequent research work in this field. <strong>1.8 Limitation of the Study </strong> This research x-rays Government Expenditure on Education, school (primary, secondary and tertiary) enrolment as they relate to Growth of Nigeria Economy. Time series data covering the period 1981 to 2018 is used for this study. A study undertaken in 2020, but can not access 2019 data on the variables used, stand as one of the limitations, since lag periods are essential in policy implementation. Data availability, genuineness and accuracy of same, time and financial constraints, constitute limitations to this research work. Effect of corruption on government expenditure and outbreak of Corona virus, resulting to closure of tertiary institutions in Nigeria, also constitute limitation to this study. <strong>1.9 Organization of the Study </strong> This research work comprises of five (5) chapters, these includes; Chapter one: this consists of background to the study, Problem Statement, research questions, research hypothesis and scope of the study. Chapter two: consisting of conceptual framework, theoretical review, review of related literatures and theoretical framework. Chapter three: explained the methodology this research adopted. Chapter four: presentation of results and discussion of findings. Chapter five: consists of summary of findings, conclusion, policy recommendation, contribution to knowledge and suggestion for further studies.&nbsp; <strong>CHAPTER TWO</strong> <strong>LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK</strong> <strong>2.1 Conceptual Review</strong> <strong>2.1.1 Government&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </strong> Government is the sector of the economy focusing on giving different public services. Its structure differs by nation, yet in many nations, government involves such services as infrastructure, military, police, public travel, government provided education, alongside medical services and those working for the public sector itself, like, elected authorities. The government may offer types of assistance that a non-taxpayer can&#39;t be barred from, (for example, street lighting), goods which aids all of society instead of benefiting only one person. Finances for government goods and services are generally obtained through various techniques, including taxes, charges, and through monetary transfers from different tiers of government (for example from federal to state government). Various governments from around the globe may utilize their own strategies for financing public goods and services. <strong>2.1.2 Government Expenditure</strong> Government Expenditure refers to government spending both capital and recurrent. For the purpose of this study we limited our scope to government educational expenditure in Nigeria. The theory of government expenditure is the theory of the costs of availing goods and services through planned spending (budget). There are two ways to deal with the subject of growth of government, precisely, the expansion in total size of government spending and the expansion of government in terms of economic magnitudes. Government expenditure is spending made by the public sector (government) of a nation on aggregate needs and wants, for example, pension and arrangement of infrastructure, among others. Until the nineteenth century, government speding was constrained, as free enterprise theorists believed that financial resources left in the private sector could lead to higher returns. In the twentieth century, John Maynard Keynes advocated the job of government spending in influencing levels of wages and income distribution in the economy. From that point forward government spending has demonstrated an expanding pattern. The public expenditure trend of the government of a nation is essentially the manner in which assets (resources) are distributed to the various segments of the economy where spending is required. It is exemplified in the government&rsquo;s ways of spending money. In analyzing the trend of government spending hence, it is critical to realize that under a federal system of administration, government job in dealing with the economy is the joint duty of the different tiers of government (Eze and Ikenna 2014). <strong>2.1.3 Human Capital </strong> By and large, human capital is characterized as all skills that are indistinguishably helpful to numerous organizations, including the training organization. Industry-specific skills, conversely, foster efficiency (productivity) just in the industry in which the skills were obtained. In a serious market setting, laborers consistently get a pay that approaches their minor profitability and in this manner, on account of general human capital, laborers win a similar compensation any place they work. <strong>2.1.4 Economic Growth</strong> As per Haller (2012), economic growth or economic expansion means the way toward expanding the size of a country&rsquo;s economy, its macro-economic indicators, particularly the per capita GDP, in an incremental yet not mandatorily linear course, with beneficial outcomes on the socio-economic sector. IMF (2012) perceives economic expansion as the expansion in the market worth of commodities created in a country over a period of time after discounting for inflation. The rate of increment in real Gross Domestic Product is often used as an estimate of economic expansion. In the perspectives of Kimberly (2012), economic expansion is an expansion in the creation of commodities. Any expansion in the worth of a nation&rsquo;s created commodities is likewise characterized as economic expansion. Economic expansion means an expansion in real GNP per unit of labor input. This relates to labor efficiency variation with time. Economic expansion is routinely estimated with the pace of increment in GDP. It is often estimated in real terms (deducting the impact of inflation on the cost of all commodities created). Growth improves the living standard of the individuals in that specific nation. As per Jhingan (2004), one of the greatest aims of money policy approach as of late has been quick macroeconomic expansion. He thus, characterized economic prosperity (growth) as the event whereby the real per capita earnings (income) of a nation increments over a significant stretch of time. Economic expansion is estimated by the expansion in the quantity of commodities created in a nation. An expanding economy creates more commodities in each subsequent timespan. In this manner, growth happens when an economy&#39;s capacity to produce increases which in turn, is utilized to create a greater quantity of commodities. In a more extensive perspective, economic expansion means increasing the living standard of individuals, and reducing disparities in earnings. &nbsp; <strong>2.1.5 </strong><strong>Gross Domestic Product</strong> - GDP Investopedia designates Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as the financial worth of marketable commodities created in a nation during any given duration of time. It is normally computed on a yearly or a quarterly premise. It comprises household and government consumption, government pay-outs, investments and net exports that exist in a sovereign territory. Set forth plainly, GDP is a broad estimation of a country&#39;s aggregate economic activity. &nbsp; <strong>2.1.6 Education</strong> There is no singular meaning of education and this is on the grounds that it indicates various things to various individuals, cultures and societies (Todaro and Stephen, 1982). Ukeje (2002), considers education to be a process, a product and a discipline. When viewed as a process, education is a group of activities which involves passing knowledge across age-groups (generations). When viewed as a product, education is estimated by the characteristics and attributes displayed by the educated individual. Here, the informed (educated) individual is customarily considered to be an informed and refined individual. While as a discipline, education is perceived in terms of the pros of well-structured knowledge which learners are acquainted with. Education is a discipline concerned with techniques of giving guidance and learning in institutions of learning in lieu of informal socialization avenues like rural development undertakings and education via parent-child interactions). It comprises both inherent (intrinsic) and instrumental worth. It is attractive for the person as well as for the general public. Education as private commodity directly aids the individuals who get it, which thusly influences the person&#39;s future pay (income) stream. At the macroeconomic level, a workforce that is superior in terms of education is thought to expand the supply of human capital in the economy and increment its efficiency (productivity). Considering the externalities pervasive in education, it is broadly acknowledged that the state has a key task to carry out in guaranteeing fair distribution of educational chances (opportunities) to the whole populace. This is especially critical in developing nations, for example, Nigeria that experiences the ill effects of elevated poverty levels, inequality and market imperfections. Enrolment might be viewed as the process of commencing participation in a school, which is the number of learners (students) adequately registered as well as participating in classes (Oxford dictionaries). 2.1.7 Primary Education Pupils usually commence learning at the elementary level when they are as old as 5 years or more. Pupils go through 18 terms equivalent to 6 years at the elementary level and may be awarded a first school leaving certification upon successful completion of learning. Subjects treated at the elementary stage comprise arithmetic, foreign and indigenous languages, culture, home economics, religious studies, and agric science. Privately owned institutions of learning may opt to treat computer science, and fine arts. It is mandatory to participate in a Common Entrance Examination in order to meet requirements for induction into secondary institutions of learning. <strong>2.1.8 Secondary Education In Nigeria</strong> Decades after the advancement of elementary education, government gave attention to secondary education, because of the requirement for pupils to advance their education in secondary schools. Secondary education is defined as the completion of fundamental education that started at the elementary level, and seeks to establish the frameworks for long-term learning and human development, by providing subject and skill-centred guidance. It is equally a link between elementary learning and tertiary learning. It is given in two phases, junior and senior levels of three years each and it is six-year duration. It was only in 1909 that the colonial administration began to supplement the endeavors of the Christian Missions in giving secondary education. This was when King&#39;s College was established in Lagos as the colonial government&#39;s secondary institution of learning. As per Adesina and Fafunwa , numerous laws were enacted to improve the condition of secondary education in Nigeria. For the duration of the time the nation was under Colonial Governments, there were scarcely any secondary schools to give secondary education to those that were then ready to gain it. 2.1.9 Tertiary Education Institutions of tertiary learning comprise universities, colleges of education, polytechnics and monotechnics. Government has dominant control of university education, and regulates them through National Universities Commission (NUC). At the university level, first year selection criteria include: At least 5 credits in not more than two sittings in WAEC/NECO; and a score above the 180 benchmark in the Joint Admission and Matriculation Board Entrance Examination (JAMB). Prospective entrants who hold satisfactory national certificates of education (NCE) or national diplomas (ND) having 5 or more ordinary level credits may gain direct entry into universities at the undergraduate level. &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <strong>2.2 Theoretical Review</strong> <strong>2.2.1 Wagner&rsquo;s Law of Expending State Activity </strong> Public expenditure has one its oldest theories rooted in Adolph Wagner&rsquo;s (1883) work. A German economist that came up with a fascinating hypothesis of development in 1883 which held that as a country builds its public sector up, government spending will consequently become more significant. Wagner built up a &ldquo;law of increasing state activity&quot; after empirical investigation on Western Europe toward the conclusive part of the nineteenth century. Wagner&#39;s Law as treated to in Likita (1999) contended that government administration development is a product of advancement in industrialization and economic development. Wagner believed that during industrialization, the expansion of real earnings per capita will be accompanied by increments in the portion of government spending in total spending. He stated that the coming of industrial communities can bring about greater political impetus for social advancement and expanded earnings. Wagner (1893) stated three central reasons for the expansion in state spending. To start with, activities in the public sector will supplant non-private sector activities during industrialization. State duties like authoritative and defensive duties will increment. Furthermore, governments will be expected to give social services and government assistance like education, and public health for the elderly, subsidized food, natural hazards and disaster aids, protection programs for the environment and social services. Thirdly, industrial expansion will lead to novel&nbsp; technology and erode monopoly. Governments will need to balance these impacts by offering public goods through planned spending. Adolf Wagner in Finanzwissenschaft (1883) and Grundlegung der politischen Wissenschaft (1893) identified state spending as an &ldquo;internal&rdquo; factor, controlled by the development of aggregate earnings. Thus, aggregate earnings give rise to state spending. Wagner&#39;s may be viewed as a long-term phenomenon which is best observed with lengthy time-series for better economic interpretation and factual (statistical) derivations. This is because these patterns were expected to manifest after 5 or 10 decades of present day industrial community. The hypothesis of public spending is the hypothesis of the costs of availing commodities through planned government spending as well as the theory of policies and laws enacted to bring about private spending. Two ways to deal with the topic of the growth of the government sector are, namely, the expansion in volume of non-private spending and the expansion of non-private sector. Okafor and Eiya (2011) investigated the factors responsible for increment of government spending utilizing BLUE-OLS estimator. They discovered that population, government borrowing, government income, and inflation significantly affected government at the 5% level, while inflation most certainly did not. Further, Edame (2014) examined the predictive factors of state infrastructure spending in Nigeria, utilizing error correction modeling. In this study, it was found that growth-pace of urbanization, public income, density of population, system of government, and foreign reserves collectively or separately impact Nigeria&rsquo;s state infrastructure spending. &nbsp; <strong>2.2.3</strong><strong>The Classical Theory of Economic Growth</strong> This theory signifies the underlying structure of economic reasoning and Adam Smith&#39;s &quot;The Wealth of Nations&quot; (1776) typically paves the way for classical economics. Prominent and remarkable advocates of the classical school are: Adam Smith (1723-1790), David Ricardo (1772-1823), Thomas Malthus (1766-1834), Karl Marx (1818-1883), John Stuart Mill (1808-1873), Jean-Baptiste Say (1767-1832) and so on. Basically Smith&#39;s theory says that the endowment of countries was put together not with respect to gold, but with respect to commerce: As when two economic agents trade valuable commodities, in order to reap the benefits of trade, endowment grows. The classicalists see that markets are self-regulating, when liberated from compulsion. The classicalists termed this figuratively as the &quot;invisible hand&quot;, which establishes equilibrium, when consumers choose among various suppliers, and failure is allowed among firms that fail to compete successfully. The classicalists often warned against the risks of &ldquo;trust&rdquo;, and emphasized on free market economy (Smith, 1776). Adam Smith connected the expansion in endowment of individuals to the expansion of the yield of production factors, which manifests in the improvement of productivity of labor and an expansion in the quantity of working capital. Much scrutiny was given to population expansion, to the expansion in the portion of laborers in material production, to investment and geographical findings, which added to far-reaching prosperity. The perspectives of Thomas Malthus on economic expansion, portraying the expansion of populace and the expansion in production appeared pessimistic. As per Malthus, when the proportion between population expansion and subsistence methods&nbsp; remains, when the populace is expanding increasingly, and subsistence methods expand steadily, the aftermath will be inadequate earth resources (land), and consequently a severe battle for few resources, the prevalence of wars, plagues, hunger, mass illness, etc (Ojewumi and Oladimeji, 2016). As a solution to this issue, Malthus proposed to limit the growth of the populace by the &quot;call to prudence&quot;, particularly the impoverished, and the birth of children on the bases that they were to be provided with decent means of subsistence. One among the most compelling classicalists was David Ricardo (1772 &ndash; 1823). Apparently, the hypothesis of comparative advantage which recommends that a country should engage exclusively in internationally competitive businesses and trade with different nations to acquire commodities lacking domestically is his most notable contribution. He contended the possibility of the presence of a natural market wages and expected that new technologies will result to a fall in the demand for labor. John Stuart Mill (1808-1873) to a great extent summarized the past ideologies of the classicalists. Specifically, he finished the classicalists&rsquo; hypothesis of economic dynamics that considers long-term economic patterns. At the core of this idea is the unceasing amassing of capital. As indicated by the hypothesis, the expansion in capital prompts an increment in the need for labor, and zero population growth gives rise to increment in real earnings, and therefore gives rise to population expansion in the long-run. When the amassing of capital is quicker than the expansion in the workforce, both of these processes can, in principle, remain forever. Increment in the quantity of laborers means having more &quot;mouths&quot;, hence the expansion in the demand for consumption and particularly for food. Food created in agribusiness, which, as we know, characterized by diminishing returns to scale. Therefore, issues of diminishing marginal productivity of capital emerge and the fall of incentives to invest. <strong>2.2.4 The Keynesian Approach of Public Expenditure </strong> John M. Keynes (1936), a British Economist and the pioneer of macroeconomics contended that public spending is a crucial determinant of economic posperity. Keynes hypothesis clearly stated that fiscal policy instrument (for example government expenditure) is a significant apparatus for obtaining stability and better economic expansion rate in the long-term. To obtain stability in the economy, this hypothesis endorses government action in the economy through macroeconomic policy especially fiscal policy. From the Keynesian view, government spending will contribute incrementally to economic expansion. Keynes contended that it is necessary for government to mediate in the economy since government could change financial downturns by raising finances from private borrowing and afterward restoring the funds to the private sector through several spending programs. Likewise, government capital and recurrent spending in the structure provision of class rooms, research centers, acquisition of teaching and learning aids including PCs and payment of salary will have multiplier effects on the economy. Spending on education will boost productivity as well as advancement by improving the quality of labour. It will likewise help in developing a stream of educated administrators in both the private and public sectors of the economy. Keynes classified public spending as an exogenous variable that can create economic prosperity rather than an endogenous phenomenon. In summary, Keynes acknowledged the functioning of the government to be significant as it can prevent economic downturn by expanding aggregate demand and in this manner, switching on the economy again by the multiplier effect. It is an apparatus that proffers stability the short-term yet this should be done carefully as excessive government spending leads to inflation while lack of spending aggravates unemployment. &nbsp; <strong>2.2.5 </strong><strong>Human Capital Theory</strong> Human capital theory, at first developed by Becker (1962), contends that workers have a set of abilities which they can improve or acquire by learning and instruction (education). Be that as it may, human capital hypothesis often assume for the most part expect that experiences are converted into knowledge and skills. It helps us comprehend the training activities of organizations. It (re-)introduced the view that education and training add up to investment in future efficiency (productivity) and not only consumption of resources. From this viewpoint, both firms and labourers rely upon investment in human capital to foster competitiveness, profitability, and earnings. In spite of the fact that these advantages are self-evident, these investments are tied to some costs. From the firm&#39;s perspective, investment in human capital contrast from those in physical capital, because the firm doesn&#39;t gain a property right over its investment in skills, so it and its employees need to agree on the sharing of costs and benefits derived from these investments. While investment in physical capital are solely the organization&#39;s own choice, investment in the abilities (skills) of its workforce include interaction with the workers to be groomed. In the basic formulation, Becker, assuming that commodity and labour markets are perfectly competitive, introduced the distinction between firm-specific and general human capital to answer the question: who bears the expenses of training? &nbsp; <strong>2.2.6 Neoclassical Growth Theories </strong> The neoclassical development hypotheses arose in the 1950s and 1960s, when regard for the issues of dynamic equilibrium declined and the issue of actualizing growth potentials through the adoption of novel technology, boosting productivity and improving the organization of production gained popularity. The principle advocates of this school are Alfred Marshall (1842-1924), Leon Walras (1834-1910), William Stanley Jevons (1835-1882), Irving Fisher (1867-1947) and others. The American economist Robert Solow (1924-present) along with other economists opposed the state&#39;s participation and rather supported the notion of permitting firms to competitively grow by utilizing the majority of the assets accessible to them. They hinged on the production theory and marginal productivity theory from the classical school, according to which, the earnings obtained production factors depend on their marginal products. Neoclassical scholars disagreed with neo-Keynesian views on growth on three grounds (UN, 2011): Firstly, in light of the fact that they are centered around capital accumulation, overlooking land, labour, technology and so on; On the second note, owing to the fact that they are rooted in the unchanging nature of capital share in earnings (income); On the third note, while the neoclassicists recognized the self-restoring equilibrium of the market mechanism, the former overlooked it. On this premise, they identified inflationary government spending as a source of instability in the economy. <strong>2.2.7 The Endogenous Growth Theory</strong> This was created as a response to exclusions and inadequacies in the Solow-Swan model. This theory throws light on long-term economic expansion pace based on the pace of population expansion and the pace of technical advancement which is autonomous with regards to savings rate. Since long-term economic expansion rate depended on exogenous factors, Romer (1994) saw that the neoclassical hypothesis had hardly limited implications. As per Romer, in models with exogenous technical change and exogenous population expansion, it never truly made a difference what the public administration did. The new growth theory doesn&#39;t rebuff the neoclassical growth theory. Perhaps it broadens the neoclassical growth hypothesis by incorporating endogenous technical advancement in growth models. The endogenous development models have been improved by Kenneth J. Arrow, Paul M. Romer, and Robert E. Lucas. The endogenous development model highlights technical advancement arising from pace investment, quantity of capital, and human capital supply. Romer saw natural assets as a lower priority than ideas. He refers to case of Japan which has limited natural assets but welcomed novel ideas and technology from the West. These included improved plans for production of producer durable goods for final production. Accordingly, ideas are key in economic prosperity. With respect to endogenous growth theory, Chude and Chude (2013) submitted that the major improvement in the endogenous growth hypothesis in relation to the past models lies in the fact that it treats the determinants of technology. That is, it openly attempts to model technology instead of expecting it to be exogenous. Momentously, it is a statistical clarification of technological improvement that introduced a novel idea of human capital, knowledge and abilities (skills) that empower employees to be increasingly productive. More often than not, economic expansion is a product of progress in technology, arising from effective utilization of productive resources through the process of learning. This is because human capital development has high rate or increasing rate of return. Therefore, the rate of growth depends heavily on what (the type of capital) a country invests in. Thus to achieve economic expansion, public expenditure in human capital development especially education spending must be increased. At the same time, the theory predicts unexpected additional benefits from advancement of a substantial valued-added knowledge economy, that can develop and preserve a competitive advantage in expanding industries. <strong>2.3 Empirical Review</strong> Bearing in mind the sensitive nature of the field being studied, many investigations had been conducted with the aim of clarifying the divergent ideological schools. For example, Amadi, and Alolote, (2020) explored government infrastructural spending and Nigeria&rsquo;s economic advancement nexus. The investigation uncovered that public spending on transport, communication, education and medical infrastructure significantly affect economic expansion, while spending on agric and natural resources infrastructure recorded a major adverse impact on economic expansion. Despite the fact that the investigation is recent, the time series variables were not exposed to unit root tests with breaks, and thus will yield misleading outcomes. Shafuda and Utpal (2020) explored government spending on human capital and Namibia&rsquo;s economic prosperity (growth) nexus from 1980 to 2015. The examination utilized human development indicators like healthcare outcomes, educational accomplishments and increment in national earnings in Namibia. The investigation uncovered huge effects of government spending on medical care and education on GDP expansion over the long-term. Study conducted in 2020 that utilized data from 1980-1915, comprises a setback to this work. Ihugba, Ukwunna, and Obiukwu (2019) explored government education spending and Nigeria&rsquo;s elementary school enrolment nexus by applying the bounds testing (ARDL) method of cointegration during the time of 1970 to 2017. The model utilized for the investigation attempted to recognize the interaction between two variables and their relationship with control variables; per capita earning (income), remittances, investment and population expansion. The bounds tests indicated that the variables that were studied are bound together over the long-term, when elementary school enrolment is the endogenous variable. The investigation saw that an inconsequential relationship exists between government education spending on elementary school enrolment while a positive relationship exists among remittances and primary school enrolment. Sylvie (2018) explored education and India&rsquo;s economic expansion nexus. The investigation inspected the connection among education and economic prosperity in India from 1975 to 2016 by concentrating on elementary, secondary and tertiary levels of education. It used econometric estimations with the Granger Causality Method and the Cointegration Method. The study indicated that there is convincing proof demonstrating a positive association between education levels and economic expansion in India which may impact government activities and shape the future of India. Ayeni, and Osagie (2018), explored education spending and Nigeria&rsquo;s economic expansion nexus from 1987 to 2016. The investigation uncovered that education spending was inconsistent with education sectoral yield (output), while recurrent education spending had meaningful relationship with real gross national output (or GNP), conversely, capital spending on education was weak. Ogunleye, Owolabi, Sanyaolu, and Lawal, (2017), utilized BLUE-OLS estimator to study the effect of advancement in human capital on Nigeria&rsquo;s economic expansion from 1981 to 2015. The empirical outcomes indicated that human capital development has strong effects on economic expansion (growth). Likewise, human capital development variables; secondary school enrolment, tertiary enrolment, aggregated government spending on health and aggregated government spending on education displayed positive and strong effect on economic expansion of Nigeria. Glylych, Modupe and Semiha (2016) explored education and Nigeria&rsquo;s economic expansion nexus utilizing BLUE-OLS estimator to unveil the interaction between education as human capital and real Gross Domestic Product. The investigation found a strong connection between GDP and different indicators (capital spending on education, recurrent spending on education, elementary school enrolment and secondary school enrolment) utilized in the investigation except for elementary school enrolment (PRYE). Lingaraj, Pradeep and Kalandi (2016) explored education expenditure and economic expansion nexus in 14 major Asian nations by utilizing balanced panel data from 1973 to 2012. The co-integration result indicated the presence of long-run relationships between education spending and economic expansion in all the nations. The findings additionally uncovered a positive and significant effect of education training on economic advancement of all the 14 Asian nations. Further, the panel vector error correction showed unidirectional Granger causality running from economic expansion to education spending both in the short and long-run, however, education