Academic literature on the topic 'Transepithelial electrical resistance'

LLC-PK1 cells from trypsin-treated confluent cultures formed a continuous monolayer when plated at high cell density on collagen-coated Nuclepore filters. These monolayers developed a significant transepithelial electrical resistance that reached a maximum at 20 h. At 48 h, the resistance decreased to a value usually one-half the value obtained at 20 h. These changes were associated with an increase in the cell density of the monolayers. The drop in electrical resistance at 48 h was not observed when cell growth was arrested with excess thymidine. A hyperbolic relationship was demonstrated between cell density and electrical resistance. Although the increase in cell density was associated with an increase in the unidirectional flux of mannitol across the monolayers, selectivity studies indicated that the intrinsic properties of the occluding junctions were similar in the high and low cell density monolayers. These results indicate that, when cell growth is not arrested, changes in transepithelial electrical resistance observed after plating correspond to an increase in cell density and not to changes in the intrinsic properties of the occluding junctions. The development of transepithelial electrical resistance was delayed when the cells were in exponential growth. No such delay was observed, however, when exponential growth was synchronized. These findings and results obtained with the antimicrotubular agent Nocodazole indicate that the delay in the development of transepithelial electrical resistance is due to the asynchronous transit of the cells through the mitotic phase of the cell cycle: a time when most of the intercellular junctions are probably disrupted. Further investigation revealed that inhibition of protein but not mRNA synthesis blocked the development of occluding junctions in cells from confluent and exponentially growing cultures alike. These results indicate that, in contrast to MDCK cells, regulation of the occluding junctions in exponentially growing LLC-PK1 cells occurs at the translational not at the transcriptional level of protein synthesis.

Birds are uricotelic and, like humans, maintain high plasma urate concentrations (∼300 μM). The majority of their urate waste, as in humans, is eliminated by renal proximal tubular secretion; however, the mechanism of urate transport across the brush-border membrane of the intact proximal tubule epithelium during secretion is uncertain. The dominance of secretory urate transport in the bird provides a convenient model for examining this process. The present study shows that short hairpin RNA interference (shRNAi) effectively knocked down gene expression of multidrug resistance protein 4 (Mrp4; 25% of control) in primary monolayer cultures of isolated chicken proximal tubule epithelial cells (cPTCs). Control and Mrp4-shRNAi-treated cPTCs were mounted in Ussing chambers and unidirectional transepithelial fluxes of urate were measured. To detect nonspecific effects, transepithelial electrical resistance (TER) and sodium-dependent glucose transport (Iglu) were monitored throughout experiments. Knocking down Mrp4 expression resulted in a reduction of transepithelial urate secretion to 35% of control with no effects on TER or Iglu. Although electrical gradient-driven urate transport in isolated brush-border membrane vesicles was confirmed, potassium-induced depolarization of the plasma membrane in intact cPTCs failed to inhibit active transepithelial urate secretion. However, electrical gradient-dependent vesicular urate transport was inhibited by the MRP4 inhibitor MK-571 also known to inhibit active transepithelial urate transport by cPTCs. Based on these data, direct measure of active transepithelial urate secretion in functional avian proximal tubule epithelium indicates that Mrp4 is the dominant apical membrane exit pathway from cell to lumen.

ABSTRACT The macrolide antibiotic azithromycin improves lung function and prognosis among patients with cystic fibrosis or diffuse panbronchiolitis, independently of bacterial eradication. Anti-inflammatory effects have been implicated, but data from in vivo studies are scarce, and the link between abnormal electrolyte content in airway surface liquid and bronchial infections remains uncertain. In the present study, we treated human airway epithelia on filter supports with azithromycin and monitored transepithelial electrical resistance. We found that azithromycin increased transepithelial electrical resistance of airway epithelia in a dose-dependent manner. Immunocytochemistry and Western blotting showed that addition of azithromycin changed the locations of proteins in cell cultures and induced processing of the tight junction proteins claudin-1 and claudin-4, occludin, and junctional adhesion molecule-A. These effects were reversible, and no effect was seen when cells were treated with penicillin or erythromycin. The data indicate that azithromycin increases the transepithelial electrical resistance of human airway epithelia by changing the processing of tight junction proteins. The results are novel and may help explain the beneficial effects of azithromycin in patients with cystic fibrosis, diffuse panbronchiolitis, and community-acquired pneumonia.

