Academic literature on the topic 'Trade contacts'

In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the Chosòn Korea government designed and utilized hierarchical tribute systems for managing interactions, in particular, trade, with Japanese and Jurchen elites. Korean officials separated maritime and overland contacts, divided the contacts further into carefully delineated reception grades and diplomatic statuses, and designed detailed procedures for interaction. More specifically, diplomatic status determined the regulations by which the court provided reception and then trade to a contact.

This article presents a review of the long-distance trade goods found in the west of the Novgorod Land. The finds include domestic items, parts of armament, objects of male and female decoration, ornaments, and textiles. The artefacts that occurred at Kotorsk Pogost during trade operations were recovered both from the cultural level of the settlement and from burials dated to the 10th — late 12th century.

Even if the role of unions is less than it was, they are still an important aspect of civil society in a democracy like the UK, so that changes in the relationship between the TUC and the government are an important aspect of changing patterns of governance in the UK. Here, we analyse this relationship during the period between 1974 and 2002 based upon the reports of the General Council of the TUC to each TUC Annual Conference. The analysis shows that the contacts between the TUC and government have fluctuated significantly over this period. They did decline in the Thatcher years although, interestingly, contacts were greater under Thatcher than under Major. The election of a New Labour government in 1997 was accompanied by an initial increase in contacts, but contacts declined subsequently. These fluctuations clearly reflect policy changes so, for example, contacts decreased when incomes policies became a thing of the past. However, they also reflected changes of personnel in government; so the replacement of Pym by Tebbit in 1982 was quickly followed by a fall in contacts. As far as New Labour is concerned, their historical links with the trade unions still mean that contacts are greater now than they were under the Conservatives. However, the initial surge in contacts probably reflected a broader pattern, with New Labour delivering on a promise of greater consultation made in opposition.

Motivated by empirical evidence I uncover on the dynamics of French firms' exports, I offer a novel theory of trade frictions. Firms export only into markets where they have a contact. They search directly for new trading partners, but also use their existing network of contacts to search remotely for new partners. I characterize the dynamic formation of an international network of exporters in this model. Structurally, I estimate this model on French data and confirm its predictions regarding the distribution of the number of foreign markets accessed by exporters and the geographic distribution of exports. (JEL D85, F11, F14, L24)

The animosity which often prevails among French and German trade unionists in the wake of World War I disappears in the aftermath of the Second conflict. The meetings are more numerous, certain positions converge and the demands related to specific workforces often meet. Despite this, the two union worlds find it hard to understand each other. French and German union models seek to adapt to the evolution of capitalism. Undeniably German trade unionism seems to have better coped with this transformation. His weight, influence and co-management allowed him to achieve the highest standard of living for German labour forces, and gave them often better social protection in comparison with their French or British counterparts. Divided, folded over ideological identities and marked by the strategies of confrontation, French trade unionism has obviously greater difficulties. Favourable developments can be seen, however. The number of union members for instance is increasing and innovative thinking is emerging. European integration represents a challenge for these organizations, even if most of the organizations are in favour of it. It obliges trade unionists (as well as politicians, senior civil servants etc.) to take new approaches. Due to the contacts generated between French and German unionists, this period 1945-1962 prepares the two major developments of trade unionism during the next decade: the birth of a European trade unions’ confederation and that of the first Interregional Trade Union Council on Lorraine, Saarland and Luxembourg-level. Contacts and crossed views between French and German trade unionists were thus essential to establish a Europe of trade unions.

Trade Union Mouvement in Belgium has never been an enduring structured entity. In pluralistic political systems, trade unions develop rather pragmatic relations and act as competitors. Economic recession determined the trade union strategy in the seventies : focus of the policy switches towards employment (instead of income and wages). ABVV (socialist trade union) and ACV (Chrisian trade union) cultivated different viewpoints concerning the solution of crisis, which resulted in a tense relationship.In the early eighties, relations sunk to the ultimate point of rare contacts, none or few common statements and many accusations. From 1982 on, cooperation grew again: contacts intensified and common actions got higher frequency again.

The use of pottery distributions to identify trade contacts is one of the most important tools in the archaeologist's repertoire. Recent examples of such studies, concentrating on the classical period in Cyrenaica, have produced evidence which provides valuable new insights into changing trade patterns for which there is precious little historical information. There is, at present, a debate over Cyrenaica's trading contacts during the classical period in which Fulford has proposed a definite bias towards trade with the eastern Mediterranean (Fulford 1989) whilst Lloyd has challenged the lack of emphasis given to Italian imports (Lloyd forthcoming). Abulafia's reassessment of the Pisan bacini has likewise stimulated debate on the development of trade contacts, this time in the medieval period (Abulafia 1985). Such studies rely upon two points; the first is a well-documented corpus of material and the second is a detailed background knowledge of the wares and fabrics in general circulation to which the corpus can be related. On both points medieval archaeologists are clearly still at a disadvantage to those working on the classical period, and an attempt to understand Cyrenaica's medieval trade contacts from its ceramic assemblages cannot therefore achieve the same detail as, for example, Fulford's work (1989) has done. Nonetheless, an examination of the material which is available, and a discussion of its significance, is the intention of this paper.

After regaining independence in the early 1990s, the Republic of Azerbaijan signed many international agreements. It also established relations with the European Union. Economic contacts between the partners were revived by the partnership and cooperation agreement’s entry into force in 1999. It assumed political dialogue, assistance in building democracy, cooperation in the sphere of economy and investment. In terms of trade in goods and services, the country have granted each other most-favored-nation clauses in the collection of customs duties and charges, transit clearance, composition and transhipment of goods, payment transfers for purchased goods and services. This has led to increased trade between the European Union and Azerbaijan. The most important trade partners of Azerbaijan in the years 2000-2017 were the following members of the European Union: Italy, France and Germany. The exports were dominated by Germany, France, Italy, the United Kingdom and Spain. The opening of the oil and gas sector to foreign companies has contributed to a significant inflow of foreign direct investment. More than 80% of the incoming investment is in the oil sector and the main activities are focused the construction of new gas and oil pipelines. The leading investors in this group in the years 2000-2013 were the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Germany, Italy, France and Cyprus.