spending only Granger causes long-run economic expansion in all the nations. The findings likewise demonstrated a positive effect of education spending on economic expansion. The study contended that education sector is one of the significant elements of economic expansion in each of the 14 Asian nations. A significant portion of government spending ought to be made on education by upgrading different essential, senior and technical educations in the respective countries to make available the skilled labour for long-term economic advancement. Ojewumi and Oladimeji (2016) explored government financing and Nigeria&rsquo;s education nexus. In the research work, public spending on education was arranged into two classes (recurrent and capital spending). The data covered the period 1981 to 2013 and were secondary in nature. The data were gotten for the most part from the publications of the World Bank, Central Bank of Nigeria and National Bureau of Statistics. BLUE-OLS estimator was utilized to study the data. The main results indicated that the effect of both capital and recurrent spending on education expansion were negative during the examination time frame. The study suggested that the elevated level of corruption common in the educational sector ought to be checked to guarantee that finances ear-marked for education particularly capital spending in the sector are prudently appropriated. Government at various levels ought to likewise increment both capital and recurrent spending to support the educational sector up to the United Nations standard. Obi, Ekesiobi, Dimnwobi, and Mgbemena, (2016) explored government education spending and Nigeria&rsquo;s education outcome nexus from 1970 &ndash; 2013. The investigation utilized BLUE-OLS estimator, and demonstrated that government spending on education has a cordial and notable impact on education. Public health spending and urban population expansion were likewise found to positively affect education outcome but are insignificant in influencing education outcome. Omodero, and Azubike, (2016), explored government spending on education and Nigeria&rsquo;s economic advancement nexus from 2000&ndash;2015. Multiple regression analysis and student t-test were applied for investigation. The outcome of the investigation showed that education spending is significant and affects the economy. Additionally, education enrolment demonstrated a significant relationship with GDP but minor effect on the economy. Muhammad and Benedict (2015) explored education spending and Nigeria&rsquo;s economic expansion nexus during the time covering 1981-2010. Co-joining and Granger causality tests were utilized so as to unveil the causal nexus between education spending and economic expansion. They found that there is co-integration between real growth rate of GDP, aggregated government spending on education, recurrent expenditure on education and elementary school enrolment. Adeyemi and Ogunsola (2016) explored advancement in human capital and Nigeria&rsquo;s economic expansion nexus from 1980-2013 on secondary school enrolment, life expectancy rate, government spending on education, gross capital formation and economic expansion rate. ARDL cointegration approach was utilized in the investigation and it uncovered a positive since a long-run nexus among secondary school enrolment, life expectancy rate, government spending on education, gross capital formation and economic expansion rate. Olalekan (2014) explored human capital and Nigeria&rsquo;s economic expansion nexus utilizing yearly data on education and health, from 1980 to 2011. The investigation made use of Generalized Method of Moment (GMM) techniques in the research and the estimated outcomes gave proof of positive connection between human capital and economic expansion. Oladeji (2015) explored human capital (through education and effective services in healthcare) and Nigeria&rsquo;s economic expansion nexus from 1980 to 2012. The investigation utilized BLUE-OLS estimator and uncovered that there is a significant functional and institutional connection between the investment in human capital and economic expansion. The work indicated that a long-term nexus existed between education and economic expansion rate. Hadir and Lahrech, (2015) explored human capital advancement and Morocco&rsquo;s economic expansion nexus utilizing yearly data from 1973 to 2011. The BLUE-OLS estimator was incorporated utilizing aggregated government spending on education and health, the enrolment data of tertiary, secondary and elementary educational institutions as a measure for human capital. The research uncovered a positive nexus between aggregated government spending on education, aggregated government spending on health, elementary education enrolment, secondary education enrolment and tertiary education enrolment. Obi and Obi (2014) explored education spending and Nigeria&rsquo;s economic expansion nexus as a method for accomplishing ideal socio-economic change required from 1981 to 2012. The Johansen co-integration method and BLUE-OLS estimator econometric methods were utilized to closely study the connection between GDP and recurrent education spending. The results showed that regardless of the fact that a positive relationship was obtainable between education spending and economic expansion, a long-term nexus was not obtainable over the period under examination. Jaiyeoba (2015) explored investment in education/health and Nigeria&rsquo;s economic expansion nexus from 1982 to 2011. He utilized trend analysis, the Johansen cointegration and BLUE-OLS estimator. The outcomes demonstrated that there was long-term connection between government spending on education, health and economic expansion. The factors: health and education spending, secondary and tertiary enrolment rate and gross fixed capital formation carried the speculated positive signs and were notable determinants (apart from government spending on education and elementary education enrolment rate). Sulaiman, Bala, Tijani, Waziri and Maji (2015) explored human capital /technology and Nigeria&rsquo;s economic expansion nexus. They utilized yearly time series covering 35 years (1975-2010) and applied autoregressive distributed lag method of cointegration to look at the connection between human capital, technology, and economic expansion. Two measures of human capital (secondary and university enrolment) were utilized in two different models. Their outcome uncovered that all the factors in the two separate models were cointegrated. Besides, the findings from the two assessed models indicated that human capital in measured by secondary and tertiary education enrolments have significant positive effect on economic expansion. Borojo and Jiang (2015) explored education/health (human capital) and Ethiopia&rsquo;s economic expansion nexus from 1980 to 2013. Human capital stock is measured by elementary, secondary and tertiary education enrolment. Human capital investment is proxied by spending on health and education. The Augmented Dickey Fuller test and Johansen&#39;s Co-integration method were utilized to test unit root and to ascertain co-integration among factors, respectively. Their investigation indicated that public spending on health as well as education and elementary as well as secondary education enrolments has positive and significant impacts on economic expansion both in the short-term and the long-term. Ekesiobi, Dimnwobi, Ifebi and Ibekilo (2016) explored public education investment and Nigeria&rsquo;s manufacturing yield nexus. The investigation utilized Augmented Dickey Fuller (ADF) unit root test and BLUE-OLS estimator to examine the connection between public educational spending, elementary school enrolment rate, per capita income, exchange rate, FDI and manufacturing yield (output) rate. The investigation discovered that public education spending has a positive but inconsequential impact on manufacturing yield (output) rate. Odo, Nwachukwu, and Agbi (2016) explored government spending and Nigeria&rsquo;s economic expansion nexus. Their finding demonstrated that social capital had inconsequential positive effect on economic expansion during the period under consideration. Jiangyi, (2016) explored government educational spending and China&rsquo;s economic expansion nexus bearing in mind the spatial third-party spill-over effects. The findings uncover that public educational spending in China has a significant positive effect on economic expansion, but spending in various educational level shows varying outcomes. Public educational spending beneath high-education is positively related with domestic economic expansion, while the impact of educational spending in high-education is inconsequential. Lawanson (2015) explored the importance of health and educational elements of human capital to economic expansion, utilizing panel data from sixteen West African nations over the period 1980 to 2013. He utilized Diff-GMM dynamic panel procedure. The empirical results show that coefficients of both health and education have positive and significant impacts on GDP per capita. The paper ascertains the importance of human capital to economic expansion in West Africa. He suggested that more assets and policies to persuade and improve access to both education and health by the populace ought to be sought after by policy makers. Ehimare, Ogaga-Oghene, Obarisiagbon and Okorie (2014), explored the connection between Nigerian government Expenditure and Human Capital Development. The level of human capital development, which is a measure of the degree of wellbeing (health) and educational achievement of a country influence the level of economic activities in that country. The unit root test was employed to ascertain if the stationary or non-stationary with the Phillip Peron test. So as to measure the efficiency of government spending on human capital development, the data analysis was performed with Data Envelopment Analysis including Input Oriented Variable Return to Scale. The discoveries of the study uncovered that there has been substantial decrease in the efficiency of government spending since 1990 up till 2011 which has been diminishing. Ajadi and Adebakin (2014), investigated the nature of association between human capital development and economic expansion. The descriptive survey method of research was incorporated and multi&ndash;stage sampling method was utilized to choose a size of 200 respondents utilized for the research. An adopted questionnaire with 0.86 reliability index was utilized for information gathering. Data gathered were examined utilizing the Pearson&#39;s Product Moment Correlation Coefficient. The results demonstrated that education has a predictive r-value of 0.76 on individual personal earnings and the type of occupation (job) is linked with individual personal earnings (r=0.64). It, subsequently, concluded that economic expansion rate is influenced by individual personal earnings and suggested that government ought to create adequate educational policy to avail the human capital need of the populace for economic prosperity. Harpaljit, Baharom and Muzafar (2014) examined the connection between education spending and economic expansion rate in China and India by utilizing yearly data from 1970 to 2005. This investigation used multi econometric methods including co-integration test, BLUE-OLS estimator, and VECM. The result uncovered that there is a long-term nexus between earnings (income) level, Gross Domestic Product per capital and education spending in both China and India. Also, a unidirectional causal relationship was obtained for the two nations, running from earnings (income) level to education spending for China, while for India, education spending Granger causes the level of earnings. Urhie (2014) analyzed the impacts of the components of public education spending on both educational achievement and Nigeria&rsquo;s economic expansion rate from 1970 to 2010. The investigation utilized Two Stage Least Squares estimation procedure to analyze the hypotheses. The result uncovered that both capital and recurrent spending on education affect education achievement and economic expansion rate differently. Recurrent spending negatively affected education while capital spending was found to have a positive effect. Conversely, recurrent education had a positive and notable effect on economic expansion while capital spending had a negative effect. Chude and Chude (2013) explored the impacts of public education spending on Nigeria&rsquo;s economic expansion over a time frame from 1977 to 2012, with particular focus on disaggregated and sectorial spending analysis. Error correction model (ECM) was utilized. The result uncovered that over the long-term, aggregated education spending is significant and has a positive relationship on economic expansion. Abdul (2013), analyzed Education and Economic expansion in Malaysia given the fact human capital or education has is now one of the focal issues in the research of economic advancement. The researcher contended that the current studies showed that human capital, particularly education, is a significant ingredient of economic expansion. Thus the researcher investigated the issue of Malaysia education data. Notwithstanding a few issues and data quality issues, Malaysian education datasets are heavily correlated for both secondary and tertiary education. The researcher further tests the impact of various datasets on education and economic expansion relationship. The results were fundamentally the same thereby indicating that Malaysian education datasets are not unreliable. The results were econometrically consistent irrespective of measure of education utilized. All datasets lead to the same conclusion; education is inversely associated with economic expansion. Alvina and Muhammad (2013), inspected the long-term connection between government education spending and economic expansion. The investigation utilized heterogeneous panel data analysis. Panel unit root test are applied for checking stationarity. The single equation approach of panel co-integration (Kao, 1999); Pedroni&#39;s Residual-Based Panel of co-integration Test (1997, 1999) was applied to ascertain the presence of long-term connection between public education spending and gross domestic production. Finally Panel fully modified OLS result uncovered that the effect of government public education on economic expansion is more prominent in developing nations as contrasted with the developed nations, which confirmed the &quot;catching-up effect&quot; in developing nations. Mehmet and Sevgi (2013), inspected the nexus between education spending and economic expansion in Turkey. The examination utilized econometric method as the principal investigation instrument. The result uncovered a positive connection between education spending and economic expansion in the Turkish economy for the period 1970-2012. Implying that, education spending in Turkey positively affected economic expansion. Edame (2014) researched the determinants of Nigeria&rsquo;s public infrastructure spending, utilizing ECM. He found that pace (rate) of urbanization, government income, population density, external reserves, and kind of government collectively or independently impact on public spending on infrastructure. Aregbeyen and Akpan (2013) examined the long-term determinants of Nigeria&rsquo;s government spending, utilizing a disaggregated approach. In their examination, they found that foreign aid is significantly and positively influencing recurrent spending to the detriment of capital spending; that income (revenue) is likewise positively influencing government spending; that trade transparency (openness) is adversely impacting government spending; that debt service obligation diminishes all parts of government spending over the long-term; that the higher the size