We present an instrument for simultaneously measuring TEER in up to 80 perfused epithelial tubules on an OrganoPlate. The sensitivity, speed and ease of use enables screening of tubules during formation, drug exposure and inflammatory processes.

ABSTRACT The nonstructural NSP4 protein of rotavirus has been described as the first viral enterotoxin. In this study we have examined the effect of NSP4 on polarized epithelial cells (MDCK-1) grown on permeable filters. Apical but not basolateral administration of NSP4 was found to cause a reduction in the transepithelial electrical resistance, redistribution of filamentous actin, and an increase in paracellular passage of fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextran. Significant effects on transepithelial electrical resistance were noted after a 20- to 30-h incubation with 1 nmol of NSP4. Most surprisingly, the epithelium recovered its original integrity and electrical resistance upon removal of NSP4. Preincubation of nonconfluent MDCK-1 cells with NSP4 prevented not only development of a permeability barrier but also lateral targeting of the tight-junction-associated Zonula Occludens-1 (ZO-1) protein. Taken together, these data indicate new and specific effects of NSP4 on tight-junction biogenesis and show a novel effect of NSP4 on polarized epithelia.

Surfactants are molecules that contain a water-soluble and afat-soluble part. They have important functions in productssuch as detergents, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals and foods aswell as in many industrial processes. Surfactants are used onvery large scale, which makes it important to decrease theirimpact on the environment. This can be done by starting withnatural materials, by improving the synthetic methods and byreducing the use of limited resources such as energy andorganic solvents.

This thesis focuses on lipase-catalyzed synthesis ofsurfactants based on natural products. It also includesfunctional studies of the produced surfactants; as antioxidantsin oils, or as surfactants to solubilize pharmaceuticals.

Unsaturated fatty acid esters of ascorbic acid weresynthesized with catalysis by Candida antarctica lipase B int-amyl alcohol and in ionic liquids. High yields ofascorbyl oleate were obtained in an ionic liquid that wasdesigned to improve the solubility of the fatty acid, when thereaction was performed under vacuum. Ascorbyl oleate wasamorphous and was a better antioxidant than ascorbyl palmitatein rapeseed oil.

Polyethylene glycol (PEG) stearate, PEG 12-hydroxystearateand a series of PEG 12-acyloxy-stearates were synthesized in avacuum-driven, solvent-free system usingC. antarcticalipase B as catalyst. Critical micelleconcentration and solubilization capacity were determined forthe PEG 12-acyloxy-stearates. Their effects on living cellswere evaluated in studies of hemolysis and transepithelialelectrical resistance. Several PEG1500 12-acyloxy-stearateswere excellent solubilizers for pharmaceutical use and hadnegligible negative effects on living cells even at highconcentrations.

Enzymatic and chemo-enzymatic methods offer uniquepossibilities to synthesize surfactants of high purity. Pureand well-defined surfactants enable new applications and areimportant for the understanding of surfactantstructure-function relationships.

