Relevant bibliographies by topics / Transparent electrodes

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  1. Journal articles
  2. Dissertations / Theses
  3. Books
  4. Book chapters
  5. Conference papers
  6. Reports

Academic literature on the topic 'Transparent electrodes'

Author: Grafiati
Published: 4 June 2021
Last updated: 8 June 2024

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Journal articles on the topic "Transparent electrodes"

1

Doan, Tien Dat, Nhung Hac Thi, Ho Thi Oanh, Tuyen Nguyen Duc, Dong Hoon Choi, and Mai Ha Hoang. "Fabrication of transparent flexible electrodes on polyethylene terephthalate substrate with high conductivity, high transmittance, and excellent stability." Ministry of Science and Technology, Vietnam 65, no. 3 (September 15, 2023): 27–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.31276/vjste.65(3).27-31.

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Transparent flexible electrodes based on silver nanowires (AgNWs) have great potential for practical applications and many studies have been carried out to improve their conductivity, transparency, and surface roughness. In this study, we demonstrate a new approach for the fabrication of high-performance transparent flexible electrodes based on AgNWs and graphene oxide (GO) on polymer substrates using the pressing method. The surface morphology of the pressed AgNW/GO electrode was characterised by atomic force microscopy (AFM) and observed by scanning electron microscope (SEM). The electrode had a low surface roughness with the root mean square (Rq) of 7 nm. The electrode exhibits a low sheet resistance of 22 Ω/sq, a high transmittance of ~88%, resulted in a figures-of-merit (FoM) value of ~12.6. The optical and electrical properties of the electrode are comparable to that of the flexible ITO electrode. In addition, the electrodes also displayed outstanding durability and mechanical stability. This simple and scalable fabrication method is expected to contribute to future studies on flexible transparent conductive electrodes.
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Chu, Seo Bum, Dongwook Ko, Jinwook Jung, Sungjin Jo, Dong Choon Hyun, Hyeon-Ju Oh, and Jongbok Kim. "Characterization of Silver Nanowire-Based Transparent Electrodes Obtained Using Different Drying Methods." Nanomaterials 12, no. 3 (January 28, 2022): 461. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nano12030461.

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Metal-based transparent top electrodes allow electronic devices to achieve transparency, thereby expanding their application range. Silver nanowire (AgNW)-based transparent electrodes can function as transparent top electrodes, owing to their excellent conductivity and transmittance. However, they require a high-temperature drying process, which damages the bottom functional layers. Here, we fabricated two types of AgNW-based electrodes using the following three drying methods: thermal, room-temperature, and vacuum. Thereafter, we investigated the variation in their morphological, electrical, and optical characteristics as a function of the drying method and duration. When the AgNW-exposed electrode was dried at room temperature, it exhibited a high surface roughness and low conductivity, owing to the slow solvent evaporation. However, under vacuum, it exhibited a similar electrical conductivity to that achieved by thermal drying because of the decreased solvent boiling point and fast solvent evaporation. Conversely, the AgNW-embedded electrodes exhibited similar roughness values and electrical conductivities regardless of the drying method applied. This was because the polymer shrinkage during the AgNW embedding process generated capillary force and improved the interconnectivity between the nanowires. The AgNW-based electrodes exhibited similar optical properties regardless of the drying method and electrode type. This study reveals that vacuum drying can afford transparent top electrodes without damaging functional layers.
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Moon, Gitae, Wonjun Jang, Intae Son, Hyun Cho, Yong Park, and Jun Lee. "Fabrication of New Liquid Crystal Device Using Layer-by-Layer Thin Film Process." Processes 6, no. 8 (August 1, 2018): 108. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pr6080108.

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Indium tin oxide (ITO) transparent electrodes are troubled with high cost and poor mechanical stability. In this study, layer-by-layer (LBL)-processed thin films with single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) exhibited high transparency and electrical conductivity as a candidate for ITO replacement. The repetitive deposition of polycations and stabilized SWNTs with a negative surfactant exhibits sufficiently linear film growth and high optoelectronic performance to be used as transparent electrodes for vertically aligned (VA) liquid crystal display (LCD) cells. The LC molecules were uniformly aligned on the all of the prepared LBL electrodes. VA LCD cells with SWNT LBL electrodes exhibited voltage-transmittance (V-T) characteristics similar to those with the conventional ITO electrodes. Although the response speeds were slower than the LCD cell with the ITO electrode, as the SWNT layers increased, the display performance was closer to the LCD cells with conventional ITO electrode. This work demonstrated the good optoelectronic performance and alignment compatibility with LC molecules of the SWNT LBL assemblies, which are potential alternatives to ITO films as transparent electrodes for LCDs.
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Guan, Xin, Lujun Pan, and Zeng Fan. "Flexible, Transparent and Highly Conductive Polymer Film Electrodes for All-Solid-State Transparent Supercapacitor Applications." Membranes 11, no. 10 (October 16, 2021): 788. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/membranes11100788.

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Lightweight energy storage devices with high mechanical flexibility, superior electrochemical properties and good optical transparency are highly desired for next-generation smart wearable electronics. The development of high-performance flexible and transparent electrodes for supercapacitor applications is thus attracting great attention. In this work, we successfully developed flexible, transparent and highly conductive film electrodes based on a conducting polymer, poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS). The PEDOT:PSS film electrodes were prepared via a simple spin-coating approach followed by a post-treatment with a salt solution. After treatment, the film electrodes achieved a high areal specific capacitance (3.92 mF/cm2 at 1 mA/cm2) and long cycling lifetime (capacitance retention >90% after 3000 cycles) with high transmittance (>60% at 550 nm). Owing to their good optoelectronic and electrochemical properties, the as-assembled all-solid-state device for which the PEDOT:PSS film electrodes were utilized as both the active electrode materials and current collectors also exhibited superior energy storage performance over other PEDOT-based flexible and transparent symmetric supercapacitors in the literature. This work provides an effective approach for producing high-performance, flexible and transparent polymer electrodes for supercapacitor applications. The as-obtained polymer film electrodes can also be highly promising for future flexible transparent portable electronics.
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Miwa, Yuki, Hisashi Kino, Takafumi Fukushima, and Tetsu Tanaka. "Electrochemical characterization of ZnO-based transparent materials as recording electrodes for neural probes in optogenetics." Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology B 40, no. 5 (September 2022): 052202. http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/6.0001836.