of the urban population, the higher would be government recurrent spending on economic services; solid proof that Federal government spending is one-sided with regards to recurrent spending, which increments substantially during election times. In likewise manner, Adebayo et al. (2014) researched the effect of public spending on industrial expansion of Nigeria through co-integration and causality and discovered that public spending on administration, economic services, and transfers remained negatively related with industrial expansion while government spending on social services remained positively related in the long-term. They concluded in this manner that there is no crowding-out impact. From these studies reviewed, there is proof that all the investigations joined economic, social, and political determinants of government spending. Srinivasan (2013), analyzed the causal nexus between public spending and economic expansion in India utilizing co-integration approach and error correction model from 1973 to 2012. The co-integration test result uncovered the presence of a long-term equilibrium connection between public spending and economic expansion. The error correction model estimate indicated unilateral causality which runs from economic expansion to public spending in the short-term and long-term. Mohd and Fidlizan (2012), narrowed down on the long-term relationship and causality between government spending in education and economic expansion in Malaysian economy from 1970-2010. The investigation utilized Vector Auto Regression (VAR). The result indicated that economic expansion co-integrated with fixed capital formation (CAP), labour force participation (LAB) and government spending on education (EDU). The Granger cause for education variable and vice versa. In addition, the investigation demonstrated that human capital like education variable goes a long way in affecting economic expansion. Consensus from the above investigations demonstrates that government spending impacts positively on economic expansion. Notable theories that support this case include; Keynes, Wagner, Peacock and Wiseman. Keynes, in his hypothesis draws a connection between public spending and economic expansion and infers that causality runs from public spending to income, meaning that public sector spending is an exogenous factor and public instrument for expanding national income. Again, it holds that expansion in government spending prompts higher economic expansion. Wagner, Peacock and Wiseman and numerous economists have developed various theories on public spending and economic expansion. Wagner positioned public sector spending as a behavioral variable that positively indicates if an economy is prospering. Notwithstanding, the neo classical growth model created by Solow opined that the fiscal policy doesn&#39;t have any impact on the expansion of national income. These multifaceted results obtained from prior investigations show that in reality public spending and other inputs in the education system may have some innate heterogeneity, suggesting that what holds in a given area or country may not hold in another. In the light of the above, this investigation sees that it is necessary to revise the allotment of public spending on education, with regards to the type of impact this spending has on education outcomes. <strong>2.4 Theoretical Framework</strong> The endogenous growth theory has been adopted as the appropriate theoretical framework for this study. This owes much to the fact that, the theory emphasizes the critical role of human capital development, through public investments on education, as a major driver of aggregate productivity in the economy. This is also supported by the work of Ogunleye, Owolabi, Sanyaolu, and Lawal, (2017) who ascertained how economic expansion is influenced by advancement in human capital from 1981 to 2015. In this study it was discovered that economic expansion is greatly influenced by advancement in human capital. Also, economic expansion appeared to facilitated by secondary education enrolment, tertiary education enrolment, and aggregate spending on health and education by the government. <strong>2.5 Research Gap</strong> Though, so much research work has been carried out on the relationship between human capital development, Public Sector Expenditure on Education and Economic expansion in Nigeria, a lot still needed to be done to address some abnormities in these studies. Of note, is that methods adopted in most of these studies are faced with methodological limitations and policy carry-overs, not minding that no two economies are the same. This study therefore, seeks to fill these gaps created by previous researches. Importantly, time plays a vital role in research, making it imperative for continuous and up to date studies, so as to keep abreast with changes as quickly as possible. In the study carried out by Ojewumi and Oladimeji (2016), time series data covering from 1981-2013 was used, while Muhammad and Benedict (2015), used time series data from 1981-2010. These studies above used time series data of 1981 to 2013 and 1981 to 2010 respectively, while this study used updated data covering 1981-2018, thereby making the study current and up to date. &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <strong>Chapter Three</strong> <strong>Research Methods</strong> <strong>3.1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Research Design</strong> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Ex post facto research design and econometric procedures of analysis will be employed for empirical investigation. <strong>3.2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Model Specification</strong> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Here, we specify a model which captures the relationship between real gross domestic product in per capita terms and the selected education enrolment variables. &nbsp; &nbsp; (3.1) In the above model, <em>Ln</em> denotes natural log, <em>PER_RGDP</em> denotes real gross domestic product in per capita terms,<em> PER_PEE</em> denotes public expenditure on education in per capita terms, <em>PENR</em> denotes percentage of primary education enrolment from population total, <em>SENR</em> denotes percentage of secondary education enrolment from population total, and <em>TENR</em> denotes percentage of tertiary education enrolment from population total. &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; For further empirical analysis we can explicitly express the above model in the form of an autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) model: &nbsp; &nbsp; (3.2) Here, based on economic theory and intuition all of the coefficients are expected to be positive. <strong>3.3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Estimation Procedure</strong> <strong>3.3.1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Unit Root Test with Breaks</strong> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Unlike the popularly used unit root tests (e.g. ADF and PP) which test the null of non-stationarity without accounting for possible breaks-points in data, the break-point unit root test of Peron (1989) tests the null of non-stationarity against other alternatives while accounting for a single break-point in the given data. The alternative hypotheses for this test are succinctly described in the following equations: &nbsp; &nbsp; (3.3) &nbsp; &nbsp; (3.4) &nbsp; &nbsp; (3.5) The first equation captures a break in the intercept of the data with the intercept-break dichotomous variable <em>I_t</em> which takes on values of 1 only when <em>t</em> surpasses the break-point <em>Br</em>; the second captures a break in the slope of the data with a regime-shift dichotomous variable <em>T_t*</em> which takes on values of 1 only when <em>t </em>surpasses the break-point <em>Br</em>; and the third equation captures both effects concurrently with the &ldquo;crash&rdquo; dichotomous variable <em>D</em> which takes on values of 1 only when <em>t</em> equals <em>Br</em>+1. <strong>3.3.2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ARDL Bounds Cointegration Approach</strong> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The popularly-used residual-based cointegration methods may not be very useful when the time-series under consideration attain stationarity at different levels. On the other hand, in addition to being econometrically efficient for small sample cases (<em>n</em> &lt; 30), the bounds cointegration method developed by Pesaran and Shin (1999) is particularly useful for combining time-series that attain stationarity at levels and first-difference. The bounds cointegration method makes use of upper bounds and lower bounds derived from 4 pairs of critical values corresponding to 4 different levels of statistical significance: the 1% level, the 2.5% level, the 5% level, and the 10% level. The null of &ldquo;no cointegration&rdquo; is to be rejected only if the computed bounds f-statistic surpasses any of the upper bounds obtained from a chosen pair of critical values, while the alternative hypothesis of cointegration is to be rejected only if the bounds f-statistic falls below any of the lower bounds obtained from a chosen pair of critical values. Therefore, in contrast to other cointegration tests, the bounds test can be inconclusive if the bounds f-statistic neither surpasses the chosen upper bound nor falls below the chosen lower bound. &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; To obtain the bounds f-test statistic, an f-test is performed jointly on all of the un-differenced explanatory variables of the &ldquo;unrestricted&rdquo; error correction model (ECM) derived from any corresponding autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) model such as the previously specified empirical ARDL model in (3.2). This takes the general form: &nbsp; &nbsp; (3.6) where &Delta;<em>i_t</em> denotes the chosen endogenous variable in first difference; &Delta;<em>j_t</em> and &Delta;<em>k_t</em> denote the chosen exogenous variables in first differences;&nbsp; and <em>e_t</em> denotes the stochastic component. Choosing the best lag-length to be included is made possible by information criteria such as the Akaike and the Schwarz Information Criterion. In the case where the bounds cointegration test disapproves the null, a &ldquo;restricted&rdquo; version of the error correction model can be estimated along-side a long-run model to capture the relevant short-run and long-run dynamics as seen in the following expressions: &nbsp; &nbsp; (3.7) &nbsp; &nbsp; (3.8) Here, the error correction term <em>_t</em>_-1 is non-positive and bounded between 0 and 1 (or 0 and 100) in order to capture the short-run rate of adjustment to long run equilibrium, while the coefficients <em>₁</em>,&hellip;,<em>_j</em>&nbsp; in (3.7) capture the state of long-run equilibrium and are obtained from <em>₁</em>=<em>b₂</em>/<em>b₁</em>,&hellip;, <em>_j</em>=<em>b_j</em>/<em>b₁</em> respectively. &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <strong>3.4&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Model Evaluation Tests and Techniques</strong> <strong>3.4.1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; R² and Adjusted R²</strong> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The R² and the adjusted R² both provide measures of goodness-of-fit. However, the adjusted R² is preferably used because it is robust against redundant regressors which inflate the conventional R². They involve the following statistics: &nbsp; &nbsp; (3.9) &nbsp; &nbsp; (3.10) where <em>SS_r</em> denotes the sum of squares of the regression residuals, <em>SS_t</em> denotes the total sum of squares of the dependent variable, <em>n</em> denotes the number of observations, and <em>k</em> denotes the number of regressors (Verbeek, 2004). <strong>3.4.2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; T-Test and F-Test</strong> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The t-test and the f-test can be utilized to evaluate hypotheses pertaining to statistical significance of the parameters in a regression. Particularly, the t-test may be applied to a single parameter while the f-test may be applied to multiple parameters. They involve the following statistics: &nbsp; &nbsp; (3.11) &nbsp; &nbsp; (3.12) where <em>a_k</em> denotes a single parameter-estimate, <em>se </em>denotes its standard error, <em>R²</em> denotes the coefficient of determination of the regression, <em>N</em> denotes the number of observations, and <em>J</em> denotes the number of regressors. For the t-test, the statistical insignificance null hypothesis is to be rejected only if <em>t_i</em> exceeds its 5% critical-value, while for the f-test the joint statistical insignificance null hypothesis is to be rejected only if <em>f</em> exceeds its 5% critical-value at <em>N-J</em> and <em>J-1</em> degrees of freedom (Verbeek, 2004). <strong>3.4.3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Residual Normality Test</strong> The Jarque-Bera test statistic (Jarque and Bera, 1987) is useful in determining whether the residuals of a regression are normally distributed. The Jarque-Bera statistic is computed as: &nbsp; &nbsp; (3.13) where <em>S</em> is the skewness, <em>K</em> is the kurtosis, and <em>N</em> is the number of observations. Under the null hypothesis of a normal distribution, the Jarque-Bera statistic is distributed as <em>X²</em> with 2 degrees of freedom. Therefore, the null hypothesis is to be accepted if the absolute value of the Jarque-Bera statistic exceeds the observed value under the null hypothesis. Contrarily, the null hypothesis is to be rejected if the absolute value does not exceed the observed value. <strong>Heteroskedasticity Test</strong> The Breusch-Pagan-Godfrey test (Breusch and Pagan, 1979; Godfrey, 1978) evaluates the null hypothesis of &ldquo;no heteroskedasticity&rdquo; against the alternative hypothesis of heteroskedasticity of the form , where is a vector of independent variables. The test is performed by completing an auxiliary regression of the squared residuals from the original equation on . The explained sum of squares from this auxiliary regression is then divided by to give an LM statistic, which follows a chi square <em>X² </em>distribution with degrees of freedom equal to the number of variables in <em>Z </em>under the null hypothesis of no heteroskedasticity. Therefore, the null hypothesis is to be accepted if the LM statistic exceeds the observed value under the null hypothesis. Contrarily, the null hypothesis is to be rejected if the LM statistic does not exceed the observed value. <strong>3.4.5&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Serial Correlation Test</strong> The Godfrey (1978) Lagrange multiplier (LM) test is useful when testing for serial correlation in the residuals of a regression. The LM test statistic is computed as follows: First, assuming there is a regression equation: &nbsp; &nbsp; (3.14) where <em>&beta;</em> are the estimated coefficients and <em>&epsilon;</em> are the errors. The test statistic for the lag order <em>&rho;</em> is based on the regression for the residuals <em>&epsilon; = y - XḂ</em> which is given by: &nbsp; &nbsp; (3.15) The coefficients <em>𝛾</em> and <em>𝛼</em><em>_&delta;</em>are expected to be statistically insignificant if the null hypothesis of &ldquo;no serial correlation&rdquo; is to be accepted. On the other hand, the null hypothesis cannot be accepted if the coefficients <em>𝛾</em> and <em>𝛼</em><em>_&delta;</em>are found to be statistically significant. <strong>3.4.6&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Model Specification Test</strong> The Ramsey (1969) Regression Error Specification Test (RESET) is a general test for the following types of functional specification errors: Omitted variables; some relevant