Los sistemas microfisiológicos (MPS) son modelos in vitro microfabricados que emulan las condiciones in vivo fisiológicamente relevantes, como la organización celular y las señales microambientales. Las microtecnologías han permitido el desarrollo de sofisticados MPS capaces de recapitular fielmente la fisiología a nivel de tejido y órgano. Los MPS son particularmente útiles para modelar barreras biológicas, es decir, epitelios y endotelios que separan la circulación sanguínea de los compartimentos tisulares. Su función de barrera es crucial para mantener la homeostasis en los órganos y su desregulación juega un papel importante en la fisiopatología de muchas enfermedades humanas prevalentes. La función principal de un tejido barrera es controlar el transporte transepitelial de solutos. Por lo tanto, la capacidad de cuantificar el transporte en un modelo de barrera es crítico. La espectroscopía de impedancia eléctrica (EIS) permite su cuantificación con las ventajas de ser no destructiva, sin utilizar marcadores y de fácil aplicación en tiempo real. EIS puede determinar 1) la resistencia eléctrica transepitelial (TEER), que evalúa la integridad de la barrera (estrechamente relacionada con la rigidez del espacio intercelular); 2) la capacitancia de la capa celular (Ccl), que puede proporcionar información sobre el área superficial de la membrana; y 3) la contribución de la solución del medio a la impedancia. Mientras que el EIS es fácil de realizar mediante electrodos extracelulares, es difícil lograr la distribución de corriente uniforme requerida para mediciones precisas dentro de los canales de cultivo celular miniaturizados. Entonces, se puede suponer erróneamente que todo el área de cultivo de células contribuye igual a la medición, lo que puede conducir a errores de cálculo del TEER. Esto puede explicar parcialmente la gran disparidad de los valores de TEER reportados para tipos de células idénticas. Aquí, se presenta un estudio numérico para dilucidar este problema en algunos cultivos celulares previamente reportados y para proponer un factor de corrección geométrica (GCF) que corrige este error y que permite aplicarse retrospectivamente. Este estudio también se usó para optimizar una configuración tetrapolar especialmente adecuada para realizar mediciones EIS precisas en canales microfluídicos, y lo que es más importante, los electrodos cubren mínimamente la superficie lo que permite que las células se puedan visualizar junto con el análisis de TEER. Posteriormente, se desarrolló una cámara de perfusión modular con electrodos integrados en base a esta configuración óptima. El dispositivo comprende una membrana porosa desechable en la que se forma el tejido barrera y dos placas reutilizables donde se encuentran los electrodos. Por lo tanto, el tejido en la membrana se puede ensamblar en el sistema para medirlo y exponerlo al flujo, no solo para aplicar un estímulo mecánico fluidico sino también para suministrar continuamente nutrientes y eliminar los desechos. Además, la concentración de NaCl en ambos lados del tejido se puede estimar a partir de la conductancia eléctrica medida con los mismos electrodos integrados en una configuración bipolar. Un modelo in vitro del túbulo renal se utilizó para validar el sistema de medición. Como resultado, la concentración de NaCl se estimó a partir de la conductancia que permite la medición en línea del gradiente químico transepitelial de NaCl, que es una función primaria del túbulo renal. El desarrollo de MPS con múltiples barreras biológicas interconectadas expandirá la tecnología para recapitular funciones más complejas a nivel de órgano. Sin embargo, existen múltiples desafíos técnicos para reproducir varias barreras biológicas en un solo dispositivo mientras se mantiene un microambiente controlado particular para cada tipo de célula. Aquí se presenta un novedoso dispositivo microfluídico donde 1) múltiples tipos de células que están dispuestas en compartimentos uno al lado del otro están interconectadas con microsurcos y donde 2) múltiples tejidos barrera se miden a través de electrodos metálicos que están enterrados debajo de los microsurcos. Como prueba de concepto, el dispositivo se usó para imitar la estructura de la barrera hematorretiniana (BRB), incluidas las barreras interna y externa. Ambas barreras se formaron con éxito en el dispositivo y se monitorearon en tiempo real, lo que demuestra su gran potencial para su aplicación a la tecnología de órgano en un chip.
Microphysiological systems (MPS) are biologically inspired microengineered in vitro models that emulate physiologically relevant in vivo conditions, such as cell organization and microenvironmental cues. Microtechnologies have enabled the development of significant MPS that are able to faithfully recapitulate tissue- and organ-level physiology. MPS are particularly useful for modelling biological barriers, that is, epithelia and endothelia that separate the blood circulation from tissue compartments. Their barrier function is crucial to maintain organ homeostasis and their deregulation play an important role in the pathophysiology of many prevalent human diseases. The primary function of a barrier tissue is to control the transepithelial transport of solutes. Therefore, the ability to quantify transport in a barrier model is critical. Electrical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) permits its quantification with the advantages of being non-destructive, label-free, and easily applicable in real time. EIS can determine 1) the transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER), which evaluates the barrier integrity (closely related with the tightness of the intercellular space); 2) the cell layer capacitance (Ccl), which can yield information about the membrane surface area; and 3) the contribution of the medium solution to the impedance. While EIS is easy to carry out by means of extracellular electrodes, it is challenging to achieve the uniform current distribution required for accurate measurements within miniaturized cell culture channels. Then, it may be erroneously assumed that the entire cell culture area contributes equally to the measurement leading to TEER calculation errors. This can partially explain the large disparity of TEER values reported for identical cell types. Here, a numerical study is presented to elucidate this issue in some cell cultures previously reported and to propose a geometric correction factor (GCF) to correct this error and be applied retrospectively. This study was also used to optimize a tetrapolar configuration especially suitable for performing accurate EIS measurements in microfluidic channels; importantly, it implements minimal electrode coverage so that the cells can be visualised alongside TEER analysis. A modular perfusion chamber with integrated electrodes was developed based on this optimal configuration. The device comprises a disposable porous membrane where the barrier tissue is formed and two reusable plates where the electrodes are located. Therefore, the tissue on the membrane can be assembled into the system to be measured and exposed to flow—not only to apply a fluid mechanical stimuli but also to continuously supply nutrients and remove waste. Additionally, the concentration of NaCl in both sides of the tissue can be estimated from the electrical conductance measured with the same integrated electrodes in a bipolar configuration. An in vitro model of the renal tubule was used to validate the measurement system. As a result, the concentration of NaCl was estimated from the conductance enabling in-line measurement of the transepithelial chemical gradient of NaCl, which is a primary function of the renal tubule. The development of MPS with multiple interconnected biological barriers will expand the technology to recapitulate more complex organ-level functions. Unfortunately, there are multiple technical challenges to reproduce several biological barriers in a single device while maintaining a particular controlled microenvironment for each cell type. Here, it is presented a novel microfluidic device where 1) multiple cell types that are arranged in side-by-side compartments are interconnected with microgrooves and where 2) multiple barrier tissues are measured through metal electrodes that are buried under the microgrooves. As a proof-of-concept, the device was used to mimic the structure of the blood-retinal barrier (BRB) including the inner and the outer barriers. Both barriers were successfully formed in the device and monitored in real time, demonstrating its great potential for application to organ-on-achip technology.