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In the elucidation of brain functions, neuroscience has garnered attention in the realization of brain-machine interfaces, deep brain stimulation, and artificial intelligence. Optogenetics is a biological technique used to control neural activities via optical stimulation. It is one of the most effective approaches used to investigate brain functions. This study proposed to employ the transparent recording electrode to enhance the performance of neural probes for optogenetics. Compared with conventional metal recording electrodes, the proposed transparent recording electrodes have the potential to obtain higher signal-to-noise ratios when placed over optical stimulation points. To develop transparent recording electrodes, we used ZnO-based materials with good biocompatibility and transparency for utilization as biomedical electrodes. Considering saline as one of the main components of living organisms, we investigated the fundamental electrochemical characteristics of ZnO-based electrodes in saline through electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and cyclic voltammetry. The results showed that nondoped ZnO and Al-doped ZnO, deposited by radio frequency magnetron sputtering, exhibited a broad potential window. An electrical double layer was found to strongly act on the interface between the electrodes and solution rather than a redox reaction. In addition, this study reports the effects of crystallization and dopant on the electrochemical characteristics of the ZnO-based electrodes. The transparent ZnO-based electrode developed herein is a promising candidate to enhance the performance of neural probes for optogenetics and can be effectively applied in biological devices.
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Khatri, Ishwor, Qiming Liu, Ryo Ishikawa, Keiji Ueno, and Hajime Shirai. "Self assembled silver nanowire mesh as top electrode for organic–inorganic hybrid solar cell." Canadian Journal of Physics 92, no. 7/8 (July 2014): 867–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/cjp-2013-0564.

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We prepare transparent, selfassembled polygonal silver nanowire (AgNW) mesh by bubble template and use as top electrode for a poly (3,4ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(stylenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS)/n-Si hybrid solar cell. Devices were fabricated by pressing the self-assembled AgNW and ITO electrodes onto the surface of the PEDOT:PSS and device performances were compared. In identical transmittances of ITO and self-assembled AgNW (i.e., 87% transmittance at wavelength of 550 nm), the self-assembled AgNW mesh electrodes shows lower sheet resistance (8 Ω/square) with enhanced transparency in the ultraviolet and infrared regions. As a result, a device performance with an efficiency of 9.60% was obtained with the self-assembled electrode compared to 9.07% efficiency from the indium–tin oxide (ITO) electrode under 100 mW/cm2 of AM 1.5 illumination. This study suggests the potential application of a self-assembled AgNW electrode as the transparent conducting electrode for future optoelectronic devices.
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Song, Jiaxing, Guoqiang Ma, Fei Qin, Lin Hu, Bangwu Luo, Tiefeng Liu, Xinxing Yin, et al. "High-Conductivity, Flexible and Transparent PEDOT:PSS Electrodes for High Performance Semi-Transparent Supercapacitors." Polymers 12, no. 2 (February 14, 2020): 450. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/polym12020450.

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Herein, we report a flexible high-conductivity transparent electrode (denoted as S-PH1000), based on conducting polymer poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrene sulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS), and itsapplication to flexible semi-transparentsupercapacitors. A high conductivity of 2673 S/cm was achieved for the S-PH1000 electrode on flexible plastic substrates via a H2SO4 treatment with an optimized concentration of 80 wt.%. This is among the top electrical conductivities of PEDOT:PSS films processed on flexible substrates. As for the electrochemical properties,a high specific capacitance of 161F/g was obtained from the S-PH1000 electrode at a current density of 1 A/g. Excitingly, a specific capacitance of 121 F/g was retained even when the current density increased to 100 A/g, which demonstrates the high-rate property of this electrode. Flexible semi-transparent supercapacitors based on these electrodes demonstrate high transparency, over 60%, at 550 nm. A high power density value, over 19,200 W/kg,and energy density, over 3.40 Wh/kg, was achieved. The semi-transparent flexible supercapacitor was successfully applied topower a light-emitting diode.
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Osipkov, Alexey, Mstislav Makeev, Elizaveta Konopleva, Natalia Kudrina, Leonid Gorobinskiy, Pavel Mikhalev, Dmitriy Ryzhenko, and Gleb Yurkov. "Optically Transparent and Highly Conductive Electrodes for Acousto-Optical Devices." Materials 14, no. 23 (November 25, 2021): 7178. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma14237178.

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The study was devoted to the creation of transparent electrodes based on highly conductive mesh structures. The analysis and reasonable choice of technological approaches to the production of such materials with a high Q factor (the ratio of transparency and electrical conductivity) were carried out. The developed manufacturing technology consists of the formation of grooves in a transparent substrate by photolithography methods, followed by reactive ion plasma etching and their metallization by chemical deposition using the silver mirror reaction. Experimental samples of a transparent electrode fabricated using this technology have a sheet resistance of about 0.1 Ω/sq with a light transmittance in the visible wavelength range of more than 60%.
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Aleksandrova, Mariya. "Specifics and Challenges to Flexible Organic Light-Emitting Devices." Advances in Materials Science and Engineering 2016 (2016): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2016/4081697.

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Several recent developments in material science and deposition methods for flexible organic light-emitting devices (OLEDs) are surveyed. The commonly used plastic substrates are compared, according to their mechanical, optical, thermal, and chemical properties. Multilayer electrode structures, used as transparent electrodes, replacing conventional indium tin oxide (ITO) are presented and data about their conductivity, transparency, and bending ability are provided. Attention is paid to some of the most popular industrial processes for flexible OLEDs manufacturing, such as roll-to-roll printing, inkjet printing, and screen printing. Main specifics and challenges, related to the foils reliability, mechanical stability of the transparent electrodes, and deposition and patterning of organic emissive films, are discussed.
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Zhang, Hehe, Jan Mischke, Wolfgang Mertin, and Gerd Bacher. "Graphene as a Transparent Conductive Electrode in GaN-Based LEDs." Materials 15, no. 6 (March 16, 2022): 2203. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma15062203.