The state of the Russia–Canada trade and economic relations in 2009–2010 is analyzed, the bottlenecks of cooperation are educed, perspectives of further intercommunications extension are outlined. The implementation of large joint projects in the agro-industrial sphere allows to elevate contacts between the two countries to higher standarts.

Scientists have accumulated considerable experience in the study of the concept of “linguistic contacts”. Multidimensionality and multifunctionality of this phenomenon, its research in various fields of scientific knowledge determine the existence of various interpretations of this concept, each of which reflects its different points. The analysis of scientific works by Chinese, Russian, Western scientists in which the understanding of the concept of “linguistic contacts” is presented, made it possible to identify the following aspects in the interpretation of this concept: an emphasis on linguistic interaction and interaction in the process of linguistic contact; definition of linguistic contacts as an interaction between languages as a result of the interaction of communities speaking these languages; the study of linguistic contacts in the aspect of the existing variety of linguistic phenomena caused by the contact of languages. The paper defines the essential characteristics of the pidgin, identifies the factors of occurrence and features of the Russian-Chinese pidgin. Based on the analysis of scientific approaches to the study of pidgin, the reasons for their appearance, conditions of functioning, it was concluded that the main factor in the emergence of the Russian-Chinese pidgin was border trade, which occupied a special place in relations between Russia and China.The research materials can be applied in studying the features of language contacts, the interaction between Russia and China. Keywords: language, dialect, language contacts, pidgin, Russian-Chinese pidgin

This study reconceptualises Sri Lanka's external trade and interactions from the middle of the first millennium BC to the early second millennium AD. Unlike earlier analyses, mine draws on the excavated material culture from three port-cum-urban centres - Mantai, Kantharodai and Kirinda - which were linked to major urban complexes, interior resource bases and Indian Ocean maritime networks. The scale and intensity of their external trade and connectivity, crafts and industries varied greatly over time and location. My findings illustrate Sri Lanka's earliest cultural-commercial connections with India from the middle of the first millennium BC. By the beginning of the CE, islanders were trading with the Middle East and the Mediterranean in the west and Southeast Asia and China in the east. The Middle East was a particularly strong connection from about the mid-3^rd century. Materials from Southeast Asia and China arrive by the late 7^th/8^th centuries, with the focus of external trade shifting away from the Middle East to the Far-East around the end of the 10^th century, lasting until the 12^th/13^th centuries and beyond. My findings demonstrate that internal developments in irrigated agriculture, iron technology, crafts, industries and procurement-distribution networks were crucial for external trade and connectivity. Contrary to the traditional view, I identify local agency as an important driving force behind both internal and external trade in ancient Sri Lanka. The island's external connectivity did not depend on a single factor but was based on specific historical realities which were constantly redefined and reformulated in response to the changing dynamics within and outside Sri Lanka.

La thèse a pour objet d’étude les échanges à longue distance sur une vaste région géographique, qui comprend la Haute-Mésopotamie, la Syrie et le Levant, à l’époque amorrite, à partir des corpus de documents suivants : Tell Rimah/Qaṭṭarâ, Tell Leilan/Šubat-Enlil et Tell Chagar Bazar/Ašnakkum en Haute-Mésopotamie ; Tell Hariri/Mari et Tell Bi’a/Tuttul dans la région du Moyen-Euphrate ; Tell Açana/Alalakh, Tell Hazor et Tell Sianu au Levant. Les documents étudiés étant principalement issus d’archives palatiales, le sujet traite des échanges entre cours royales. Ils sont envisagés sous leurs diverses formes : échanges commerciaux et échanges dits de prestige, relevant du système du don et du contre-don, et qui englobent les présents diplomatiques et les dots constituées dans le cadre de mariages dynastiques. Après avoir établi une typologie des produits, des animaux et du personnel spécialisé qui se déplacent, permettant ainsi d’identifier les ressources et les besoins des régions étudiées, nous abordons la question du cadre des échanges, à savoir quels sont les itinéraires empruntés et le rôle joué par les villes-relais ; mais aussi qui sont les acteurs qui interviennent aux différentes étapes de la transaction. Enfin, nous revenons plus précisément sur trois types d’évènements qui engendrent des échanges et des contacts importants : les mariages, les voyages royaux et l’achat de domaines dans des régions étrangères
This Phd is about the long distance exchanges between Upper Mesopotamia, Syria and Levant in the Old Babylonian Period from the study of different corpus: Tell Rimah/Qaṭṭarâ, Tell Leilan/Šubat-Enlil and Tell Chagar Bazar/Ašnakkum in Upper Mesopotamia, Tell Hariri/Mari and Tell Bi’a/Tuttul in the middle Euphrates region, Tell Açana/Alalakh, Tell Hazor and Tell Sianu in Levant.Since the reviewed documents are from palatial archives, it focuses mainly on the exchanges between royal courts. Our research highlighted different types of exchanges including trade and prestigious exchanges following gift/counter-gift dynamic, diplomatic gifts and dowries in case of marriage between royals.By establishing a typology of products, animals and personnel being exchanged, we managed to identify the resources and needs of each of these regions. In addition to analysing the reasons of these exchanges, the main routes and the role of relay-cities, we also investigated the key actors taking part in every step of the transaction. Finally, we studied three types of events where exchanges and relationships were numerous: weddings; royal travels; and purchase of lands in foreign regions