Introduction Oral delivery of proteins faces numerous challenges due to their enzymatic susceptibility and instability in the gastrointestinal tract. In recent years, the polyelectrolyte complexes have been explored for their ability to complex protein and protect them against chemical and enzymatic degradation. However, most of the conventional binary polyelectrolyte complexes (PECs) are formed by polycations which are associated with toxicity and non-specific bio-interactions. The aim of this thesis was to prepare a series of ternary polyelectrolyte complexes (APECs) by introduction of a polyanion in the binary complexes to alleviate the aforementioned limitations. Method Eight non-insulin loaded ternary complexes (NIL APECs) were spontaneously formed upon mixing a polycation [polyallylamine (PAH), palmitoyl grafted-PAH (Pa2.5), dimethylamino-1-naphthalenesulfonyl grafted-PAH (Da10) or quaternised palmitoyl-PAH (QPa2.5)] with a polyanion [dextran sulphate (DS) or polyacrylic acid (PAA)] at 2:1 ratio, in the presence of ZnSO4 (4μM). A model protein i.e., insulin was added to a polycation, prior to addition of a polyanion and ZnSO4 to form eight insulin loaded (IL) APECs. PECs were used as a control to compare APECs. The complexes were characterised by dynamic light scattering (DLS) and transmission electron microscope (TEM). In vitro stability of the complexes was investigated at pH (1.2-7.4), temperature (25˚C, 37˚C and 45˚C) and ionic strength (NaCl-68mM, 103mM and 145mM). Insulin complexation efficiency was assessed by using bovine insulin ELISA assay kit. The in vitro cytotoxicity was investigated on CaCo2 and J774 cells by MTT (3-4,5 dimethyl thialzol2,5 diphenyl tetrazolium bromide) assay. All complexes were evaluated for their haemocompatibility by using haemolysis assay, oxidative stress by reactive oxygen species (ROS) assay and immunotoxicity by in vitro and in vivo cytokine generation assay. The potential of the uptake of complexes across CaCo2 cells was determined by flow cytometry and fluorescent microscopy. The underlying mechanism of transport of complexes was determined by TEER measurement, assessment of FITC-Dextran and insulin transport across CaCo2 cells. 15 Results NIL QPa2.5 APECs (except IL QPa2.5-DS) exhibited larger hydrodynamic sizes (228-468nm) than all other APECs, due to the presence of bulky quaternary ammonium moieties. QPa2.5 APECs exhibited lower insulin association efficiency (≤40%) than other APECs (≥55%) due to a competition between the polyanion and insulin for QPa2.5 leading to reduced association of insulin in the complexes. DS based APECs generally offered higher insulin association efficiency (≥75%) than PAA based APECs (≤55%) due to higher molecular weight (6-10kDa) of DS. In comparison to other complexes, Pa2.5 PECs and APECs were more stable at varying temperature, ionic strength and pH due to the presence of long palmitoyl alkyl chain (C16) which reduced the chain flexibility and provided stronger hydrophobic association. The cytotoxicity of polycations on CaCo2 and J774 cells is rated as PAH>Da10=Pa2.5>QPa2.5. The introduction of PAA in Pa2.5 and Da10 brought most significant improvement in IC50 i.e., 14 fold and 16 fold respectively on CaCo2 cells; 9.3 fold and 3.73 fold respectively on J774 cells. In comparison to other complexes, Da10 (8mgml-1) induced higher haemolytic activity (~37%) due to a higher hydrophobic load of 10 percent mole grafting of dansyl pendants. The entire range of APECs displayed ≤12% ROS generation by the CaCo2 cells. The degree of in vitro TNFα production (QPa2.5≥Da10≥Pa2.5=PAH) and in vitro IL-6 generation (QPa2.5≥Pa2.5=PAH≥Da10) by J774 cells established an inverse relationship of cytotoxicity with the cytokine generation. Similar to MTT data, the introduction of PAA in APECs brought more significant reduction in in vitro cytokine secretion than DS based APECs. Pa2.5-PAA brought the most significant reduction in both in vitro and in vivo cytokine generation. All the formulations were able to significantly reduce original TEER, however did not demonstrate appreciable paracellular permeation of a hydrophilic macromolecular tracer of paracellular transport i.e., FITC Dextran. The uptake study revealed internalisation of APECs predominantly by a transcellular route. Transcellular uptake of IL QPa2.5 (≤73%), IL QPa2.5-DS (67%) was higher than their NIL counterparts, whereas the uptake of NIL Pa2.5 (≤89%), NIL Pa2.5-PAA (42%) was higher than their IL counterparts. Conclusion In essence, amphiphilic APECs have shown polyanion dependent ability to reduce polycation associated toxicity and they are able to facilitate transcellular uptake of insulin across CaCo2 cells.