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Graphene combines high conductivity (sheet resistance down to a few hundred Ω/sq and even less) with high transparency (>90%) and thus exhibits a huge application potential as a transparent conductive electrode in gallium nitride (GaN)-based light-emitting diodes (LEDs), being an economical alternative to common indium-based solutions. Here, we present an overview of the state-of-the-art graphene-based transparent conductive electrodes in GaN-based LEDs. The focus is placed on the manufacturing progress and the resulting properties of the fabricated devices. Transferred as well as directly grown graphene layers are considered. We discuss the impact of graphene-based transparent conductive electrodes on current spreading and contact resistance, and reveal future challenges and perspectives on the use of graphene in GaN-based LEDs.
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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Transparent electrodes"

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Selzer, Franz. "Transparent Electrodes for Organic Solar Cells." Doctoral thesis, Saechsische Landesbibliothek- Staats- und Universitaetsbibliothek Dresden, 2016. http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bsz:14-qucosa-199652.

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The aim of this work was to investigate silver nanowire as well as carbon nanotube networks as transparent conducting electrodes for small molecule organic solar cells. In the framework of the nanowire investigations, a low-temperature method at less than 80 °C is developed to obtain highly conductive networks directly after the deposition and without post-processing. In detail, specific non-conductive organic materials act as a matrix where the nanowires are embedded in such that a mutual attraction based on capillary forces and hydrophobic interaction is created. This process is mediated by the ethanol contained in the nanowire dispersion and works only for sublayer materials which exhibit hydrophobic and hydrophilic groups at the same time. In contrast to high-temperature processed reference electrodes (210 °C for 90 min) without matrix, a slightly lower sheet resistance of 10.8 Ohm/sq at a transparency of 80.4 % (including substrate) is obtained by using polyvinylpyrrolidone as the sublayer material. In comparison to annealed silver nanowire networks, the novel approach yields a performance enhancement in corresponding organic solar cells which can compete with ITO-based devices. Furthermore, a novel approach for scalable, highly conductive, and transparent silver nanowire top-electrodes for organic optoelectronic devices is introduced. By utilizing a perfluorinated methacrylate as stabilizer, silver nanowires with high aspect ratio can be transferred into inert solvents which do not dissolve most organic compounds making this modified dispersion compatible with small molecule and polymer-based organic optoelectronic devices. The inert silver nanowire dispersion yields highly performing top-electrodes with a sheet resistance of 10.0 Ohm/sq at 80.0 % transparency (including substrate) directly after low-temperature deposition at 30 °C and without further post-processing. In comparison to similarly prepared reference devices comprising a thin-metal film as transparent top-electrode, reasonable power conversion efficiencies are demonstrated by spray-coating this dispersion directly on simple, air-exposed small molecule-based organic solar cells. Moreover, a deeper understanding of the percolation behavior of silver nanowire networks has been achieved. Herein, direct measurements of the basic network parameters, including the wire-to-wire junction resistance and the resistance of a single nanowire of pristine and annealed networks have been carried out for the first time. By putting the values into a simulation routine, a good accordance between measurement and simulation is achieved. Thus, an examination of the electrical limit of the nanowire system used in this work can be realized by extrapolating the junction resistance down to zero. The annealed silver nanowires are fairly close to the limit with a theoretical enhancement range of only 20 % (common absolute sheet resistance of approximately 10 Ohm/sq) such that a significant performance improvement is only expected by an enlargement of the nanowire length or by the implementation of new network geometries. In addition, carbon nanotube networks are investigated as alternative network-type, transparent bottom-electrode for organic small molecule solar cells. For that purpose, cleaning and structuring as well as planarization procedures are developed and optimized which maintain the optoelectronic performance of the carbon nanotube electrodes. Furthermore, a hybrid electrode consisting of silver nanowires covered with carbon nanotubes is fabricated yielding organic solar cells with only 0.47 % power conversion efficiency. In contrast, optimized electrodes comprising only carbon nanotubes show significantly higher efficiency. In comparison to identically prepared ITO devices, comparable or lower power conversion efficiencies of 3.96 % (in p-i-n stack), 4.83 % (in cascade cell) as well as 4.81 % (in p-n-i-p architecture) are demonstrated. For an inverted n-i-p stack design, the highest power conversion efficiency of 5.42 % is achieved.
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Kinner, Lukas. "Flexible transparent electrodes for optoelectronic devices." Doctoral thesis, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.18452/22419.