The first image depicted of sail are in Egypt and dated to the late fourth millennium BC. Around the third millennium BC the introduction of sail began in the eastern Mediterranean.Some researchers do not believe that sail have existed in Scandinavia until about 8th century AD. The reason for this is because of the lack of archaeological evidence. The question that may be asked is whether it is reasonable that it took about 3000-3500 years for the sail to getto Scandinavia from the eastern Mediterranean? The purpose of this essay is to examine and describe which indications that are available to support the occurrence of the sail in Scandinavia during the Bronze Age. Indications will be studied in trade contacts, rock art boats, and boat constructions.The study is relevant to gain a greater understanding of the Scandinavia´s movements on the open water, trade contacts and boat construction during the Bronze Age.The result reveals that Scandinavia probably had an indirect contact with areas that used sails. Indications for contact with areas in Europe are shown by imports and exports of amber,metals, artefacts and similarities between rock carvings depicting ships. Some of Scandinavia´s rock art boats seem to show attributes such as mast and sails, but it is difficult to get an understanding by looking at the pictures only. One idea is that a change is required in the keel of the boats for sailing. The result reveals that an alternative to keel may have been double steering oars. From an experimental archaeological survey of Bengtsson & Bengtsson (2011), it seems that Scandinavian Bronze Age boats have managed to get sailed.
Den första avbilden av segel finns i Egypten och dateras till ca år 4000 f.Kr. Runt ca år 3000f.Kr. uppkommer segel i östra Medelhavsområdet, Persiska viken och möjligen Indien. I Skandinavien anser en del forskare att segel inte har existerat förrän ca 700 år e.Kr., då inga arkeologiska bevis för mast eller segel förekommer. Frågan som kan ställas är om det är rimligt att seglet har tagit omkring 3000-3500 år att nå Skandinavien från östra Medelhavsområdet? Syftet med studien är att undersöka och redogöra för vilka indikationer som finns för att seglet kan ha förekommit i Skandinavien under bronsåldern. Frågeställningarna har varit: Var Skandinavien i kontakt med områden som nyttjade segel eller hade kunskap om dem under bronsåldern? Vilka belägg finns för att kontakter med områden i Europa harförekommit? Kan hällbilderna från bronsåldern i Skandinavien tolkas ha mast och segel? Vad krävs i en båtkonstruktion för att den skall kunna segla? Har skandinaviska bronsåldersbåtar haft en båtkonstruktion som klarat av segling? Teorin som antagits i föreliggande uppsats har varit Bengtsson & Bengtssons (2011) som antar att segel kan ha uppkommit tidigare i Skandinavien, möjligtvis redan under bronsåldern. Studien utfördes genom en litteraturöversikt och metoden var empirisk och komperativ då forskares åsikter, antaganden och resultat från deras undersökningar jämfördes och presenterades utifrån frågeställningarnai analysen. En avgränsning har funnits genom att undersökningen främst berört områden därmast och segel kan tolkas ha förekommit samt på platser där tidigare forskning behandlat Skandinaviens hällristningar. Ytterligare avgränsning har funnits genom att en ingåendebeskrivning av hur båtkonstruktionen hos bronsåldersbåtarna såg ut, ej har angivits i detalj, utan i stället har de funktioner som ansetts viktiga för en möjlig introduktion av segel i Skandinavien främst undersökts. Resultatet visar utifrån analysen och diskussionen kring frågeställningarna att indikationerframkommer för att möjligheten finns för att segel förekom i Skandinavien under bronsåldern.

This paper emphasizes the nature of trade relations in the EasternMediterranean in general and from a Levantine inland perspective inparticular. The ‘maritime’ trade relation of the ancient city of Hazor, located in the interior of LB Canaan is a case study investigating the Mycenaean and Cypriot pottery on the site. The influx of these vessels peaked during LB IIA. The distribution and types of this pottery at Hazorpoint to four interested groups that wanted it. These were the royal andreligious elites; the people in Area F; the religious functionaries of theLower City; and the craftsmen of Area C. The abundance of imports inArea F, among other evidence, indicates that this area might havecontained a trading quarter from where the imports were distributed toother interested groups.A model of ‘interregional interaction networks’, which is a modified world systems approach, is used to describe the organization of trade connections between the Levant, Cyprus and the Aegean and even beyond. The contents of the Ulu Burun and Cape Gelidonya ships, wrecked on the coast of south Turkey, show that luxury items were traded from afar through Canaan via the coastal cities overseas to the Aegean.Such long-distance trade with luxury goods requires professional traders familiar with the risks and security measures along the routes and with the knowledge of value systems and languages of diverse societies. These traders established networks along main trade routes and settled in trading quarters in particular node cities. The paper suggests that Hazor, as one of the largest cities in Canaan, located along the main trade routes, possessed such a node position. In this trade the Levantine coastal cities of Sarepta, Abu Hawam,Akko and possibly Tel Nami seem to have played important roles. These main ports of southern Syria and northern Palestine were all accessible to Hazor, although some of them in different periods of LB.

Bien que la France soit reconnue indemne de tuberculose bovine (TB) par l’Union Européenne depuis 2001, une centaine de nouveaux foyers sont déclarés chaque année. Deux des principaux mécanismes de propagation de l’infection entre troupeaux bovins sont l’introduction d’animaux infectés et les contacts au pâturage. L’objectif de cette thèse a été de quantifier les rôles respectifs des échanges commerciaux de bovins et des contacts au pâturage « par-dessus la clôture » dans la circulation de la TB en France entre 2005 et 2014. Pour cela, nous avons combiné des méthodes d’analyse de réseaux sociaux et de modélisation dynamique. Nos analyses ont montré que les contacts par le commerce étaient une origine probable pour 12% [5 - 18] des infections déclarées en France entre 2005 et 2014, contre 73% [68 - 78] pour la transmission locale. Cependant, nous avons pu observer que les contacts par le commerce permettaient à l’infection de coloniser de nouvelles zones. Puis nous nous sommes intéressés au risque structurel du réseau du pâturage. À partir d’une exploitation donnée, il était possible d’atteindre quasiment toutes les autres exploitations du territoire métropolitain. Il semble donc facile pour l’agent de la TB de se propager par les contacts de voisinage au pâturage. Enfin, afin de reconstituer la propagation de la TB en France entre 2005 et 2014, nous avons développé un modèle dynamique stochastique individu-centré, dirigé par les données et avec un pas de temps mensuel. Ce modèle reproduit une dynamique intra- et inter-élevages de l’infection, avec une transmission de l’infection entre élevages par le commerce et au pâturage. Il a permis de confirmer la facilité de propagation de l’infection via les contacts au pâturage. En conclusion, les mécanismes de propagation de la TB sont complémentaires : le commerce permet une diffusion sur de longues distances et le pâturage facilite la propagation locale. Le dispositif de lutte contre la tuberculose bovine doit donc s’appuyer combiner les mesures de contrôle afin de cibler plusieurs mécanismes de propagation
Although France was declared free of bovine Tuberculosis (bTB) by the European Union in 2001, a hundred of outbreaks are reported every year. Cattle movements and contacts on pastures are considered the main between-herd transmission routes of bTB. The aim of this work was to quantify the respective roles of live cattle trade and “over the fence” contacts on pastures in the spread of bTB in France between 2005 and 2014, using social network analysis and dynamic modelling. Results showed that cattle movements may be the origin of 12% [5 - 18] of the French outbreaks between 2005 and 2014, versus 73% [68 - 78] due to the transmission on pasture. However, cattle movements appeared to allow the introduction of the bacteria into new areas. In a second step, the structural risk resulting from the French pasture network was studied. Almost all of the premises owning pastures were mutually connected by pastures neighbourhood relationships, on the territory. Thus, the spatial configuration of pastures appeared favourable to the spread of bTB in France. Finally, to mimic the spread of the infection in France between 2005 and 2014, a stochastic individual-based model was developed. It was driven by the data with a monthly time step. This model reproduced the within- and between-herd dynamic, with a between-herd transmission due to cattle movements and contacts on pastures. The easy spread of the bacteria through the network of French pastures was confirmed using the model. In conclusion, cattle movements and contacts on pastures are complementary paths for bTB spread: cattle movements allow the long-range spread, whereas contacts on pasture make easier the short-range spread. Hence, control programs must target several routes of transmission to be able to eradicate bTB