explanatory variables are not included. Incorrect functional form; some of the dependent and independent variables should be transformed to logs, powers, etc. Correlation between the independent variables and the residuals. Ramsey (1969) showed that these specification errors produce a non-zero mean vector for the residuals. Therefore, the null and alternative hypotheses of the RESET test are: &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; (3.16) The RESET test is based on an augmented regression which is given as: &nbsp; &nbsp; (3.17) The test of the null hypothesis of a well-specified model is tested against the alternative hypothesis of a poorly specified model by evaluating the restriction <em>𝛾</em><em> = 0</em>. The null hypothesis is to be accepted if <em>𝛾</em><em> = 0</em>, whereas the null hypothesis is to be rejected if <em>𝛾</em><em> &ne; 0</em>. The crucial factor to be considered in constructing the augmented regression model is determining which variable should constitute the <em>Z</em> variable. If <em>Z</em> is an omitted variable, then the test of <em>𝛾</em><em> = 0</em> is simply the omitted variables test. But if <em>y</em> is wrongly specified as an additive relation instead of a multiplicative relation such as <em>y =</em><em>𝛽</em><em>₀</em> X^𝛽¹X^𝛽² + 𝜖 then the test of <em>𝛾</em><em> = 0 </em>is a functional form specification test. In the latter case the restriction <em>𝛾</em><em> = 0 </em>is tested by including powers of the predicted values of the dependent variables in <em>Z</em> such that . <strong>3.4.7&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; CUSUMSQ Stability Test</strong> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; For the test of stability, cumulative sum of recursive residuals (CUSUM) and cumulative sum of recursive residuals squares (CUSUMSQ) tests as proposed by Brown, Durbin, and Evans (1975) was employed. The technique is appropriate for time series data and is recommended for use if one is uncertain about when a structural change might have taken place. The null hypothesis is that the coefficient vector &szlig; is the same every period. The CUSUM test is based on the cumulated sum of the residuals: &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; (3.18) where &nbsp; &nbsp; (3.19) and &nbsp; &nbsp; (3.20) <strong>3.5&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Sources of Data</strong> The Central bank of Nigeria served as the main source of data collection. This implies also that the study adopted secondary data. <strong>Chapter Four</strong> <strong>Empirical Results</strong> <strong>4.1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Descriptive Statistics</strong> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Before going into cointegration analysis, we will attempt to briefly examine the properties of the data with descriptive statistics. Table 4.1 and Figures 4.1 to 4.5 will be acknowledged for this purpose. Table 4.1: Descriptive Statistics &nbsp; PER_RGDP PER_PEE PENR SENR TENR Mean 264316.01 635.72 23096192.94 5796345.78 787115.08 Median 232704.55 361.03 19747039.31 4410684.33 755776.70 Maximum 385349.04 2340.12 46188979.59 11840028.21 1648670.36 Minimum 199039.15 7.38 9554076.94 1846106.82 49626.49 Std. Dev. 66113.04 681.06 9425336.46 3142601.76 592505.50 Skewness 0.65 0.77 0.59 0.79 0.17 Kurtosis 1.83 2.43 2.27 2.15 1.36 Jarque-Bera 4.88 4.24 3.01 5.14 4.47 Probability 0.09 0.12 0.22 0.08 0.11 Observations 38 38 38 38 38 &nbsp; Figure 4.1: Trend of Real Gross Domestic Product (RGDP) Per Capita &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Figure 4.2: Trend of Public Expenditure on Education (PEE) Per Capita &nbsp; &nbsp; Figure 4.3: Trend of Primary School Enrolment (PENR) &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Figure 4.4: Trend of Secondary School Enrolment (SENR) &nbsp; &nbsp; Figure 4.5: Trend of Tertiary School Enrolment (TENR) &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; From the second column of Table 4.1, RGDP per capita mean is NGN 264, 316.01 ($734.21). This critically lags behind RGDP per capita mean in all developed (OECD) countries and underscores the need for human and non-human capital development. Further, RGDP per capita maximum is NGN 385, 349.04 while its minimum is NGN 199, 039.15. Given that the trend of RGDP per capita is positively sloped as seen in Figure 4.1, the disparity between RGDP per capita maximum and its minimum indicates growth in RGDP per capita during the period under investigation. Lastly, the Jarque-Bera statistic (4.88) and probability value (0.09) of RGDP per capita simply suggest that it follows a normal distribution, with NGN 66, 113.04 as its standard deviation. &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; From the third column of Table 4.1, PEE per capita mean is NGN 635.72 ($1.77). Just like RGDP per capita, this critically lags behind PEE per capita mean in all developed (OECD) countries and underscores the need for more government intervention in the education sector. Further, PEE per capita maximum is NGN 2, 340.12 while its minimum is NGN 7.38. Given that the trend of PEE per capita is positively sloped exponentially as seen in Figure 4.2, the disparity between PEE per capita maximum and its minimum indicates rapid growth in PEE per capita during the period under investigation. Lastly, the Jarque-Bera statistic (4.24) and probability value (0.12) of PEE per capita simply suggest that it follows a normal distribution, with NGN 681.06 as its standard deviation. From the fourth column of Table 4.1, PENR mean is 23096192.94. This represents about 18.33% of total population mean (126036036.63) and indicates high primary school enrolment during the period under investigation. Further, PENR maximum is 46188979.59 while its minimum is 9554076.94. Given that the trend of PENR is positively sloped linearly as seen in Figure 4.3, the disparity between PENR maximum and its minimum indicates consistent growth in PENR during the period under investigation. Lastly, the Jarque-Bera statistic (3.01) and probability value (0.22) of PENR simply suggest that it follows a normal distribution, with 9425336.46 as its standard deviation. From the fifth column of Table 4.1, SENR mean is 5796345.78. This represents about 4.60% of total population mean (126036036.63) and indicates relatively low secondary school enrolment during the period under investigation. Further, SENR maximum is 11840028.21 while its minimum is 1846106.82. Given that the trend of SENR is positively sloped exponentially as seen in Figure 4.4, the disparity between SENR maximum and its minimum indicates rapid growth in SENR during the period under investigation. Lastly, the Jarque-Bera statistic (5.14) and probability value (0.08) of SENR simply suggest that it follows a normal distribution, with 3142601.76 as its standard deviation. From the sixth column of Table 4.1, TENR mean is 787115.08. This represents about 0.63% of total population mean (126036036.63) and indicates very low tertiary school enrolment during the period under investigation. Further, TENR maximum is 1648670.36 while its minimum is 49626.49. Given that the trend of TENR is positively sloped concavely as seen in Figure 4.5, the disparity between TENR maximum and its minimum indicates slow growth in TENR during the period under investigation. Lastly, the Jarque-Bera statistic (4.47) and probability value (0.11) of TENR simply suggest that it follows a normal distribution, with 592505.50 as its standard deviation. From the descriptive statistics above, it is obvious that substantial disparities exist between the maximum and minimum values of the variables, especially for PEE per capita and TENR. This may distort the regression results of the cointegration analysis and may also lead to unnecessarily large regression coefficients. In order to avoid these problems, we have transformed the variables in two major ways. Firstly, we have reduced disparity among the variables by expressing PENR, SENR, and TENR as percentages of population total. Secondly, we have downsized all the variables to a smaller scale by expressing them in natural log form. Therefore instead of RGDP, PEE per capita, PENR, SENR, and TENR, we now have Ln_PER_RGDP, Ln_PER_PEE, Ln_PENR, Ln_SENR, and Ln_TENR respectively as our investigative variables. &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <strong>4.2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Break-Point Unit Root Test Results</strong> Table 4.2: Break-Point Unit Root Test Result Summary Variables Lags Included Specification Break Date ADF Test Statistic 5% Critical Value Summary <em>Ln_PER_RGDP</em><em>_t</em> 0 Intercept &amp; Trend 2001 -3.3506 -5.1757 Non-Stationary <em>∆Ln_PER_RGDP</em><em>_t</em> 2 Intercept &amp; Trend 2001 -5.4176 -5.1757 Stationary <em>Ln_PER_PEE</em><em>_t</em> 0 Intercept &amp; Trend 2004 -3.3665 -5.1757 Non-Stationary <em>∆Ln_PER_PEE</em><em>_t</em> 5 Intercept &amp; Trend 1995 -5.6226 -5.1757 Non-Stationary <em>Ln_PENR</em><em>_t</em> 7 Intercept &amp; Trend 2004 -7.6901 -5.1757 Stationary <em>Ln_SENR</em><em>_t</em> 3 Intercept &amp; Trend 1998 -5.0584 -5.1757 Non-Stationary <em>∆Ln_SENR</em><em>_t</em> 3 Intercept &amp; Trend 2016 -6.4199 -5.1757 Stationary <em>Ln_TENR</em><em>_t</em> 1 Intercept &amp; Trend 1998 -6.9768 -5.1757 Stationary Note(s): Lag selection based on Schwarz Information Criterion (SIC) &nbsp; As seen in the above table, there are different orders of integration for the time-series variables. Specifically, <em>Ln_PENR</em> and <em>Ln_TENR</em> are stationary at levels, while others are stationary only at the first difference. The bounds cointegration method is more appropriate in this case because it permits the combination of stationary and difference-stationary time series. <strong>4.3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ARDL Bounds Cointegration Test Results</strong> Table 4.3: Lag/Model Selection Criteria Table Number of Models Evaluated: 16 Dependent Variable: <em>Ln_PER_RGDP</em> S|N Model AIC Specification 1 16 -4.0889 ARDL(1, 0, 0, 0, 0) 2 15 -4.0552 ARDL(1, 0, 0, 0, 1) 3 12 -4.0477 ARDL(1, 0, 1, 0, 0) 4 14 -4.0448 ARDL(1, 0, 0, 1, 0) 5 8 -4.0445 ARDL(1, 1, 0, 0, 0) 6 11 -4.0212 ARDL(1, 0, 1, 0, 1) 7 13 -4.0121 ARDL(1, 0, 0, 1, 1) 8 10 -4.0118 ARDL(1, 0, 1, 1, 0) 9 7 -4.0066 ARDL(1, 1, 0, 0, 1) 10 6 -3.9994 ARDL(1, 1, 0, 1, 0) 11 4 -3.9970 ARDL(1, 1, 1, 0, 0) 12 9 -3.9894 ARDL(1, 0, 1, 1, 1) 13 3 -3.9672 ARDL(1, 1, 1, 0, 1) 14 5 -3.9626 ARDL(1, 1, 0, 1, 1) 15 2 -3.9589 ARDL(1, 1, 1, 1, 0) 16 1 -3.9357 ARDL(1, 1, 1, 1, 1) Note(s): * indicates chosen optimal lag specification based on the Akaike Information Criterion The Akaike criterion shows that ARDL(1, 0, 0, 0, 0) is the best lag specification for the ARDL model, thereby indicating that it is best to include only a single lag of the endogenous variable (<em>Ln_PER_RGDP</em>), and 0 lags of the other exogenous variables (<em>Ln_PER_PEE, Ln_PENR, Ln_SENR, </em>and <em>Ln_TENR</em>). On this basis, an ARDL model was estimated and the bounds cointegration method was applied to test for cointegration as seen in the following tables. Table 4.4: Auto Regressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) Model Estimates Dependent Variable: <em>Ln_PER_RGDP</em><em>_t</em> Regressors Coefficient Standard Error t-statistic Prob. <em>Ln_PER_RGDP _t-1</em> 0.723844 0.063884 11.33053 0.0000 <em>Ln_PER_PEE</em><em>_t</em> 0.006558 0.014438 0.454194 0.6529 <em>Ln_PENR</em><em>_t</em> 0.166945 0.048731 3.425881 0.0017 <em>Ln_SENR_t</em> 0.105751 0.044395 2.382033 0.0235 <em>Ln_TENR</em><em>_t</em> 0.033421 0.036354 0.919326 0.3650 <em>C</em> 2.80666 0.598588 4.688802 0.0001 &nbsp; Table 4.5: Bounds Cointegration Test &nbsp; Computed Wald (F-Statistic): 8.5420 10% level 5% level 2.5% level 1% level <em>k </em>= 4 I(0) I(1) I(0) I(1) I(0) I(1) I(0) I(1) <em>F</em>* 2.45 3.52 2.86 4.01 3.25 4.49 3.74 5.06 Source: Pesaran et al. <em>k</em> signifies the number of regressors <em>F</em>* corresponds to the model with unrestricted intercept and trend In the above table, the bounds test statistic (8.5420) surpasses the upper-bound (4.01) at the 5% level of significance and therefore leads to the rejection of the null hypothesis of &ldquo;no cointegration&rdquo;. Based on this result, a &ldquo;restricted&rdquo; error correction model was estimated as well as a long-run &lsquo;equilibrium&rsquo; model as seen in the subsequent tables and equations. Table 4.6a: Error Correction Model Dependent Variable: &Delta;<em> Ln_PER_RGDP</em><em>_t</em> Regressors Coefficient Standard Error t-statistic Prob. <em>∆Ln_PER_PEE</em><em>_t</em> 0.0065 0.0144 0.4541 0.6529 <em>∆Ln_PENR</em><em>_t</em> 0.1669 0.0487 3.4258 0.0017 <em>∆Ln_SENR</em><em>_t</em> 0.1057 0.0443 2.3820 0.0235 <em>∆Ln_TENR</em><em>_t</em> 0.0334 0.0363 0.9193 0.3650 <em>ECT _t-1</em> -0.2761 0.0638 -4.3227 0.0001 &nbsp; Table 4.6b: Long-Run Model Dependent Variable: <em>Ln_PER_RGDP</em><em>_t</em> Regressors Coefficient Standard Error t-statistic Prob. <em>Ln_PER_PEE</em><em>_t</em> 0.0237 0.0489 0.4850 0.6310 <em>Ln_PENR</em><em>_t</em> 0.6045 0.1253 4.8213 0.0000 <em>Ln_SENR</em><em>_t</em> 0.3829 0.1106 3.4602 0.0016 <em>Ln_TENR</em><em>_t</em> 0.1210 0.1500 0.8064 0.4261 <em>C</em> 10.1633 0.5757 17.6524 0.0000 &nbsp; In the error correction model, the error correction term (<em>ECT_t-1</em>) is expectedly negative and statistically significant at the 5% level (based on its <em>p</em>-value (0.0001)). Its magnitude (-0.2761) indicates a low but significant rate of adjustment to long-run equilibrium and specifically implies that approximately 27.61% of all discrepancies in long-run equilibrium will be corrected in each period. On the other hand, in the long-run model, the first long-run coefficient (<em>Ln_PER_PEE</em><em>_t</em>) is expectedly positive but its <em>p</em>-value (0.6310) indicates that it is statistically insignificant at the 5% level of significance, thereby implying that increment in <em>Ln_PER_PEE</em> will not cause <em>Ln_PER_RGDP</em> to increase. . Similarly, the fourth long-run coefficient (<em>Ln_TENR</em>) is expectedly positive but its <em>p</em>-value (0.4261) indicates that it is statistically insignificant at the 5% level of significance, thereby implying that increment in <em>Ln_TENR</em> will not cause <em>Ln_PER_RGDP</em> to increase. On the other hand, the second long-run coefficient (<em>Ln_PENR</em>) is expectedly positive and its <em>p</em>-value (0.0000) indicates that it is statistically significant at the 5% level of significance, thereby implying that increment in <em>Ln_PENR</em> will cause <em>Ln_PER_RGDP</em> to increase by 0.6045. Similarly, the third long-run coefficient (<em>Ln_SENR</em>) is expectedly positive and its <em>p</em>-value (0.0016) indicates that it is statistically significant at the 5% level of significance, thereby implying that increment in <em>Ln_SENR</em> will cause <em>Ln_PER_RGDP</em> to increase by 0.3829. The intercept also appears to be positive and statistically significant thereby indicating that the long-run model has a positive autonomous component measuring up to 10.1633 units. <strong>4.4&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Model Evaluation Results</strong> <strong>4.4.1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Test of Goodness-of-Fit</strong> Table 4.7: Test of Goodness-of-Fit Summary Model R² Adj. R² ARDL Model 0.9875 0.9854 ECM 0.6948 0.6567 &nbsp; The adjusted R² of the ARDL model has a magnitude of 0.9854 and therefore implies that the ARDL model explains as much as 98.54% of the variation in its endogenous variable. Further, the adjusted R² of the ECM has a magnitude of 0.6567 and therefore implies that the error correction model (ECM) explains as much as 65.67% of the variation in its endogenous variable. <strong>4.4.2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; T-Test