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Transparente Elektroden (TE) sind unverzichtbar in modernen optoelektronischen Bauelementen. Die derzeitig am häufigsten verwendete TE ist Indium Zinn Oxid (ITO). Aufgrund der Nachteile von ITO setzt sich die vorliegende Arbeit mit ITO-Alternativen auseinander. Zwei Ansätze werden in dieser Arbeit untersucht. Der erste Ansatz beruht auf Dielektrikum/Metall/Dielektrikum (DMD) Filmen, im zweites Ansatz werden Silber Nanodrähten (NW) als TE untersucht. Im ersten Ansatz wurden DMD Elektroden auf Glas und Polyethylenterephthalat (PET) fabriziert. Eine Kombination von gesputterten TiOx/Ag/AZO Schichten lieferte die höchste jemals gemessene Transmission und Leitfähigkeit für eine Elektrode auf Glas und PET. Eine durchschnittliche Transmission größer als 85 % (inklusive Substrat) im Bereich von 400-700 nm und einen Schichtwiderstand von unter 6 Ω/sq wurden erreicht. Um die Leistung der TiOx/Ag/AZO Elektrode in einem Bauteil zu überprüfen, wurde sie in einer organischen Licht emittierenden Diode (OLED) implementiert. Die DMD-basierten OLEDs erreichten eine 30 % höhere Strom Effizienz auf Glas und eine 260 % höhere Strom Effizienz auf PET im Unterschied zu den ITO-basierten Bauteilen. Im zweiten Ansatz zur Realisierung flexibler transparenter Elektroden wurden NWs diskutiert. Die Implementierung von Nanodrähten in lösungsprozessierten organischen Licht emittierenden Dioden weißt noch immer zwei große Hürden auf: hohe Rauigkeit der Nanodrahtfilme und Wärmeempfindlichkeit von PET. Um die Rauigkeit zu verkleinern und gleichzeitig die Stabilität zu erhöhen werden zunächst die Nanodrähte in ein UV-härtendes Polymer eingebettet. Es wird eine Transmission von bis zu 80 % (inklusive Substrat) und ein Schichtwiderstand von 13 Ω/sq erreicht. Gleich wie bei den DMD Elektroden wurden auch NW Elektroden in eine OLED implementiert. Die Bauteile zeigten eine größere Flexibilität, Leitfähigkeit und Luminanz als die PET/ITO Referenzen während die selbe Leistungseffizienz erreicht wurde.
Transparent electrodes (TEs) are a key element in optoelectronics. TEs assure simultaneous light interaction with the active device layers and efficient charge carrier injection or extraction. The most widely used TE in today’s industry is indium tin oxide (ITO). However, there are downsides to the use of ITO. The scope of this thesis is to discuss alternatives to ITO. Two main approaches are examined in this thesis - one approach is based on using dielectric/metal/dielectric (DMD) films and the other is based on using silver nanowire (NW) films. For the first approach, a combination of sputtered TiOx/Ag/AZO was found to yield the highest transmittance and conductivity ever reported for an electrode on PET with an average transmittance larger than 85 % (including the substrate) in the range 400-700 nm and sheet resistance below 6 Ω/sq. To test the device performance of TiOx/Ag/AZO, DMD electrodes were implemented in organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs). DMD-based devices achieve up to 260 % higher efficacy on PET, as compared to the ITO-based reference devices. As a second approach, NWs were investigated. The implementation of silver nanowires as TEs in solution processed organic light emitting diodes still faces two major challenges: high roughness of nanowire films and heat sensitivity of PET. Therefore, within this thesis, an embedding process with different variations is elaborated to obtain highly conductive and transparent electrodes of NWs on flexible PET substrates. The NWs are embedded into a UV-curable polymer, to reduce the electrode roughness and to enhance its stability. A a transmittance of 80 % (including the substrate) and sheet resistance of 13 Ω/sq is achieved.
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Reiter, Fernando. "Carbon based nanomaterials as transparent conductive electrodes." Thesis, Georgia Institute of Technology, 2011. http://hdl.handle.net/1853/41070.

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Optically transparent carbon based nanomaterials including graphene and carbon nanotubes(CNTs) are promising candidates as transparent conductive electrodes due to their high electrical conductivity coupled with high optical transparency, can be flexed several times with minimal deterioration in their electronic properties, and do not require costly high vacuum processing conditions. CNTs are easily solution processed through the use of surfactants sodium dodecyl sulfate(SDS) and sodium cholate(SC). Allowing CNTs to be deposited onto transparent substrates through vacuum filtration, ultrasonic spray coating, dip coating, spin coating, and inkjet printing. However, surfactants are electrically insulating, limit chemical doping, and increase optical absorption thereby decreasing overall performance of electrodes. Surfactants can be removed through nitric acid treatment and annealing in an inert environment (e.g. argon). In this thesis, the impact of surfactant removal on electrode performance was investigated. Nitric acid treatment has been shown to p-dope CNTs and remove the surfactant SDS. However, nitric acid p-doping is naturally dedoped with exposure to air, does not completely remove the surfactant SC, and has been shown to damage CNTs by creating defect sites. Annealing at temperatures up to 1000°C is advantageous in that it removes insulating surfactants. However, annealing may also remove surface functional groups that dope CNTs. Therefore, there are competing effects when annealing CNT electrodes. The impacts on electrode performance were investigated through the use of conductive-tip atomic force microscopy, sheet resistance, and transmittance measurements. In this thesis, the potential of graphene CNT composite electrodes as high performing transparent electrodes was investigated. As-made and annealed graphene oxide CNT composites electrodes were studied. Finally, a chemical vapor deposition grown graphene CNT composite electrode was also studied.
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Schubert, Sylvio. "Transparent top electrodes for organic solar cells." Doctoral thesis, Saechsische Landesbibliothek- Staats- und Universitaetsbibliothek Dresden, 2015. http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bsz:14-qucosa-162670.