Ce doctorat propose d’étudier les contacts transmanche à travers du mobilier de type mérovingien, provenant essentiellement de nécropoles, et rencontrés dans le sud-est de l’Angleterre entre le Ve et le VIIe siècle apr. J.-C. L’aire géographique ciblée se focalise sur le couloir transmanche intégrant ainsi le sud-est de l’Angleterre (Essex, Kent, Sussex, Hampshire et île-de-Wright) et le nord de la France (Nord-Pas-de-Calais, Picardie et Normandie). A la suite d’une historiographie du thème abordé, nous nous attacherons à comprendre comment et pourquoi du mobilier archéologique de type mérovingien, c’est-à-dire propres aux assemblages mobiliers de la Gaule des Ve-VIIe siècles, se retrouve dans les contextes funéraires anglo-saxons. Quelles problématiques pouvons-nous développer ? Quelles causes et conclusions pouvons-nous en tirer ? Oui, la présence de ce mobilier dit « exogène » est liée aux contacts transmanche, mais de quelles natures sont-ils ? s’agit-il d’échange, de commerce, de lien politique et/ou diplomatique, de migration, de circulation de personnes ? À travers la présence de ce mobilier funéraire et des témoignages qui montrent la circulation de ces objets, le but de ce doctorat est d’attester que cet espace maritime ne constitue pas une barrière naturelle empêchant les populations et les échanges qui interagissent mais permet plutôt de créer une zone privilégiée du commerce où s’entremêlent différentes cultures au cours du premier Moyen Âge. Le couloir transmanche est avant tout une zone maritime stratégique, pont entre le monde insulaire et le continent
This PhD proposes to study the Channel contacts through the study of the Merovingian grave-goods, mainly from cemeteries and found in south-east England between the fifth and seventh century AD. Geographical area focuses on the Channel corridor and integrating the southeast of England (Essex, Kent, Sussex, Hampshire and Isle-of-Wright) and northern France (Nord-Pas-de-Calais, Picardy and Normandy). Following a historiography of the topic discussed, we will endeavor to understand how and why Merovingian artifacts, specific to movable assemblies of Gaul in the fifth-seventh centuries, is found in the Anglo-Saxon funerary contexts. What issues can we develop ? What causes and conclusions can we draw ? Yes, the presence of this grave-goods called “exogenous” is linked to Channel contacts, but what kinds are they ? Is this exchange, trade, political ties and/or diplomatic, migration, movement of people ? Through the presence of the grave goods and testimonies that show the movement of these projects, the aim of this PhD is to certify that this maritime area is not a natural barrier preventing people who interact and exchanges but rather allows create a privileged area of trade where different cultures intermingle in the first Middle Ages. The Channel is primarly a strategic maritime area bridge between England and the continental area

Since prehistoric times, the Baltic Sea has functioned as a northern mare nostrum — a crucial nexus that has shaped the languages, folklore, religions, literature, technology, and identities of the Germanic, Finnic, Sámi, Baltic, and Slavic peoples. This anthology explores the networks among those peoples. The contributions to Contacts and Networks in the Baltic Sea Region: Austmarr as a Northern mare nostrum, ca. 500-1500 ad address different aspects of cultural contacts around and across the Baltic from the perspectives of history, archaeology, linguistics, literary studies, religious studies, and folklore. The introduction offers a general overview of crosscultural contacts in the Baltic Sea region as a framework for contextualizing the volume’s twelve chapters, organized in four sections. The first section concerns geographical conceptions as revealed in Old Norse and in classical texts through place names, terms of direction, and geographical descriptions. The second section discusses the movement of cultural goods and persons in connection with elite mobility, the slave trade, and rune-carving practice. The third section turns to the history of language contacts and influences, using examples of Finnic names in runic inscriptions and Low German loanwords in Finnish. The final section analyzes intercultural connections related to mythology and religion spanning Baltic, Finnic, Germanic, and Sámi cultures. Together these diverse articles present a dynamic picture of this distinctive part of the world.

Abstract This chapter entails fourteen subchapters that detail the course of the South East Asian maritime trade. The subsections are about the beginning of Indonesian trade, the origin of trade between India and South East Asia, maritime trade of the Anuradhapura Kingdom, the Indianization of Indonesia, China's slow entry into the South East Asia trade network, Java becomes the nucleus of Indonesia, the Chinese Pilgrims - Chroniclers of the ancient spice and silk routes, early trade in the outer reaches of Indonesia, the Golden Peninsula, the first great trading empire: Funan, South East Asian trading spheres in the early first century CE, European connections, the two ways to Rome, and finally, the first direct contact between Rome and China.

Abstract This chapter narrates the state of world trade during the fall of the Western Roman Empire under waves of Germanic tribe movements during the 'Völkerwanderung' or Migration Period. It contains nine subchapters that are about the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, spice use in Europe during the dark ages, the level of western trade in the early medieval age, Mediterranean trade in the early medieval period, early medieval trade in Europe, the Radhanites: medieval tycoons, the rise of the Gotlanders, Rus' trade with the Muslims and Byzantines through Khazaria, and lastly, Rus' attacks on the Islamic and Byzantine Worlds.