and F-Test</strong> Table 4.8: F-Test Summary Model F-Statistic 5% Critical Value Prob. Remarks ARDL Model 490.1238 F(5,31) = 2.52 0.0000 Jointly Significant @ 5% ECM 15.2700 F(4,32) = 2.67 0.0000 Jointly Significant @ 5% &nbsp; The F-statistic (490.1238) for the ARDL model exceeds its 5% critical value (2.66), thereby implying that the parameters of the ARDL model are jointly significant at the 5% level of significance. Further, the F-statistic (15.2700) of the ECM also exceeds its 5% critical value (2.84), thereby implying that the parameters of the error correction model (ECM) are jointly significant at the 5% level of significance. Table 4.9: T-Test Summary T-Test for the Long-Run Estimates Regressors t-statistic 5% Critical Value Remarks <em>Ln_PER_PEE</em><em>_t</em> 0.4850 1.9600 Insignificant <em>Ln_PENR</em><em>_t</em> 4.8213 1.9600 Significant <em>Ln_SENR</em><em>_t</em> 3.4602 1.9600 Significant <em>Ln_TENR</em><em>_t</em> 0.8064 1.9600 Insignificant <em>C</em> 17.6524 1.9600 Significant &nbsp; T-Test for the Error Correction Model (ECM) Estimates &nbsp; Regressors t-statistic 5% Critical Value Remarks &nbsp; <em>∆Ln_PER_PEE</em><em>_t</em> 0.4541 1.9600 Insignificant &nbsp; <em>∆Ln_PENR</em><em>_t</em> 3.4258 1.9600 Significant &nbsp; <em>∆Ln_SENR</em><em>_t</em> 2.3820 1.9600 Significant &nbsp; <em>∆Ln_TENR</em><em>_t</em> 0.9193 1.9600 Insignificant &nbsp; <em>ECT _t-1</em> -4.3227 1.9600 Significant &nbsp; &nbsp; In the long-run model, the t-statistics for the first and fourth parameters are less than the 5% critical value (1.96), thereby indicating that the first and fourth parameters are statistically insignificant at the 5% level of significance, while the t-statistic for the second, third, and fifth parameters are greater than the 5% critical value (1.96), thereby indicating that they are statistically significant at the 5% level of significance. Similarly, in the ECM, the t-statistics for the first and fourth parameters are less than the 5% critical value (1.96), thereby indicating that the first and fourth parameters are statistically insignificant at the 5% level of significance, while the t-statistic for the second, third, and fifth parameters are greater than the 5% critical value (1.96), thereby indicating that they are statistically significant at the 5% level of significance. <strong>Normality Test</strong> Table 4.10: Jarque-Bera Normality Test Summary Model Skewness Kurtosis JB Statistic Prob. ARDL Model -0.5558 2.8731 1.9297 0.3810 ECM -0.7369 2.9430 3.3544 0.1868 &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; In the ARDL model, the <em>p</em>-value (0.3810) of the J-B test exceeds the 0.05 benchmark, and therefore indicates that the residuals of the ARDL model are normally distributed. Further, in the ECM, the <em>p</em>-value (0.1868) of the J-B test also exceeds the 0.05 benchmark, and therefore indicates that the residuals of the error correction model (ECM) are normally distributed. <strong>4.4.4&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Heteroskedasticity Test</strong> Table 4.11: Breusch-Pagan-Godfrey Heteroskedasticity Test Summary Model BPG Statistic (Obs*R-sq) Prob. ARDL Model 4.3085 0.5059 ECM 7.2979 0.1209 &nbsp; In the ARDL model, the <em>p</em>-value (0.5059) of the BPG test exceeds the 0.05 benchmark, and therefore indicates that the residuals of the ARDL model are homoskedastic. Similarly, in ECM, the <em>p</em>-value (0.1209) of the BPG test also exceeds the 0.05 benchmark, and therefore indicates that the residuals of the error correction model (ECM) are homoskedastic. <strong>4.4.5&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Autocorrelation Test</strong> Table 4.12: Breusch-Godfrey Serial Correlation Test Summary Model BG Statistic (Obs*R-sq) Prob. ARDL Model 0.1021 0.7493 ECM 0.8776 0.3488 &nbsp; In the ARDL model, the <em>p</em>-value (0.7493) of the BG test exceeds the 0.05 benchmark, and therefore indicates that the residuals of the ARDL model are not serially correlated. Similarly, in ECM, the <em>p</em>-value (0.3488) of the BG test also exceeds the 0.05 benchmark, and therefore indicates that the residuals of the error correction model (ECM) are not serially correlated. <strong>4.4.6&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Functional Specification Test</strong> Table 4.13: RESET Model Specification Test Summary Model Test Statistics Value Degrees of Freedom Prob. ARDL Model t-statistic 0.805722 30 0.4267 F-statistic 0.649189 (1, 30) 0.4267 ECM t-statistic 0.533837 31 0.5973 F-statistic 0.284982 (1, 31) 0.5973 &nbsp; In the ARDL model, the F-statistic <em>p</em>-value (0.4267) of the RESET test exceeds the 0.05 benchmark, and therefore indicates that the ARDL model was adequately specified. Further, in the ECM, the F-statistic <em>p</em>-value (0.5973) of the RESET test exceeds the 0.05 benchmark, and therefore indicates that the error correction model (ECM) was adequately specified. <strong>4.4.7&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; CUSUMSQ Stability Test</strong> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; The Cumulative Sum of Residuals (CUSUM) Squares test was used to examine the stability of the ARDL model. The result is captured in the following figure. Figure 4.6: CUSUMSQ Plot &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; In interpreting the CUSUMSQ test, we may conclude that there is instability only if the CUSUMSQ plot falls outside the boundaries of the upper and lower dotted lines which signify the &ldquo;5% level of significance&rdquo;. In this regard, the plot of the CUSUMSQ test in the above figure shows that the ARDL model becomes momentarily unstable in year 2002. However, apart from 2002, the ARDL model appears to be stable in every other year as indicated by the confinement of the CUSUMSQ plot between the upper and lower dotted lines. Overall, considering the fact that this momentary period of instability does not coincide with any major event in Nigeria&rsquo;s education sector, we can conclude that instability is due to chance, and that the estimates of the model are reliable because apart from year 2002 the ARDL model appears to be stable.

Introduction In December 2010, Nespresso, the world’s leading brand of premium-portioned coffee, opened a flagship “boutique” in Sydney’s Pitt Street Mall. This was Nespresso’s fifth boutique opening of 2010, after Brussels, Miami, Soho, and Munich. The Sydney debut coincided with the mall’s upmarket redevelopment, which explains Nespresso’s arrival in the city: strategic geographic expansion is key to the brand’s growth. Rather than panoramic ubiquity, a retail option favoured by brands like McDonalds, KFC and Starbucks, Nespresso opts for iconic, prestigious locations. This strategy has been highly successful: since 2000 Nespresso has recorded year-on-year per annum growth of 30 per cent. This has been achieved, moreover, despite a global financial downturn and an international coffee market replete with brand variety. In turn, Nespresso marks an evolution in the coffee market over the last decade. The Nespresso Story Founded in 1986, Nespresso is the fasting growing brand in the Nestlé Group. Its headquarters are in Lausanne, Switzerland, with over 7,000 employees worldwide. In 2012, Nespresso had 270 boutiques in 50 countries. The brand’s growth strategy involves three main components: premium coffee capsules, “mated” with specially designed machines, and accompanied by exceptional customer service through the Nespresso Club. Each component requires some explanation. Nespresso offers 16 varieties of Grand Crus coffee: 7 espresso blends, 3 pure origin espressos, 3 lungos (for larger cups), and 3 decaffeinated coffees. Each 5.5 grams of portioned coffee is cased in a hermetically sealed aluminium capsule, or pod, designed to preserve the complex, volatile aromas (between 800 and 900 per pod), and prevent oxidation. These capsules are designed to be used exclusively with Nespresso-branded machines, which are equipped with a patented high-pressure extraction system designed for optimum release of the coffee. These machines, of which there are 28 models, are developed with 6 machine partners, and Antoine Cahen, from Ateliers du Nord in Lausanne, designs most of them. For its consumers, members of the Nespresso Club, the capsules and machines guarantee perfect espresso coffee every time, within seconds and with minimum effort—what Nespresso calls the “ultimate coffee experience.” The Nespresso Club promotes this experience as an everyday luxury, whereby café-quality coffee can be enjoyed in the privacy and comfort of Club members’ homes. This domestic focus is a relatively recent turn in its history. Nestlé patented some of its pod technology in 1976; the compatible machines, initially made in Switzerland by Turmix, were developed a decade later. Nespresso S. A. was set up as a subsidiary unit within the Nestlé Group with a view to target the office and fine restaurant sector. It was first test-marketed in Japan in 1986, and rolled out the same year in Switzerland, France and Italy. However, by 1988, low sales prompted Nespresso’s newly appointed CEO, Jean-Paul Gillard, to rethink the brand’s focus. Gillard subsequently repositioned Nespresso’s target market away from the commercial sector towards high-income households and individuals, and introduced a mail-order distribution system; these elements became the hallmarks of the Nespresso Club (Markides 55). The Nespresso Club was designed to give members who had purchased Nespresso machines 24-hour customer service, by mail, phone, fax, and email. By the end of 1997 there were some 250,000 Club members worldwide. The boom in domestic, user-friendly espresso machines from the early 1990s helped Nespresso’s growth in this period. The cumulative efforts by the main manufacturers—Krups, Bosch, Braun, Saeco and DeLonghi—lowered the machines’ average price to around US $100 (Purpura, “Espresso” 88; Purpura, “New” 116). This paralleled consumers’ growing sophistication, as they became increasingly familiar with café-quality espresso, cappuccino and latté—for reasons to be detailed below. Nespresso was primed to exploit this cultural shift in the market and forge a charismatic point of difference: an aspirational, luxury option within an increasingly accessible and familiar field. Between 2006 and 2008, Nespresso sales more than doubled, prompting a second production factory to supplement the original plant in Avenches (Simonian). In 2008, Nespresso grew 20 times faster than the global coffee market (Reguly B1). As Nespresso sales exceeded $1.3 billion AU in 2009, with 4.8 billion capsules shipped out annually and 5 million Club members worldwide, it became Nestlé’s fastest growing division (Canning 28). According to Nespresso’s Oceania market director, Renaud Tinel, the brand now represents 8 per cent of the total coffee market; of Nespresso specifically, he reports that 10,000 cups (using one capsule per cup) were consumed worldwide each minute in 2009, and that increased to 12,300 cups per minute in 2010 (O’Brien 16). Given such growth in such a brief period, the atypical dynamic between the boutique, the Club and the Nespresso brand warrants closer consideration. Nespresso opened its first boutique in Paris in 2000, on the Avenue des Champs-Élysées. It was a symbolic choice and signalled the brand’s preference for glamorous precincts in cosmopolitan cities. This has become the design template for all Nespresso boutiques, what the company calls “brand embassies” in its press releases. More like art gallery-style emporiums than retail spaces, these boutiques perform three main functions: they showcase Nespresso coffees, machines and accessories (all elegantly displayed); they enable Club members to stock up on capsules; and they offer excellent customer service, which invariably equates to detailed production information. The brand’s revenue model reflects the boutique’s role in the broader business strategy: 50 per cent of Nespresso’s business is generated online, 30 per cent through the boutiques, and 20 per cent through call centres. Whatever floor space these boutiques dedicate to coffee consumption is—compared to the emphasis on exhibition and ambience—minimal and marginal. In turn, this tightly monitored, self-focused model inverts the conventional function of most commercial coffee sites. For several hundred years, the café has fostered a convivial atmosphere, served consumers’ social inclinations, and overwhelmingly encouraged diverse, eclectic clientele. The Nespresso boutique is the antithesis to this, and instead actively limits interaction: the Club “community” does not meet as a community, and is united only in atomised allegiance to the Nespresso brand. In this regard, Nespresso stands in stark contrast to another coffee brand that has been highly successful in recent years—Starbucks. Starbucks famously recreates the aesthetics, rhetoric and atmosphere of the café as a “third place”—a term popularised by urban sociologist Ray Oldenburg to describe non-work, non-domestic spaces where patrons converge for respite or recreation. These liminal spaces (cafés, parks, hair salons, book stores and such locations) might be private, commercial sites, yet they provide opportunities for chance encounters, even therapeutic interactions. In this way, they aid sociability and civic life (Kleinman 193). Long before the term “third place” was coined, coffee houses were deemed exemplars of egalitarian social space. As Rudolf P. Gaudio notes, the early coffee houses of Western Europe, in Oxford and London in the mid-1600s, “were characterized as places where commoners and aristocrats could meet and socialize without regard to rank” (670). From this sanguine perspective, they both informed and animated the modern public sphere. That is, and following Habermas, as a place where a mixed cohort of individuals could meet and discuss matters of public importance, and where politics intersected society, the eighteenth-century British coffee house both typified and strengthened the public sphere (Karababa and Ger 746). Moreover, and even from their early Ottoman origins (Karababa and Ger), there has been an historical correlation between the coffee house and the cosmopolitan, with the latter at least partly defined in terms of demographic breadth (Luckins). Ironically, and insofar as Nespresso appeals to coffee-literate consumers, the brand owes much to Starbucks. In the two decades preceding Nespresso’s arrival, Starbucks played a significant role in refining coffee literacy around the world, gauging mass-market trends, and stirring consumer consciousness. For Nespresso, this constituted major preparatory phenomena, as its strategy (and success) since the early 2000s presupposed the coffee market that Starbucks had helped to create. According to Nespresso’s chief executive Richard Giradot, central to Nespresso’s expansion is a focus on particular cities and their coffee culture (Canning 28). In turn, it pays to take stock of how such cities developed a coffee culture amenable to Nespresso—and therein lays the brand’s debt to Starbucks. Until the last few years, and before celebrity ambassador George Clooney was enlisted in 2005, Nespresso’s marketing was driven primarily by Club members’ recommendations. At the same time, though, Nespresso insisted that Club members were coffee connoisseurs, whose knowledge and enjoyment of coffee exceeded conventional coffee offerings. In 2000, Henk Kwakman, one of Nestlé’s Coffee Specialists, explained the need for portioned coffee in terms of guaranteed perfection, one that demanding consumers would expect. “In general”, he reasoned, “people who really like espresso coffee are very much more quality driven. When you consider such an intense taste experience, the quality is very important. If the espresso