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Organic solar cells offer attractive properties for novel applications and continuous advances in material and concept development have led to significant improvements in device performance. To exploit their full potential (roll-to-roll production of flexible and top-illuminated devices, using e.g. opaque metal foil or textile as substrate), highly transparent, conductive, mechanically flexible, and cost-efficient top electrodes are of great importance. The current standard material indium tin oxide (ITO) is rigid, expensive and requires a high energy / high temperature deposition process, limiting ITO (and other transparent conductive oxides) to bottom electrode applications. This work presents fundamental investigations to understand and control the properties of transparent conductors and documents four different approaches to prepare transparent electrodes on top of efficient small molecule organic solar cells, with the aim to replace ITO. Fullerene C60 layers are investigated as completely carbon-based electrodes. For an optimized doping concentration, sheet resistance and transmittance are improved and efficient solar cells are realized. Since the lateral charge transport is still limited, a combination with a microstructured conductor is suggested. Pulsed laser deposition allows for the first time a damage-free preparation of gallium doped zinc oxide (ZnO:Ga) layers on top of organic devices by careful optimization of the deposition atmosphere. ZnO:Ga electrodes with a transmittance of Tvis = 82.7 % and sheet resistance Rs = 83 Ohm/sq are obtained. The formation of local shunts due to ZnO:Ga droplets is identified and then prevented by a shadow mask between the target and the sample, enabling solar cells with similar efficiency (2.9 %) compared to a reference device using a state-of-the-art metal top contact. Another very promising alternative are intrinsically flexible, ultra-thin silver layers. By introducing an oxide interlayer, the adverse interpenetration of silver and organic materials is prevented and the charge extraction from the solar cells is improved. With a second oxide layer on top, the silver electrode is significantly stabilized, leading to an increased solar cell lifetime of 4500 h (factor of 107). Scanning electron micrographs of Ag thin films reveal a poor wetting on organic and oxide substrates, which strongly limits the electrode performance. However, it is significantly improved by a 1 nm thin seed layer. An optimized Au/Ag film reaches Tvis = 78.1 % and Rs = 19 Ohm/sq, superior to ITO. Finally, silver electrodes blended with calcium show a unique microstructure which enables unusually high transmittance (84.3 % at 27.3 Ohm/sq) even above the expectations from bulk material properties and thin film optics. Such values have not been reached for transparent electrodes on top of organic material so far. Solar cells with a Ca:Ag top electrode achieve an efficiency of 7.2 %, which exceeds the 6.9 % of bottom-illuminated reference cells with conventional ITO electrodes and defines a new world record for top-illuminated organic solar cells. With these electrodes, semi-transparent and large-area devices, as well as devices on opaque and flexible substrates are successfully prepared. In summary, it is shown that ZnO:Ga and thin metal electrodes can replace ITO and fill the lack of high performance top electrodes. Moreover, the introduced concepts are not restricted to specific solar cell architectures or organic compounds but are widely applicable for a variety of organic devices.
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Song, Yi Ph D. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. "Graphene as transparent electrodes for solar cells." Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2017. http://hdl.handle.net/1721.1/112027.

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Thesis: Ph. D., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, 2017.
Cataloged from PDF version of thesis.
Includes bibliographical references (pages 133-142).
The aim of this thesis is to develop an understanding of the science and engineering in applying chemical vapor deposition (CVD) graphene as the transparent conductor in photovoltaic devices. Transparent conducting oxides currently dominate the transparent conductor market but suffer drawbacks that make them unsuitable certain applications. Graphene is mechanically robust, chemically inert, and has work function that can be tuned by chemical doping, making it a versatile substitute that is compatible many types of devices. We start by demonstrating a scalable method for directly transferring graphene onto a variety of substrates and exploring a doping method that vastly enhances the conductivity of graphene films. These developments improve the attractiveness of CVD graphene for transparent electrode applications. Next, we apply graphene to various types of devices to assess key advantages and challenges. We develop an understanding of the importance of the interface in graphene/silicon Schottky barrier solar cells and apply our understanding to achieve record efficiency in these devices. We also explore graphene/SrTiO₃ Schottky junctions, where the graphene itself is responsible for absorbing visible light and show that these devices can be used as tunable photodetectors. We demonstrate highly-transparent organic solar cells with all-graphene electrode as well as inkjet-printed perovskite solar cells with graphene electrodes. Finally, we use graphene/perovskite Schottky barrier solar cells to gain a better understanding of carrier dynamics in perovskite films.
by Yi Song.
Ph. D.
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Boscarino, Stefano. "Ultra-thin transparent electrodes for energy applications." Doctoral thesis, Università di Catania, 2015. http://hdl.handle.net/10761/1723.

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Due to the unique feature of being contemporarily optically transparent and electrically conducting, Transparent Conductive Oxides (TCOs) play a fundamental role in many technologies: communications, information, energy, buildings. Up to now, the most diffused material in the TCO s family was indium tin oxide (ITO), especially for large-area applications such as flat panel displays. Recently, the increasing expansion of the display market and, even more, of photovoltaics, are endangered by the scarcity and rising price of indium. This is one of the reasons and a strong motivation for searching alternative transparent electrodes, not necessarily oxides, to replace ITO. Moreover, in order to meet the expectations for the growing demand and lower production costs for photovoltaic and electronic applications, new TCOs, or equivalent materials, must be abundant, not expensive and very thin, so to be suitable for flexible electronics. Among new transparent electrodes candidates, Aluminium-doped zinc oxide (AZO) films and very thin multilayers of AZO/Ag/AZO have emerged as a very promising alternative . In particular, AZO films are Indium-free and show electro-optical properties comparable to ITO films of the same thickness (700-900 nm for industrial applications), especially after thermal annealing at 250 °C. On the other hand, AZO/Ag/AZO multilayer structures, 10 times thinner than ITO or AZO single layers, show very high transparency and low resistivity even at room temperature. Replacing thick TCO layers with thin TCO/Ag/TCO multilayers would produce great benefits in terms of material consumption, cost, toxicity and flexibility (a mandatory point for the development of the electronics on plastic). In this context, it is important the study and understanding of the fundamental properties of these materials, the process conditions and post fabrication treatments to optimize their application to different fields. Transparent conductive materials are known since about 100 years and represent one of the strategic topics for the actual industrial research, but still many fundamental properties and mechanisms need to be clarified and explained. Aim of this work is the fabrication, processing and characterization of ultra-thin AZO and TCO/Ag/TCO transparent electrodes. The study focused on the optimization of structural, optical and electrical properties for application in photovoltaics. The thesis is organized as follows. Chapter 1 introduces TCOs and covers the conventional and non materials history, properties, applications and market. Chapter 2 starts with a comprehensive and detailed study about thick AZO grown by RF magnetron sputtering films on glass substrates, focusing on the influence of sputtering process parameters, i.e. power, temperature substrate, and thermal treatment (during or after the deposition) on the film properties. After the work on thick AZO, we report the modification of optical, electrical and structural properties of very thin films (60 nm) upon ion irradiation with different ion type (O+ or Ar+ ions) and energy (30 and 350 keV) at different ion doses (3, 10, 30E15ions/cm-2), before and after thermal treatments up to 400°C. Chapter 3 treats of very thin TCO/Ag/TCO multilayer structures grown by RF magnetron sputtering. Synthesis and properties of AZO/Ag/AZO multilayers as a function of Ag film thickness, with a fixed AZO thickness (~20 nm), are investigated. Then, we studied multilayers with fixed Ag thickness(~10 nm), but different combinations of AZO and ITO as top and bottom TCO layers. Chapter 4 describes the compatibility of the AZO/Ag/AZO multilayers with one of the most important steps for the implementation in thin film photovoltaic technology: laser scribing. AZO/Ag/AZO multilayers must be able to guarantee the same level of TCO reliability under laser scribing processes. In this study, we used a single nanosecond laser pulse to irradiate AZO/Ag/AZO deposited on glass.
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Tomita, Yuto. "Alternative transparent electrodes for organic light emitting diodes." Doctoral thesis, Saechsische Landesbibliothek- Staats- und Universitaetsbibliothek Dresden, 2009. http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bsz:14-ds-1236711483222-35217.