Since independence, post-soviet republics have formed own foreign policy in all directions. Both Georgia and Kyrgyzstan already have economic, trade and other relation with many countries, for example, relations with Turkey cover not only economy and trade, but also science, culture and other areas. Kyrgyzstan and Georgia have favorable conditions for revival of cooperation. Given article analyzes the formation and development of economic and social cooperation, exchange of experience in post soviet reforming period. There are promising possibilities for the deep, effective and mutually beneficial cooperation, establishment of political trust between the authorities, strengthening of friendship and of broad social contacts between our peoples.

E-commerce in trade companies during the course of the pandemic crisis has become more than a technology; it includes a whole range of activities such as business processes, business organization, communication, customer relationship management, the E-sales orientation and business progress through the Information and Communication technologies. The consequences of the pandemic COVID-19 are reflected on the various spheres of social life, including the businesses of the companies. New strategies and techniques in business have positively contributed to the survival of trading companies on the market in the new situation. Therefore, trading companies were forced to adjust their way of working, doing business and maintaining contacts with the customers and suppliers in the new situation. E-commerce in trading companies has become much more than the E-sales. Digitalising business leads to the implementation of E-commerce of the supply chain management that leads to speeding up and maintaining of the business processes. Due to rapid technological changes, E-commerce needs to follow new trends on the Information and Communication technologies market in order to remain effective. E-commerce can also help to organize communication processes. Online sales in the situation of the pandemic crisis have proven to be an effective sales method with which trading companies can maintain their sales in contactless customer relations. With the E-commerce can be improved all the company's business relations by the introduction of opportunities that it provides in business, by building architecture of E-commerce and by implementation of applications for business enterprises taking into account the potential costs and benefits of introducing this kind of business. However, with the introduction of E-commerce, both of the marketing strategies and the market expansions can be improved. In the paper are listed and analysed changes in the trade operations of the two companies due to the pandemic crisis; one deals with the sale of agricultural machinery and the other with the sale of food products: at this point we examine and compares the differences in the business processes management with the customers and suppliers in the normal way of doing business also in the new occasions, that is the consequential business adjustment in the course of pandemic.

We present a comprehensive analysis and optimization of the thermoelectric (TE) heat pump and refrigeration in contact with two constant-temperature reservoirs, followed by a discussion of their cost effectiveness. In many applications in electronics cooling, the heat source temperature is constrained as well as the gas or liquid cooling heat sink. We optimize the thermoelectric design by changing both the element (leg) thickness and drive current simultaneously in order to achieve maximum energy efficiency, i.e., to obtain the highest coefficient of performance (COP) for the heat pump. Each variable and performance is considered per unit area. COP vs cooling capacity, which is the heat amount pumped, by changing the driving current, shows a unique characteristic and it looks like the Greek character ‘beta’ in a plot. This ‘beta plot’ gives a global view of the performance of various TE heat pump systems. We discuss the similarity with the graph obtained in power generation in contact with the constant temperature reservoirs when the trade-off between the efficiency and power output is considered. In this plot, the maximum COP is found at a much smaller current compared to the maximum heat cooling capacity Qmax. This Qmax is found when the internal resistance is sqrt (1 + ZT) times the sum of the external resistances, but only when these contacts are symmetric and the net temperature difference is zero. The ratio increases slightly as the net temperature difference increases (heat pumping to a higher temperature). This shows some differences compared to the power generation mode where an impedance match happens when the ratio of internal to external resistances is constant at sqrt (1 + ZT). If the contact thermal resistances with the hot and cold sides are asymmetric, Qmax and the optimum resistance ratio are both reduced when the heat sink resistance increases and they both increase as the heat sink resistance decreases. TE materials are expensive relative to the other components; hence, it is important to minimize the material use. The COP per cost and cooling capacity per cost are investigated. Similar to power generators, the TE element can be thinner as the fractional area coverage of the TE elements is reduced, while maintaining a constant internal thermal resistance. The most cost effective design is found to be thinner than that of the maximum performance. Also, the ZT value impact for the cost performances is smaller, especially in COP.

This study reports the method of forging of spiral bevel gear. Two ideas for crowning of tooth surface to obtain point contact for forging gears are proposed. By one idea, tooth surface of pinion meshes with the gear tooth surface by conjugate point contact. And the trace of contact points on the gear tooth surface is perpendicular to the lengthwise direction of gear tooth, namely becomes the “square contact” so called in gear technology. The trace can be set arbitrarily on the gear tooth, by setting the pitch point arbitrarily. By another idea, the trace of contact points lies along the tooth trace of the gear tooth. Both ideas proposed in this report, the numerical dataset of teeth surface of pinion and gear are given by the contact lines with the cutter cone. The dataset of teeth surface of pinion and gear are calculated to cut a pair of electrodes of spiral bevel gear. Tooth contacts of proposed gearing are confirmed by the 3D drawing of tooth surfaces. The tooth contact of the master pinion and gear were made and tested by tooth contact testing apparatus. The contact marks coincide well with the theoretical contact pattern estimated by 3D/CAD expression. The good results of running test of the performance of the master gear has been given. The authors completed the forging of spiral bevel gear pairs by two methods proposed in this report.

Minimizing energy loss and improving system load capacity and compactness are important objectives for fluid power applications. Recent studies have revealed that a micro-textured surface can reduce friction in full-film lubrication, and an asymmetric textured surface can further improve the performance by reducing friction and increasing normal force simultaneously. As an extension of these previous discoveries, we explore how enhanced texture design can maximize these objectives together. We design the surface texture using a set of distinct parameterizations, ranging from simple to complex (including very general geometries), to improve friction and normal force properties beyond what is possible for limited texture geometries. Here we use a rotational visco-rheometer configuration with a fixed bottom disc, a periodic textured surface, and a rotating top flat disc. The Reynolds equation is formulated in a cylindrical coordinate system and solved using a pseudo-spectral method to model Newtonian fluid flow within the gap between discs. Model assumptions include incompressibility, steady flow, constant viscosity, and a small gap height to texture radius ratio. Multiobjective optimization problems are solved using the epsilon-constraint method with an interior-point algorithm. The trade-off between competing objectives is quantified, revealing important insights. Arbitrary continuous texture geometries are represented using two dimensional cubic spline interpolation. Shifting to more general texture geometries resulted in significant simultaneous improvement in both performance metrics for full-film lubrication texture design. An important qualitative result is that textures resembling a helical blade tend to improve performance for rotating contacts in fluid power systems.