The most popular and convenient route of drug administration remains the oral route, however, protein and peptide drugs such as insulin have poor membrane permeability and stability in the gastrointestinal tract. Absorption enhancers can be added to drug delivery systems to overcome the epithelial cell membrane permeability problem. Although previous studies have shown that aloe leaf materials improve the transport of drugs across intestinal epithelia, their performance in solid oral dosage forms has not yet been investigated. Beads containing insulin and each of the selected absorption enhancers (i.e. Aloe ferox, Aloe marlothii and Aloe vera gel materials) were produced by extrusion-spheronisation, using a full factorial design to optimise the formulations based on transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) reduction of Caco-2 cell monolayers as response. The optimum bead formulations were evaluated in terms of friability, mass variation, particle surface texture, shape, size and dissolution. The transport of insulin across excised pig intestinal tissue from the optimised bead formulations was determined over a 2 h period. The samples obtained from the transport studies were analysed for insulin content by means of high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The results showed that the TEER reduction, as an indication of tight junction modulation, obtained for the bead formulations containing aloe materials was concentration dependent. Furthermore, inclusion of croscarmellose sodium (Ac-di-sol®) as a disintegrant showed an enhanced TEER reduction effect in combination with the aloe gel materials. Dissolution profiles indicated that the beads containing aloe leaf materials in conjunction with insulin, released the insulin within an hour. In accordance with the TEER reduction results, the A. marlothii and A. vera materials containing beads showed similar increased insulin delivery across excised pig intestinal tissue, which was pronouncedly higher than that of the control group (insulin alone). It can be concluded that beads containing aloe leaf materials have high potential as effective delivery systems for protein therapeutics such as insulin via the oral route of administration.
MSc (Pharmaceutics), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015