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Solid state lighting is a new environmentally friendly light source. So far, light emitting diodes (LEDs) and organic LEDs (OLEDs) have been presented as candidates with potentially high efficiency. Recent advances of OLEDs in device architecture, light-out coupling, and materials have ensured high efficiency, exceeding that of incandescent light bulbs. In contrast to conventional point source LEDs, OLEDs distribute light throughout the surface area and are not restricted by their size. Additionally, OLEDs are expected to reach sufficient stability in the near future. The remaining challenge for OLEDs is their cost. New OLED technologies provide cost effective manufacturing methods which could be presented for transparent electrode materials because indium tin oxide (ITO), a widely used material as a transparent electrode for OLEDs, is less than optimal due to its high element price. In this work, alternative transparent electrodes for OLEDs as a replacement of ITO were studied. First, Al doped ZnO (ZnO:Al) which is composed of abundant materials was investigated with DC magnetron sputtering under a wide range of experimental conditions. The optimised ZnO:Al received comparable performance with conventional ITO films, low sheet resistance of 22.8 Ω/sq as well as a high transparency of 93.1 % (average value in the visible range). Various type of p-i-n OLEDs were employed on the structured ZnO:Al using photolithography. Green OLEDs with double emission layers have been archived stable efficiencies even at higher luminance. Also, OLEDs using two fluorescent colour system on ZnO:Al anode showed a purely white emission. It has been found that the OLEDs on ZnO:Al anode has comparable or better device efficiencies and operational lifetime compared to OLEDs on conventional ITO anode. As another alternative electrode, the conductive polymer Baytron®PH510 (PEDOT:PSS) was investigated. Due to a relatively high sheet resistance of PEDOT:PSS, metal grid was designed for large size OLEDs. White OLEDs on PEDOT anode with a size of 5 × 5 cm2 have achieved more than 10 lm/W of power efficiency using a scattering foil. Furthermore, up-scaled devices on 10 × 10 cm2 were also demonstrated. These results showed ZnO:Al and PEDOT are suitable for OLEDs as anode and have high potential as alternative transparent electrode materials.
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Ghosh, Dhriti Sundar. "Ultrathin metal transparent electrodes for the optoelectronics industry." Doctoral thesis, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, 2012. http://hdl.handle.net/10803/285839.

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Transparent electrodes (TEs) are the essential elements of many optoelectronic devices such as solar cells, touch screens, organic LEDs, and LCDs. Consequently demand for TEs is growing very steeply and the market value presently stands at 8 billion USDs. The state-of-art indium tin oxide (ITO) has an excellent trade-off between optical transparency and electrical sheet resistance but suffers from several drawbacks, mainly the increasing cost due to indium shortage, and inadequate flexibility due to poor mechanical ductility. This thesis presents the development of a new class of TEs based on ultrathin metal films (UTMFs). The work started from understanding the fundamental aspects of UTMF growth and properties, and then focused on different UTMF based geometries, composition, and combination for potential applications in different optoelectronic applications. Single component ultrathin Ni and Cr films were shown to possess significantly high transparency in the ultraviolet (175–400 nm) and mid-infrared (2.5–25 μm) regions making them viable TE for devices such as UV photodiodes, and IR pyroelectric detectors. The natural oxidation process, which is a major concern for metal films, has been exploited to achieve stable metallic films by inducing a protective oxide layer. In another proposed novel design, incorporating an ad hoc conductive grid, the sheet resistance of UTMFs can be reduced by more than two orders of magnitude with negligible loss in transparency, which in turn eliminates the inverse trade-off relationship between optical transparency and electrical conductivity of continuous metal based TEs. A TE structure based on the ultrathin conductive Cu films with an application specific functionalized capping layer of Ti or Ni layer has been demonstrated. The properties of the TE can be tuned accordingly and show excellent stability against temperature, and oxidation. The suitability of Ag-Cu alloy films as TE as an alternative to ITO has been also investigated. The optical spectrum of such alloy films follows the average optical behavior of single component Cu and Ag layers, thus resulting in a much flatter optical response in the visible region. UTMFs combined with Al doped ZnO (AZO), which is possible ITO replacement, has also been demonstrated to show the possibility of hybridizing the two technologies. A bilayer Ag/AZO has been developed which can overcome the high reflection of metals and retain their good electrical behavior, while maintaining a minimum total film thickness. In another structure, UTMF capping layer were used to improve the stability of AZO. It was found that an ultrathin oxidized Ni capping layer with a thickness at percolation threshold greatly enhances the stability of AZO layer in harsh environment without affecting the electro-optical properties
Los electrodos transparentes (TEs) son elementos básicos de muchos dispositivos optoelectrónicos, tales como células solares, pantallas táctiles, LEDs orgánicos i LCDs. En consecuencia, la demanda de éstos TEs está creciendo paulatinamente y con un valor de mercado actual de 8 billones de dólares (USD). El estado del arte del óxido de estaño dopado con Indio (ITO) ofrece un excelente compromiso entre transparencia óptica y resistencia eléctrica de hoja pero también tiene inconvenientes, principalmente de precio debido a la escasez del Indio, así como de una inadecuada flexibilidad debida a una baja ductilidad mecánica. En esta tesis se presenta el desarrollo de una nueva clase de TEs basados en capas ultradelgadas de metales (UTMFs). El trabajo empieza des de la comprensión de los aspectos fundamentales relacionados con el crecimiento de los UTMF y sus propiedades, para luego focalizarse en diferentes geometrías, composición y combinaciones para diferentes aplicaciones potenciales en el campo de la optoelectrónica. Las capas ultradelgadas monocomponentes de Ni y de Cr han mostrado tener significativamente alta transparencia en el rango ultravioleta (175-380nm) y en el Infrarrojo mediano (2.5-25um), haciéndolos, por tanto, TE viables para dispositivos tales como fotodiodos de UV y detectores piroeléctricos del IR. El proceso natural de oxidación, el cual es un problema central para las capas metálicas, ha sido aprovechado para conseguir capas metálicas estables gracias a una capa protectora de óxido. En otro novedoso diseño, gracias a la incorporación ad hoc de una malla conductora, la resistencia eléctrica de hoja de los UTMFs puede ser disminuida hasta dos órdenes de magnitud y con una pérdida de transmisión despreciable, y por lo tanto, elimina el compromiso limitante entre transparencia óptica y conductividad eléctrica de los TE basados en capas metálicas continuas. Una estructura de los TEs, basada en una capa conductora ultradelgada de Cu, la cual puede ser funcionalizada para aplicaciones específicas con capas protectoras de Ti o Ni, ha sido demostrada. Las propiedades del TE pueden ser modificadas bajo control y muestran una excelente estabilidad a la temperatura y la oxidación. La idoneidad de la aleación Ag-Cu como capa alternativa al ITO para los TE ha sido también investigada. El espectro óptico de esta aleación sigue el comportamiento óptico medio de las capas monocomponentes de Ag y Cu, y por lo tanto se obtiene una respuesta óptica mucho mas plana en la región del espectro visible. Los UTMFs en combinación con ZnO dopado con Al (AZO), el cual es una opción factible como sustituto del ITO, ha demostrado la posibilidad de hibridar ambas tecnologías. Una bicapa de Ag/AZO ha sido desarrollada, la cual evita el problema de la alta reflexión de los metales y mantiene a su vez sus buenas propiedades eléctricas con un espesor total de capa mínimo. En otra estructura, la capa protectora de los UTMF ha sido utilizada para mejorar la estabilidad del AZO. Se ha visto que una capa protectora ultra-delgada y oxidada de Ni con un espesor igual a su límite de percolación, mejora notablemente la estabilidad de las capas de AZO, manteniendo sus propiedades electro-ópticas, incluso en condiciones severas
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Liu, Yujing. "Nanostructured transparent conducting oxide electrodes through nanoparticle assembly." Diss., lmu, 2012. http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:19-149076.