We present an analytic model and optimization of impingement heat transfer in fluid-to-fluid heat exchangers with integrating a thermoelectric (TE) generator between the hot and cold fluid flows. In power generation systems, designing for maximum power output generally involves balancing the external thermal resistances while the generator contacts the hot and cold temperature reservoirs. In fluid-to-fluid heat exchangers, fluid temperatures are not constant or uniform. They gradually change along the flow direction. In general, counter-flow heat exchangers outperform parallel flow configurations in maximizing TE power generation using internal fluid flows. We show here the performance of our impingement model compared with a counter-flow configuration as the base line. To obtain the maximum power output from practical thermoelectric materials (ZT values are 1.2–1.8), the enhancement of liquid-to-wall heat transfer is significant. An array of traditional impinging jet orifices provides a uniformly planar and focused heat transfer process that spatially targets the TE elements. This approach provides more uniform hot and cold side temperatures among the TE elements. We investigate the impact of introducing impingement orifices directly at the locations of the TE elements. The major focus of this work is the trade-off between the advantage of increasing power generation by impingement and the disadvantage of introducing additional pressure drop. Decreasing the external thermal resistances yields not only a larger maximum power output but also requires thinner TE elements. This enables lower cost per power generation capacity approaching the 0.2–0.3 $/W range as well as a more lightweight design. We report here the associated cost impacts for the impinging jet arrangement. Design optimization depends on the specific constraints and parameters, such as TE material and substrate thickness, flow design to avoid the stagnation, and required exit temperatures. In some cases, active pumping by an additional actuator can augment the enhancement, while a fraction of generated power is consumed for the actuation. In the paper, we show examples of gas and liquid flow cases.

Axle hypoid gear design needs axle system deformation data at mesh point under load to evaluate the contact pattern, contact pressure and bending stress of the gear pair. The system deformation data or gear deflection (GD), can be obtained through a standard test procedure defined several decades ago. The testing method has not been improved for data acquisition efficiency and reliability since then. Fundamentally it contains trade-offs that make contact pattern correlation difficult. It also cannot meet urgent axle development timing pressures and cost reduction requirements. Analysis methods have been developed in recent years to replace the testing method of GD calculation. However, published modeling methods have their own limitations, and still do not correlate well loaded contact pattern between testing and analysis. In this paper, existing approaches of GD calculation are first reviewed and compared. Then the development of a new method is outlined, which combines a general finite element software and a special gear bearing contact analysis tool in one process. The validation of the method is illustrated by comparing axle loaded contact pattern. Finally, two case studies are demonstrated. The first one shows the capability of the new method to investigate the compliance contribution of main axle components. The second one shows that during one gear rotation, GD experiences a significant variation which needs to be considered during gear design.

Being able to follow the chain of contagion of COVID-19 is important to help save lives and control the epidemic without sustained costly lockdowns. This is especially relevant in Latin America, where economic contractions have already been the largest in the regions history. Given the high rates of transmission of COVID-19, relying only in manual contact tracing might be infeasible. Acceptability and uptake of contact tracing apps with exposure notifications is key for the implementation the “test, trace and treat” triad. In the first study of its kind in Latin America, we find that for a nationally representative sample of 10 countries, an opt-out regime with automatic installation significantly increases the probability of acceptance of such apps in almost 22 p.p. compared to an opt-in regime with voluntary installation. This triples the size and is of opposite sign of the effect found in Europe and the United States. We see that an opt-out regime is more effective in increasing acceptability in South America compared to Central America and Mexico; for those who claim not to trust the national government; and for those who do not use their smartphones for financial transactions. The severity of the pandemic at the place of residence does not seem to affect the effectiveness of the opt-out regime versus an opt-in one, but feeling personally at risk does increase the willingness to accept contact tracing apps with exposure notifications in general. These results can shed light on the use of default options in public health in the context of a pandemic in Latin America.

In the article on the material of the Salzburg weekly «New Days» (1945–1947) various spheres of activity of Peter Volyniak are presented. It is noted that this edition was a business card of the publishing house of the same name and had a history of continuation: in Toronto Petro Volyniak restored the publishing house of the same name and continued the publication in the format of the universal monthly «New Days» (1950–1969). The article also presents periodicals («Latest News», «New Days», «Timpani», «Our Way») and literary, artistic and scientific collection «Steering Wheel», which were published in the Salzburg publishing house of Peter Volyniak «New Days». The purpose of the publication is to trace the path of Petro Volyniak from a writer to a literary critic, journalist and publisher. This trend is reproduced in chronological order. Peter Volyniak as a writer is informed in the article «Literary Evening of P. Volyniak» (author – M. Ch-ka). O. Satsyuk’s literary-critical article is devoted to the coverage of ideological and artistic aspects of Petro Volyniak’s collection «The Earth Calls» (Salzburg, 1947). Petro Volyniak as a literary critic is presented in an article devoted to a collection of literary tales by A. Kolomiyets (Salzburg, 1946), which was published by «New Days». Petro Volyniak as a journalist presents the essay «This is our song…». With the help of content analysis it was observed that the text is divided into two parts: the first contains the author’s reflections on the Ukrainian song, its role in the life of the Ukrainian people; in the second, main, Peter Okopny’s activity abroad is presented. The publisher Petro Volyniak in 1947 in a separate publication of the February issue of the weekly summarizes the third year of activity, providing statistics on the publication of periodicals, books, postcards, calendars, various small format materials. The analyzed material demonstrated the experience of combining creative work and commercial activity.