is slightly off quality, the connoisseur notices this immediately” (quoted in Butler 50). What matters here is how this corps of connoisseurs grew to a scale big enough to sustain and strengthen the Nespresso system, in the absence of a robust marketing or educative drive by Nespresso (until very recently). Put simply, the brand’s ascent was aided by Starbucks, specifically by the latter’s success in changing the mainstream coffee market during the 1990s. In establishing such a strong transnational presence, Starbucks challenged smaller, competing brands to define themselves with more clarity and conviction. Indeed, working with data that identified just 200 freestanding coffee houses in the US prior to 1990 compared to 14,000 in 2003, Kjeldgaard and Ostberg go so far as to state that: “Put bluntly, in the US there was no local coffee consumptionscape prior to Starbucks” (Kjeldgaard and Ostberg 176). Starbucks effectively redefined the coffee world for mainstream consumers in ways that were directly beneficial for Nespresso. Starbucks: Coffee as Ambience, Experience, and Cultural Capital While visitors to Nespresso boutiques can sample the coffee, with highly trained baristas and staff on site to explain the Nespresso system, in the main there are few concessions to the conventional café experience. Primarily, these boutiques function as material spaces for existing Club members to stock up on capsules, and therefore they complement the Nespresso system with a suitably streamlined space: efficient, stylish and conspicuously upmarket. Outside at least one Sydney boutique for instance (Bondi Junction, in the fashionable eastern suburbs), visitors enter through a club-style cordon, something usually associated with exclusive bars or hotels. This demarcates the boutique from neighbouring coffee chains, and signals Nespresso’s claim to more privileged patrons. This strategy though, the cultivation of a particular customer through aesthetic design and subtle flattery, is not unique. For decades, Starbucks also contrived a “special” coffee experience. Moreover, while the Starbucks model strikes a very different sensorial chord to that of Nespresso (in terms of décor, target consumer and so on) it effectively groomed and prepped everyday coffee drinkers to a level of relative self-sufficiency and expertise—and therein is the link between Starbucks’s mass-marketed approach and Nespresso’s timely arrival. Starbucks opened its first store in 1971, in Seattle. Three partners founded it: Jerry Baldwin and Zev Siegl, both teachers, and Gordon Bowker, a writer. In 1982, as they opened their sixth Seattle store, they were joined by Howard Schultz. Schultz’s trip to Italy the following year led to an entrepreneurial epiphany to which he now attributes Starbucks’s success. Inspired by how cafés in Italy, particularly the espresso bars in Milan, were vibrant social hubs, Schultz returned to the US with a newfound sensitivity to ambience and attitude. In 1987, Schultz bought Starbucks outright and stated his business philosophy thus: “We aren’t in the coffee business, serving people. We are in the people business, serving coffee” (quoted in Ruzich 432). This was articulated most clearly in how Schultz structured Starbucks as the ultimate “third place”, a welcoming amalgam of aromas, music, furniture, textures, literature and free WiFi. This transformed the café experience twofold. First, sensory overload masked the dull homogeny of a global chain with an air of warm, comforting domesticity—an inviting, everyday “home away from home.” To this end, in 1994, Schultz enlisted interior design “mastermind” Wright Massey; with his team of 45 designers, Massey created the chain’s decor blueprint, an “oasis for contemplation” (quoted in Scerri 60). At the same time though, and second, Starbucks promoted a revisionist, airbrushed version of how the coffee was produced. Patrons could see and smell the freshly roasted beans, and read about their places of origin in the free pamphlets. In this way, Starbucks merged the exotic and the cosmopolitan. The global supply chain underwent an image makeover, helped by a “new” vocabulary that familiarised its coffee drinkers with the diversity and complexity of coffee, and such terms as aroma, acidity, body and flavour. This strategy had a decisive impact on the coffee market, first in the US and then elsewhere: Starbucks oversaw a significant expansion in coffee consumption, both quantitatively and qualitatively. In the decades following the Second World War, coffee consumption in the US reached a plateau. Moreover, as Steven Topik points out, the rise of this type of coffee connoisseurship actually coincided with declining per capita consumption of coffee in the US—so the social status attributed to specialised knowledge of coffee “saved” the market: “Coffee’s rise as a sign of distinction and connoisseurship meant its appeal was no longer just its photoactive role as a stimulant nor the democratic sociability of the coffee shop” (Topik 100). Starbucks’s singular triumph was to not only convert non-coffee drinkers, but also train them to a level of relative sophistication. The average “cup o’ Joe” thus gave way to the latte, cappuccino, macchiato and more, and a world of coffee hitherto beyond (perhaps above) the average American consumer became both regular and routine. By 2003, Starbucks’s revenue was US $4.1 billion, and by 2012 there were almost 20,000 stores in 58 countries. As an idealised “third place,” Starbucks functioned as a welcoming haven that flattened out and muted the realities of global trade. The variety of beans on offer (Arabica, Latin American, speciality single origin and so on) bespoke a generous and bountiful modernity; while brochures schooled patrons in the nuances of terroir, an appreciation for origin and distinctiveness that encoded cultural capital. This positioned Starbucks within a happy narrative of the coffee economy, and drew patrons into this story by flattering their consumer choices. Against the generic sameness of supermarket options, Starbucks promised distinction, in Pierre Bourdieu’s sense of the term, and diversity in its coffee offerings. For Greg Dickinson, the Starbucks experience—the scent of the beans, the sound of the grinders, the taste of the coffees—negated the abstractions of postmodern, global trade: by sensory seduction, patrons connected with something real, authentic and material. At the same time, Starbucks professed commitment to the “triple bottom line” (Savitz), the corporate mantra that has morphed into virtual orthodoxy over the last fifteen years. This was hardly surprising; companies that trade in food staples typically grown in developing regions (coffee, tea, sugar, and coffee) felt the “political-aesthetic problematization of food” (Sassatelli and Davolio). This saw increasingly cognisant consumers trying to reconcile the pleasures of consumption with environmental and human responsibilities. The “triple bottom line” approach, which ostensibly promotes best business practice for people, profits and the planet, was folded into Starbucks’s marketing. The company heavily promoted its range of civic engagement, such as donations to nurses’ associations, literacy programs, clean water programs, and fair dealings with its coffee growers in developing societies (Simon). This bode well for its target market. As Constance M. Ruch has argued, Starbucks sought the burgeoning and lucrative “bobo” class, a term Ruch borrows from David Brooks. A portmanteau of “bourgeois bohemians,” “bobo” describes the educated elite that seeks the ambience and experience of a counter-cultural aesthetic, but without the political commitment. Until the last few years, it seemed Starbucks had successfully grafted this cultural zeitgeist onto its “third place.” Ironically, the scale and scope of the brand’s success has meant that Starbucks’s claim to an ethical agenda draws frequent and often fierce attack. As a global behemoth, Starbucks evolved into an iconic symbol of advanced consumer culture. For those critical of how such brands overwhelm smaller, more local competition, the brand is now synonymous for insidious, unstoppable retail spread. This in turn renders Starbucks vulnerable to protests that, despite its gestures towards sustainability (human and environmental), and by virtue of its size, ubiquity and ultimately conservative philosophy, it has lost whatever cachet or charm it supposedly once had. As Bryant Simon argues, in co-opting the language of ethical practice within an ultimately corporatist context, Starbucks only ever appealed to a modest form of altruism; not just in terms of the funds committed to worthy causes, but also to move thorny issues to “the most non-contentious middle-ground,” lest conservative customers felt alienated (Simon 162). Yet, having flagged itself as an ethical brand, Starbucks became an even bigger target for anti-corporatist sentiment, and the charge that, as a multinational giant, it remained complicit in (and one of the biggest benefactors of) a starkly inequitable and asymmetric global trade. It remains a major presence in the world coffee market, and arguably the most famous of the coffee chains. Over the last decade though, the speed and intensity with which Nespresso has grown, coupled with its atypical approach to consumer engagement, suggests that, in terms of brand equity, it now offers a more compelling point of difference than Starbucks. Brand “Me” Insofar as the Nespresso system depends on a consumer market versed in the intricacies of quality coffee, Starbucks can be at least partly credited for nurturing a more refined palate amongst everyday coffee drinkers. Yet while Starbucks courted the “average” consumer in its quest for market control, saturating the suburban landscape with thousands of virtually indistinguishable stores, Nespresso marks a very different sensibility. Put simply, Nespresso inverts the logic of a coffee house as a “third place,” and patrons are drawn not to socialise and relax but to pursue their own highly individualised interests. The difference with Starbucks could not be starker. One visitor to the Bloomingdale boutique (in New York’s fashionable Soho district) described it as having “the feel of Switzerland rather than Seattle. Instead of velvet sofas and comfy music, it has hard surfaces, bright colours and European hostesses” (Gapper 9). By creating a system that narrows the gap between production and consumption, to the point where Nespresso boutiques advertise the coffee brand but do not promote on-site coffee drinking, the boutiques are blithely indifferent to the historical, romanticised image of the coffee house as a meeting place. The result is a coffee experience that exploits the sophistication and vanity of aspirational consumers, but ignores the socialising scaffold by which coffee houses historically and perhaps naively made some claim to community building. If anything, Nespresso restricts patrons’ contemplative field: they consider only their relationships to the brand. In turn, Nespresso offers the ultimate expression of contemporary consumer capitalism, a hyper-individual experience for a hyper-modern age. By developing a global brand that is both luxurious and niche, Nespresso became “the Louis Vuitton of coffee” (Betts 14). Where Starbucks pursued retail ubiquity, Nespresso targets affluent, upmarket cities. As chief executive Richard Giradot put it, with no hint of embarrassment or apology: “If you take China, for example, we are not speaking about China, we are speaking about Shanghai, Hong Kong, Beijing because you will not sell our concept in the middle of nowhere in China” (quoted in Canning 28). For this reason, while Europe accounts for 90 per cent of Nespresso sales (Betts 15), its forays into the Americas, Asia and Australasia invariably spotlights cities that are already iconic or emerging economic hubs. The first boutique in Latin America, for instance, was opened in Jardins, a wealthy suburb in Sao Paulo, Brazil. In Nespresso, Nestlé has popularised a coffee experience neatly suited to contemporary consumer trends: Club members inhabit a branded world as hermetically sealed as the aluminium pods they purchase and consume. Besides the Club’s phone, fax and online distribution channels, pods can only be bought at the boutiques, which minimise even the potential for serendipitous mingling. The baristas are there primarily for product demonstrations, whilst highly trained staff recite the machines’ strengths (be they in design or utility), or information about the actual coffees. For Club members, the boutique service is merely the human extension of Nespresso’s online presence, whereby product information becomes increasingly tailored to increasingly individualised tastes. In the boutique, this emphasis on the individual is sold in terms of elegance, expedience and privilege. Nespresso boasts that over 70 per cent of its workforce is “customer facing,” sharing their passion and knowledge with Club members. Having already received and processed the product information (through the website, boutique staff, and promotional brochures), Club members need not do anything more than purchase their pods. In some of the more recently opened boutiques, such as in Paris-Madeleine, there is even an Exclusive Room where only Club members may enter—curious tourists (or potential members) are kept out. Club members though can select their preferred Grands Crus and checkout automatically, thanks to RFID (radio frequency identification) technology inserted in the capsule sleeves. So, where Starbucks exudes an inclusive, hearth-like hospitality, the Nespresso Club appears more like a pampered clique, albeit a growing one. As described in the Financial Times, “combine the reception desk of a designer hotel with an expensive fashion display and you get some idea what a Nespresso ‘coffee boutique’ is like” (Wiggins and Simonian 10). Conclusion Instead of sociability, Nespresso puts a premium on exclusivity and the knowledge gained through that exclusive experience. The more Club members know about the coffee, the faster and more individualised (and “therefore” better) the transaction they have with the Nespresso brand. This in turn confirms Zygmunt Bauman’s contention that, in a consumer society, being free to choose requires competence: “Freedom to choose does not mean that all choices are right—there are good and bad choices, better and worse choices. The kind of choice eventually made is the evidence of competence or its lack” (Bauman 43-44). Consumption here becomes an endless process of self-fashioning through commodities; a process Eva Illouz considers “all the more strenuous when the market recruits the consumer through the sysiphian exercise of his/her freedom to choose who he/she is” (Illouz 392). In a status-based setting, the more finely graded the differences between commodities (various places of origin, blends, intensities, and so on), the harder the consumer works to stay ahead—which means to be sufficiently informed. Consumers are locked in a game of constant reassurance, to show upward mobility to both themselves and society. For all that, and like Starbucks, Nespresso shows some signs of corporate social responsibility. In 2009, the company announced its “Ecolaboration” initiative, a series of eco-friendly targets for 2013. By then, Nespresso aims to: source 80 per cent of its coffee through Sustainable Quality Programs and Rainforest Alliance Certified farms; triple its capacity to recycle used capsules to 75 per cent; and reduce the overall carbon footprint required to produce each cup of Nespresso by 20 per cent (Nespresso). This information is conveyed through the brand’s website, press releases and brochures. However, since such endeavours are now de rigueur for many brands, it does not register as particularly innovative, progressive or challenging: it is an unexceptional (even expected) part of contemporary mainstream marketing. Indeed, the use of actor George Clooney as Nespresso’s brand ambassador since 2005 shows shrewd appraisal of consumers’ political and cultural sensibilities. As a celebrity who splits his time between Hollywood and Lake Como in Italy, Clooney embodies the glamorous, cosmopolitan lifestyle that Nespresso signifies. However, as an actor famous for backing political and humanitarian causes (having raised awareness for crises in Darfur and Haiti, and backing calls for the legalisation of same-sex marriage), Clooney’s meanings extend beyond cinema: as a celebrity, he is multi-coded. Through its association with Clooney, and his fusion of star power and worldly sophistication, the brand is imbued with semantic latitude. Still, in the television commercials in which Clooney appears for Nespresso, his role as the Hollywood heartthrob invariably overshadows that of the political campaigner. These commercials actually pivot on Clooney’s romantic appeal, an appeal which is ironically upstaged in the commercials by something even more seductive: Nespresso coffee. References Bauman, Zygmunt. “Collateral Casualties of Consumerism.” Journal of Consumer Culture 7.1 (2007): 25–56. Betts, Paul. “Nestlé Refines its Arsenal in the Luxury Coffee War.” Financial Times 28 Apr. (2010): 14. Bourdieu, Pierre. Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984. Butler, Reg. “The Nespresso Route to a Perfect Espresso.” Tea &amp; Coffee Trade Journal 172.4 (2000): 50. Canning, Simon. “Nespresso Taps a Cultural Thirst.” The Australian 26 Oct. (2009): 28. Dickinson, Greg. “Joe’s Rhetoric: Finding Authenticity at Starbucks.” Rhetoric Society Quarterly 32.4 (2002): 5–27. Gapper, John. “Lessons from Nestlé’s Coffee Break.” Financial Times 3 Jan. (2008): 9. Gaudio, Rudolf P. “Coffeetalk: StarbucksTM and the Commercialization of Casual Conversation.” Language in Society 32.5 (2003): 659–91. Habermas, Jürgen. The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1962. Illouz, Eva. “Emotions, Imagination and Consumption: A New Research Agenda.” Journal of Consumer Culture 9 (2009): 377–413. Karababa, EmInegül, and GüIIz Ger. “Early Modern Ottoman Coffehouse Culture and the Formation of the Consumer Subject." Journal of Consumer Research 37.5 (2011): 737–60 Kjeldgaard, Dannie, and Jacob Ostberg. “Coffee Grounds and the Global Cup: Global Consumer Culture in Scandinavia”. Consumption, Markets and Culture 10.2 (2007): 175–87. Kleinman, Sharon S. “Café Culture in France and the United States: A Comparative Ethnographic Study of the Use of Mobile Information and Communication Technologies.” Atlantic Journal of Communication 14.4 (2006): 191–210. Luckins, Tanja. “Flavoursome Scraps of Conversation: Talking and Hearing the Cosmopolitan City, 1900s–1960s.” History Australia 7.2 (2010): 31.1–31.16. Markides, Constantinos C. “A Dynamic View of Strategy.” Sloan Management Review 40.3 (1999): 55. Nespresso. “Ecolaboration Initiative Directs Nespresso to Sustainable Success.” Nespresso Media Centre 2009. 13 Dec. 2011. ‹http://www.nespresso.com›. O’Brien, Mary. “A Shot at the Big Time.” The Age 21 Jun. (2011): 16. Oldenburg, Ray. The Great Good Place: Cafés, Coffee Shops, Community Centers, Beauty Parlors, General Stores, Bars, Hangouts, and How They Get You Through the Day. New York: Paragon House, 1989. Purpura, Linda. “New Espresso Machines to Tempt the Palate.” The Weekly Home Furnishings Newspaper 3 May (1993): 116. Purpura, Linda. “Espresso: Grace under Pressure.” The Weekly Home Furnishings Newspaper 16 Dec. (1991): 88. Reguly, Eric. “No Ordinary Joe: Nestlé Pulls off Caffeine Coup.” The Globe and Mail 6 Jul. (2009): B1. Ruzich, Constance M. “For the Love of Joe: The Language of Starbucks.” The Journal of Popular Culture 41.3 (2008): 428–42. Sassatelli, Roberta, and Federica Davolio. “Consumption, Pleasure and Politics: Slow Food and the Politico-aesthetic Problematization of Food.” Journal of Consumer Culture 10.2 (2010): 202–32. Savitz, Andrew W. The Triple Bottom Line: How Today’s Best-run Companies are Achieving Economic, Social, and Environmental Success—And How You Can Too. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2006. Scerri, Andrew. “Triple Bottom-line Capitalism and the ‘Third Place’.” Arena Journal 20 (2002/03): 57–65. Simon, Bryant. “Not Going to Starbucks: Boycotts and the Out-sourcing of Politics in the Branded World.” Journal of Consumer Culture 11.2 (2011): 145–67. Simonian, Haig. “Nestlé Doubles Nespresso Output.” FT.Com 10 Jun. (2009). 2 Feb. 2012 ‹http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/0dcc4e44-55ea-11de-ab7e-00144feabdc0.html#axzz1tgMPBgtV›. Topik, Steven. “Coffee as a Social Drug.” Cultural Critique 71 (2009): 81–106. Wiggins, Jenny, and Haig Simonian. “How to Serve a Bespoke Cup of Coffee.” Financial Times 3 Apr. (2007): 10.

Political issues, in general, focus on the content of political actors’ communication and most often describe either the main issue or several issues that are in the focus of a political actor’s statement or any other relevant text (e.g., press release, news article, tweet, etc.). The basic premise of analyzing political issues in the self-presentation of political actors is that one major goal of political actors’ communication is to place specific issues on the political agenda (Strömbäck &amp; Esser, 2017). Political issues are most often coded based on a list of pre-defined issues that refer to different policies and sometimes also to polity or politics. The scope and detail of the individual issues depend on the purpose and the focus of the analysis. Field of application/theoretical foundation: Apart from being a common descriptive and control variable, the coding of issues in political actors’ communication can serve as the basis for more complex variables or concepts such as agenda building or issue ownership. Agenda building, at large, refers to the process of how media content is shaped by societal forces (Lang &amp; Lang, 1981). With regard to analyses of politicians’ self-presentation, most work focuses on the processes of communication by which political actors aim to obtain media coverage for their issues (Norris et al., 1999; Seethaler &amp; Melischek, 2019). Analyses on agenda building usually compare issue agendas between at least two different forms of communication, e.g., between channels where political actors have high control (such as press releases, party manifestos, social media messages) and journalistic outlets where political actors have less control (e.g., Harder et al., 2017; Kiousis et al., 2006; Seethaler &amp; Melischek, 2019). Content analyses on agenda building usually start by, first, identifying relevant issue fields and categories (inductively or deductively). Second, the dominant political issues in political actors’ communication and/or other forms of communication (e.g., news articles) are coded according to predefined lists. Third, the occurrence of specific issues or issue agendas are compared between the different forms of communication, often over time (see, e.g., Seethaler &amp; Melischek, 2019). Issue ownership, in broad terms, means that some parties are considered by the public in general as being more adept to deal with, or more attentive to, certain issues (Lachat, 2014; Petrocik, 1996; Walgrave et al., 2015). Traditionally, issue ownership has been analyzed from a demand-side perspective, based on surveys, as the connection between issues and parties in voters’ minds. Definitions of issue ownership usually comprise at least two dimensions: competence issue ownership (parties’ perceived capacity to competently handle or solve a certain issue) and associative issue ownership (the spontaneous link between some parties and some issues) (Walgrave et al., 2015). Content analyses build on these definitions to investigate to what extent political actors focus on issues that they (respectively their parties) own and what factors may explain the (non-)reliance on owned issues (e.g., Dalmus et al., 2017; Peeters et al., 2019). Other content analyses use issue ownership as an independent variable, for example, to explain user reactions to parties’ social media messages (e.g., Staender et al., 2019). Content analyses on issue ownership usually start by, first, identifying relevant issue fields and categories (inductively or deductively). Second, the dominant political issues in political actors’ communication are coded according to predefined lists. Third, political actors are assigned issue ownership for specific issues based on theoretical considerations, existing literature, and/or survey data. Fourth, an index for owned issues is calculated at the statement or text level based on the coded issues and the predefined ownership for specific issues. References/combination with other methods of data collection: Political issues can be analyzed using both manual and automated content analysis (e.g. topic modeling or dictionary approach). Analyses use both inductive or deductive approaches and/or a combination of both to identify issue categories and extend or amend previous lists of political issues. Example studies: Dalmus et al. (2019), Peeters et al. (2019); Seethaler &amp; Melischek (2019) Table 1: Summary of a selection of studies on agenda building and/or issue ownership Author(s) Sample Unit of Analysis Values Reliability Seethaler &amp; Melischek (2019) Content type: parties’ news releases and tweets, media reports Country: Austria Political actors: all parliamentary parties (ÖVP, SPÖ, FPÖ, Grüne, NEOS, Liste Pilz) Outlets: all party news releases, parties’ and top candidates’ twitter accounts, five legacy media outlets Sampling period: 6 weeks before the national election day in 2017 (4 September 2017–14 October 2017) Sample size: 1,009 news releases, 9,088 tweets, 2,422 news stories Unit of analysis: individual news releases, tweets, and news stories Level of analysis: issue agendas Dominant issue: 13 issue areas based on the Comparative Agendas Project: civil rights, government operations, law and crime, international affairs and defence, European integration, macroeconomics, domestic commerce, transportation and technology, environment and agriculture, education, labour, social welfare and housing, health Cohen’s Kappa between .91 and .95 Harder, Sevenans, &amp; Van Aelst (2017) Content type: newspaper, television, radio, news website, and Twitter items featuring a political topic, a domestic political actor, or an election-specific term Country: Belgium (Political) actors: tweets by 678 professional journalists, 44 accounts affiliated with legacy media organizations, 467 politicians, 19 civil society organizations, 109 “influentials” Outlets: 5 print newspapers, 3 news websites, 2 daily television newscasts, 6 daily radio newscasts, current affairs tv programs, and election-specific tv shows Sampling period: Belgian 2014 election campaign (1 May to 24 May 2014) Sample size: n = 9,935 Unit of analysis: news items and tweets Level of analysis: news items (n = 5,260) / news stories (n = 414) Issues (up to three issues per item): list of 28 broad issues based on the Comparative Agendas Project Categorization of news stories: inductive coding of individual time- and place-specific events based on news items from traditional news outlets. Non-news items and tweets were then assigned to the already-identified news stories Krippendorff’s alpha = .70 Krippendorff’s alpha = .76 (for assigning news story to tweet) Dalmus, Hänggli, Bernhard (2019) Content type: party manifestos, party press releases, and newspaper coverage Countries: CH, DE, FR, UK Political actors: parties Outlets: 1 quality newspaper and 1 tabloid per country, all party press releases and manifestos Sampling period: election campaigns between 2010 and 2013 (8 weeks prior to the respective election days) Sample size: 4,191 Unit of analysis: Actor statements on issues concerning national politics and containing either an explicitly mentioned position or interpretation/ elaboration on the issue Level of analysis: text level Main issue: Economy, Welfare, Budget, Freedom and Rights, Europe/ Globalization, Education, Immigration, Army, Security, Ecology, Institutional Reforms, Infrastructure, Elections and Events (each of these top-issue categories is made up of several more detailed sub-issues leading to a total of 127 issue options) Issue emphasis: percentage of statements devoted to a certain issue Issue ownership: issue fully belongs to one party (1), issue belongs to center-left / center-right parties (0.5), issue is unowned (0) (based on Seeberg, 2016; Tresch et al., 2017, for more details see the paper) Cohen’s Kappa ?.3 for sub-issues; Cohen’s Kappa ?.5 for top-issues Peeters, Van Aelst, &amp; Praet (2019) Content type: politicians’ tweets, online media coverage, and parliamentary documents Country: Belgium (Flemish part) Political actors: 144 MPs from the 6 parties represented in the Flemish and federal parliament Outlets: 13 Flemish news outlets Sampling period: 1 January to 1 September, 2018 Sample size: n = 51,691 tweets, n = 8,857 articles, n = 12,638 parliamentary documents Unit of analysis: text level Level of analysis: issue agendas Index for issue concentration: Herfindahl index (to assess how diverse/ concentrated the individual issue agendas are across platforms) Issues: automated coding of 20 issue topics using the Dutch dictionary based on the Comparative Agendas Project Issue ownership: operationalization based on survey data; relative party ownership scores for each politician were assigned based on the percentage of respondents that linked a certain party with the topic NA (A manual check on 200 randomly selected documents shows that a little over 70% of the automated non-codings were in fact non-classifiable documents. For the other 30%, the dictionary was not able to properly classify the documents.) References Dalmus, C., Hänggli, R., &amp; Bernhard, L. (2017). The charm of salient issues? Parties’ strategic behavior in press releases. In P. van Aelst &amp; S. Walgrave (Eds.), How Political Actors Use the Media: A Functional Analysis of the Media’s Role in Politics (pp. 187–205). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-60249-3_10 Harder, R. A., Sevenans, J., &amp; van Aelst, P. (2017). Intermedia Agenda Setting in the Social Media Age: How Traditional Players Dominate the News Agenda in Election Times. The International Journal of Press/Politics, 22(3), 275–293. https://doi.org/10.1177/1940161217704969 Kiousis, S., Mitrook, M., Wu, X., &amp; Seltzer, T. (2006). First- and Second-Level Agenda-Building and Agenda-Setting Effects: Exploring the Linkages Among Candidate News Releases, Media Coverage, and Public Opinion During the 2002 Florida Gubernatorial Election. Journal of Public Relations Research, 18(3), 265–285. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532754xjprr1803_4 Lachat, R. (2014). Issue ownership and the vote: the effects of associative and competence ownership on issue voting. Swiss Political Science Review, 20(4), 727–740. https://doi.org/10.1111/spsr.12121 Lang, G.E., &amp; Lang, K. (1981). Watergate: An exploration of the agenda-building process. In: Wilhoit, G.C., &amp; De Bock, H. (Eds.). Mass Communication Review Yearbook. SAGE, pp. 447–468. Norris, P., Curtice, J., Sanders, D., et al. (1999). On Message: Communicating the Campaign. SAGE. Peeters, J., van Aelst, P., &amp; Praet, S. (2019). Party ownership or individual specialization? A comparison of politicians’ individual issue attention across three different agendas. Party Politics, 55(4), 135406881988163. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354068819881639 Petrocik, J.R. (1996). Issue ownership in presidential elections, with a 1980 case study. 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