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Kinner, Lukas [Verfasser]. "Flexible transparent electrodes for optoelectronic devices / Lukas Kinner." Berlin : Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 2021. http://d-nb.info/1228333432/34.

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Books on the topic "Transparent electrodes"

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Khan, Arshad. Novel Embedded Metal-mesh Transparent Electrodes. Singapore: Springer Singapore, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2918-4.

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Ghosh, Dhriti Sundar. Ultrathin Metal Transparent Electrodes for the Optoelectronics Industry. Heidelberg: Springer International Publishing, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-00348-1.

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Ghosh, Dhriti Sundar. Ultrathin Metal Transparent Electrodes for the Optoelectronics Industry. Heidelberg: Springer International Publishing, 2013.

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Snyder, Trevor James. Visualization and heat transfer study of boiling in microgravity with and applied electric field utilizing single-bubble and surface-boiling semi-transparent gold-film heaters and three electrode geometries: diverging plate, flat plate, and pin electrode. Pullman, WA: School of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, Washington State University, 1995.

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Molloy, James. Argon and argon-chlorine plasma reactive ion etching and surface modification of transparent conductive tin oxide thin films for high resolution flat panel display electrode matrices. [s.l: The Author], 1997.

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Ghosh, Dhriti Sundar Sundar. Ultrathin Metal Transparent Electrodes for the Optoelectronics Industry. Springer, 2016.

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Ultrathin Metal Transparent Electrodes For The Optoelectronics Industry. Springer International Publishing AG, 2013.

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Khan, Arshad. Novel Embedded Metal-mesh Transparent Electrodes: Vacuum-free Fabrication Strategies and Applications in Flexible Electronic Devices. Springer, 2020.

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Khan, Arshad. Novel Embedded Metal-Mesh Transparent Electrodes: Vacuum-Free Fabrication Strategies and Applications in Flexible Electronic Devices. Springer Singapore Pte. Limited, 2021.

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Kullman, Lisen. Components of Smart Windows: Investigations of Electrochromic Films, Transparent Counter Electrodes and Sputtering Techniques (Comprehensive Summaries of Uppsala Dissertations, 425). Uppsala Universitet, 1999.

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Book chapters on the topic "Transparent electrodes"

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Koden, Mitsuhiro, Tadahiro Furukawa, Toshinao Yuki, and Hitoshi Nakada. "Transparent Electrodes." In Handbook of Organic Light-Emitting Diodes, 1–20. Tokyo: Springer Japan, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-55761-6_46-1.

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Barnes, Teresa M., and Jeffrey L. Blackburn. "Carbon Nanotube Transparent Electrodes." In Transparent Electronics, 185–211. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9780470710609.ch7.

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Heineman, William R., and William B. Jensen. "Spectroelectrochemistry Using Transparent Electrodes." In ACS Symposium Series, 442–57. Washington, DC: American Chemical Society, 1989. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/bk-1989-0390.ch030.

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Ghosh, Dhriti Sundar. "Copper Bilayer Transparent Electrodes." In Ultrathin Metal Transparent Electrodes for the Optoelectronics Industry, 43–50. Heidelberg: Springer International Publishing, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-00348-1_4.

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Naka, Shigeki. "Transparent Electrodes for Organic Light-emitting Diodes." In Transparent Conductive Materials, 301–15. Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9783527804603.ch5_2.