1.1 Macroeconomic summary Economic recovery has consistently outperformed the technical staff’s expectations following a steep decline in activity in the second quarter of 2020. At the same time, total and core inflation rates have fallen and remain at low levels, suggesting that a significant element of the reactivation of Colombia’s economy has been related to recovery in potential GDP. This would support the technical staff’s diagnosis of weak aggregate demand and ample excess capacity. The most recently available data on 2020 growth suggests a contraction in economic activity of 6.8%, lower than estimates from January’s Monetary Policy Report (-7.2%). High-frequency indicators suggest that economic performance was significantly more dynamic than expected in January, despite mobility restrictions and quarantine measures. This has also come amid declines in total and core inflation, the latter of which was below January projections if controlling for certain relative price changes. This suggests that the unexpected strength of recent growth contains elements of demand, and that excess capacity, while significant, could be lower than previously estimated. Nevertheless, uncertainty over the measurement of excess capacity continues to be unusually high and marked both by variations in the way different economic sectors and spending components have been affected by the pandemic, and by uneven price behavior. The size of excess capacity, and in particular the evolution of the pandemic in forthcoming quarters, constitute substantial risks to the macroeconomic forecast presented in this report. Despite the unexpected strength of the recovery, the technical staff continues to project ample excess capacity that is expected to remain on the forecast horizon, alongside core inflation that will likely remain below the target. Domestic demand remains below 2019 levels amid unusually significant uncertainty over the size of excess capacity in the economy. High national unemployment (14.6% for February 2021) reflects a loose labor market, while observed total and core inflation continue to be below 2%. Inflationary pressures from the exchange rate are expected to continue to be low, with relatively little pass-through on inflation. This would be compatible with a negative output gap. Excess productive capacity and the expectation of core inflation below the 3% target on the forecast horizon provide a basis for an expansive monetary policy posture. The technical staff’s assessment of certain shocks and their expected effects on the economy, as well as the presence of several sources of uncertainty and related assumptions about their potential macroeconomic impacts, remain a feature of this report. The coronavirus pandemic, in particular, continues to affect the public health environment, and the reopening of Colombia’s economy remains incomplete. The technical staff’s assessment is that the COVID-19 shock has affected both aggregate demand and supply, but that the impact on demand has been deeper and more persistent. Given this persistence, the central forecast accounts for a gradual tightening of the output gap in the absence of new waves of contagion, and as vaccination campaigns progress. The central forecast continues to include an expected increase of total and core inflation rates in the second quarter of 2021, alongside the lapse of the temporary price relief measures put in place in 2020. Additional COVID-19 outbreaks (of uncertain duration and intensity) represent a significant risk factor that could affect these projections. Additionally, the forecast continues to include an upward trend in sovereign risk premiums, reflected by higher levels of public debt that in the wake of the pandemic are likely to persist on the forecast horizon, even in the context of a fiscal adjustment. At the same time, the projection accounts for the shortterm effects on private domestic demand from a fiscal adjustment along the lines of the one currently being proposed by the national government. This would be compatible with a gradual recovery of private domestic demand in 2022. The size and characteristics of the fiscal adjustment that is ultimately implemented, as well as the corresponding market response, represent another source of forecast uncertainty. Newly available information offers evidence of the potential for significant changes to the macroeconomic scenario, though without altering the general diagnosis described above. The most recent data on inflation, growth, fiscal policy, and international financial conditions suggests a more dynamic economy than previously expected. However, a third wave of the pandemic has delayed the re-opening of Colombia’s economy and brought with it a deceleration in economic activity. Detailed descriptions of these considerations and subsequent changes to the macroeconomic forecast are presented below. The expected annual decline in GDP (-0.3%) in the first quarter of 2021 appears to have been less pronounced than projected in January (-4.8%). Partial closures in January to address a second wave of COVID-19 appear to have had a less significant negative impact on the economy than previously estimated. This is reflected in figures related to mobility, energy demand, industry and retail sales, foreign trade, commercial transactions from selected banks, and the national statistics agency’s (DANE) economic tracking indicator (ISE). Output is now expected to have declined annually in the first quarter by 0.3%. Private consumption likely continued to recover, registering levels somewhat above those from the previous year, while public consumption likely increased significantly. While a recovery in investment in both housing and in other buildings and structures is expected, overall investment levels in this case likely continued to be low, and gross fixed capital formation is expected to continue to show significant annual declines. Imports likely recovered to again outpace exports, though both are expected to register significant annual declines. Economic activity that outpaced projections, an increase in oil prices and other export products, and an expected increase in public spending this year account for the upward revision to the 2021 growth forecast (from 4.6% with a range between 2% and 6% in January, to 6.0% with a range between 3% and 7% in April). As a result, the output gap is expected to be smaller and to tighten more rapidly than projected in the previous report, though it is still expected to remain in negative territory on the forecast horizon. Wide forecast intervals reflect the fact that the future evolution of the COVID-19 pandemic remains a significant source of uncertainty on these projections. The delay in the recovery of economic activity as a result of the resurgence of COVID-19 in the first quarter appears to have been less significant than projected in the January report. The central forecast scenario expects this improved performance to continue in 2021 alongside increased consumer and business confidence. Low real interest rates and an active credit supply would also support this dynamic, and the overall conditions would be expected to spur a recovery in consumption and investment. Increased growth in public spending and public works based on the national government’s spending plan (Plan Financiero del Gobierno) are other factors to consider. Additionally, an expected recovery in global demand and higher projected prices for oil and coffee would further contribute to improved external revenues and would favor investment, in particular in the oil sector. Given the above, the technical staff’s 2021 growth forecast has been revised upward from 4.6% in January (range from 2% to 6%) to 6.0% in April (range from 3% to 7%). These projections account for the potential for the third wave of COVID-19 to have a larger and more persistent effect on the economy than the previous wave, while also supposing that there will not be any additional significant waves of the pandemic and that mobility restrictions will be relaxed as a result. Economic growth in 2022 is expected to be 3%, with a range between 1% and 5%. This figure would be lower than projected in the January report (3.6% with a range between 2% and 6%), due to a higher base of comparison given the upward revision to expected GDP in 2021. This forecast also takes into account the likely effects on private demand of a fiscal adjustment of the size currently being proposed by the national government, and which would come into effect in 2022. Excess in productive capacity is now expected to be lower than estimated in January but continues to be significant and affected by high levels of uncertainty, as reflected in the wide forecast intervals. The possibility of new waves of the virus (of uncertain intensity and duration) represents a significant downward risk to projected GDP growth, and is signaled by the lower limits of the ranges provided in this report. Inflation (1.51%) and inflation excluding food and regulated items (0.94%) declined in March compared to December, continuing below the 3% target. The decline in inflation in this period was below projections, explained in large part by unanticipated increases in the costs of certain foods (3.92%) and regulated items (1.52%). An increase in international food and shipping prices, increased foreign demand for beef, and specific upward pressures on perishable food supplies appear to explain a lower-than-expected deceleration in the consumer price index (CPI) for foods. An unexpected increase in regulated items prices came amid unanticipated increases in international fuel prices, on some utilities rates, and for regulated education prices. The decline in annual inflation excluding food and regulated items between December and March was in line with projections from January, though this included downward pressure from a significant reduction in telecommunications rates due to the imminent entry of a new operator. When controlling for the effects of this relative price change, inflation excluding food and regulated items exceeds levels forecast in the previous report. Within this indicator of core inflation, the CPI for goods (1.05%) accelerated due to a reversion of the effects of the VAT-free day in November, which was largely accounted for in February, and possibly by the transmission of a recent depreciation of the peso on domestic prices for certain items (electric and household appliances). For their part, services prices decelerated and showed the lowest rate of annual growth (0.89%) among the large consumer baskets in the CPI. Within the services basket, the annual change in rental prices continued to decline, while those services that continue to experience the most significant restrictions on returning to normal operations (tourism, cinemas, nightlife, etc.) continued to register significant price declines. As previously mentioned, telephone rates also fell significantly due to increased competition in the market. Total inflation is expected to continue to be affected by ample excesses in productive capacity for the remainder of 2021 and 2022, though less so than projected in January. As a result, convergence to the inflation target is now expected to be somewhat faster than estimated in the previous report, assuming the absence of significant additional outbreaks of COVID-19. The technical staff’s year-end inflation projections for 2021 and 2022 have increased, suggesting figures around 3% due largely to variation in food and regulated items prices. The projection for inflation excluding food and regulated items also increased, but remains below 3%. Price relief measures on indirect taxes implemented in 2020 are expected to lapse in the second quarter of 2021, generating a one-off effect on prices and temporarily affecting inflation excluding food and regulated items. However, indexation to low levels of past inflation, weak demand, and ample excess productive capacity are expected to keep core inflation below the target, near 2.3% at the end of 2021 (previously 2.1%). The reversion in 2021 of the effects of some price relief measures on utility rates from 2020 should lead to an increase in the CPI for regulated items in the second half of this year. Annual price changes are now expected to be higher than estimated in the January report due to an increased expected path for fuel prices and unanticipated increases in regulated education prices. The projection for the CPI for foods has increased compared to the previous report, taking into account certain factors that were not anticipated in January (a less favorable agricultural cycle, increased pressure from international prices, and transport costs). Given the above, year-end annual inflation for 2021 and 2022 is now expected to be 3% and 2.8%, respectively, which would be above projections from January (2.3% and 2,7%). For its part, expected inflation based on analyst surveys suggests year-end inflation in 2021 and 2022 of 2.8% and 3.1%, respectively. There remains significant uncertainty surrounding the inflation forecasts included in this report due to several factors: 1) the evolution of the pandemic; 2) the difficulty in evaluating the size and persistence of excess productive capacity; 3) the timing and manner in which price relief measures will lapse; and 4) the future behavior of food prices. Projected 2021 growth in foreign demand (4.4% to 5.2%) and the supposed average oil price (USD 53 to USD 61 per Brent benchmark barrel) were both revised upward. An increase in long-term international interest rates has been reflected in a depreciation of the peso and could result in relatively tighter external financial conditions for emerging market economies, including Colombia. Average growth among Colombia’s trade partners was greater than expected in the fourth quarter of 2020. This, together with a sizable fiscal stimulus approved in the United States and the onset of a massive global vaccination campaign, largely explains the projected increase in foreign demand growth in 2021. The resilience of the goods market in the face of global crisis and an expected normalization in international trade are additional factors. These considerations and the expected continuation of a gradual reduction of mobility restrictions abroad suggest that Colombia’s trade partners could grow on average by 5.2% in 2021 and around 3.4% in 2022. The improved prospects for global economic growth have led to an increase in current and expected oil prices. Production interruptions due to a heavy winter, reduced inventories, and increased supply restrictions instituted by producing countries have also contributed to the increase. Meanwhile, market forecasts and recent Federal Reserve pronouncements suggest that the benchmark interest rate in the U.S. will remain stable for the next two years. Nevertheless, a significant increase in public spending in the country has fostered expectations for greater growth and inflation, as well as increased uncertainty over the moment in which a normalization of monetary policy might begin. This has been reflected in an increase in long-term interest rates. In this context, emerging market economies in the region, including Colombia, have registered increases in sovereign risk premiums and long-term domestic interest rates, and a depreciation of local currencies against the dollar. Recent outbreaks of COVID-19 in several of these economies; limits on vaccine supply and the slow pace of immunization campaigns in some countries; a significant increase in public debt; and tensions between the United States and China, among other factors, all add to a high level of uncertainty surrounding interest rate spreads, external financing conditions, and the future performance of risk premiums. The impact that this environment could have on the exchange rate and on domestic financing conditions represent risks to the macroeconomic and monetary policy forecasts. Domestic financial conditions continue to favor recovery in economic activity. The transmission of reductions to the policy interest rate on credit rates has been significant. The banking portfolio continues to recover amid circumstances that have affected both the supply and demand for loans, and in which some credit risks have materialized. Preferential and ordinary commercial interest rates have fallen to a similar degree as the benchmark interest rate. As is generally the case, this transmission has come at a slower pace for consumer credit rates, and has been further delayed in the case of mortgage rates. Commercial credit levels stabilized above pre-pandemic levels in March, following an increase resulting from significant liquidity requirements for businesses in the second quarter of 2020. The consumer credit portfolio continued to recover and has now surpassed February 2020 levels, though overall growth in the portfolio remains low. At the same time, portfolio projections and default indicators have increased, and credit establishment earnings have come down. Despite this, credit disbursements continue to recover and solvency indicators remain well above regulatory minimums. 1.2 Monetary policy decision In its meetings in March and April the BDBR left the benchmark interest rate unchanged at 1.75%.

This document contains the guiding questions used by the Australia Awards Global Tracer Facility (GTF) in its case studies. The purpose of the GTF is to enable the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT) to assess the long term development contributions and public diplomacy outcomes of Australia’s investment in Australia Awards. The GTF is designed to provide a strong evidence base to inform DFAT’s management of the Australia Awards.