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Chandrashekar, Bananakere Nanjegowda, A. S. Smitha, K. Jagadish, Namratha, S. Srikantaswamy, B. E. Kumara Swamy, Kishor Kumar Sadasivuni, S. Krishnaveni, K. Byrappa, and Chun Cheng. "Functional Nanomaterials for Transparent Electrodes." In Smart Polymer Nanocomposites, 345–76. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-50424-7_13.

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Phillips, Thomas W., and John C. de Mello. "New Materials for Transparent Electrodes." In Organic Electronics, 139–74. Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9783527650965.ch06.

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Chen, Han-Yi, and Meng-Che Tu. "Nanowire-Based Transparent Conductive Electrodes." In Nanostructure Science and Technology, 159–200. Singapore: Springer Singapore, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-2367-6_6.

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Khan, Arshad. "Introduction to Transparent Conductors." In Novel Embedded Metal-mesh Transparent Electrodes, 1–8. Singapore: Springer Singapore, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2918-4_1.

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Yi, Fei, Seng-Tiong Ho, and Tobin J. Marks. "Organic Electro-Optic Modulators with Substantially Enhanced Performance Based on Transparent Electrodes." In Transparent Electronics, 373–401. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9780470710609.ch15.

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Conference papers on the topic "Transparent electrodes"

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Ghosh, D. S., L. Martinez, and V. Pruneri. "Transparent metal electrodes." In 11th European Quantum Electronics Conference (CLEO/EQEC). IEEE, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/cleoe-eqec.2009.5196451.

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Rosamond, Mark C., Andrew J. Gallant, Joe J. Atherton, Michael C. Petty, Oleg Kolosov, and Dagou A. Zeze. "Transparent gold nanowire electrodes." In 2011 IEEE 11th International Conference on Nanotechnology (IEEE-NANO). IEEE, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/nano.2011.6144578.

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Gruner, George. "Transparent Electrodes, Alternatives to ITO." In Solar Energy: New Materials and Nanostructured Devices for High Efficiency. Washington, D.C.: OSA, 2008. http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/solar.2008.stue2.

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Kovrov, A. E., D. A. Baranov, A. S. Shalin, I. S. Mukhin, and C. R. Simovski. "Optically asymmetric structures for transparent electrodes." In 2016 Days on Diffraction (DD). IEEE, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/dd.2016.7756848.

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Sinar, Dogan, George K. Knopf, Suwas Nikumb, and Anatoly Andrushchenko. "Printed optically transparent graphene cellulose electrodes." In SPIE OPTO, edited by Christopher E. Tabor, François Kajzar, Toshikuni Kaino, and Yasuhiro Koike. SPIE, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/12.2208790.

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Mankowski, Trent, Zhaozhao Zhu, Kaushik Balakrishnan, Ali Sehpar Shikoh, Farid Touati, Mohieddine Benammar, Masud Mansuripur, and Charlies M. Falco. "Metal nanowire-graphene composite transparent electrodes." In SPIE Solar Energy + Technology, edited by Louay A. Eldada and Michael J. Heben. SPIE, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/12.2062292.

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Park, Hyun Sung, Jaewon Jang, and Liwei Lin. "Solution processed highly conductive transparent electrodes." In 2016 IEEE 29th International Conference on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS). IEEE, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/memsys.2016.7421688.

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Na, Jin-Young, and Sun-Kyung Kim. "Metal-Based Near-Infrared Transparent Electrodes." In Bragg Gratings, Photosensitivity and Poling in Glass Waveguides and Materials. Washington, D.C.: OSA, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/bgppm.2018.jtu5a.5.

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Müller-Meskamp, Lars, Sylvio Schubert, Christoph Sachse, Franz Selzer, Ludwig Bormann, Frederik Nehm, Alexander Schubert, Nelli Weiss, and Karl Leo. "Transparent Electrodes for Organic Photovoltaics and OLEDs." In Asia Communications and Photonics Conference. Washington, D.C.: OSA, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/acpc.2014.af2g.2.

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Wang, Ken X., Jessica R. Piper, and Shanhui Fan. "Optical impedance transformer for transparent conducting electrodes." In SPIE NanoScience + Engineering, edited by Manijeh Razeghi, Young Hee Lee, and Maziar Ghazinejad. SPIE, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/12.2061159.

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Reports on the topic "Transparent electrodes"

1

Slafer, W. Dennis. Roll-To-Roll Process for Transparent Metal Electrodes in OLED Manufacturing. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), June 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/1169187.

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Ren, Zhifeng. High performance bulk thermoelectric materials and flexible transparent electrodes. Final Technical Report. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), September 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/1561264.

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Santarius, John F., and Gilbert A. Emmert. Atomic Physics Effects on Convergent, Child-Langmuir Ion Flow between Nearly Transparent Electrodes. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), November 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/1104537.

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Chan, Calvin, Thomas Edwin Beechem, III, Taisuke Ohta, Michael T. Brumbach, David Roger Wheeler, Alexander Veneman, I. Raluca Gearba, and Keith J. Stevenson. Accelerating the development of transparent graphene electrodes through basic science driven chemical functionalization. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), September 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/1177088.

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Gordon, R. G., K. Kramer, H. Liang, X. Liu, D. Pang, and D. Teff. Optimization of transparent and reflecting electrodes for amorphous silicon solar cells. Final technical report. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), September 1998. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/1776.

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Kuang, Ping. A new architecture as transparent electrodes for solar and IR applications based on photonic structures via soft lithography. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), January 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/1029554.

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Gordon, R. G. Optimization of transparent and reflecting electrodes for amorphous silicon solar cells. Annual subcontract report, 1 May 1991--30 April 1992. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), April 1993. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/10154387.

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Gordon, R. G. Optimization of transparent and reflecting electrodes for amorphous silicon solar cells. Annual subcontract report, April 1, 1994--March 31, 1995. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), October 1995. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/135071.

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Donner, Sebastian. Development of Carbon Based optically Transparent Electrodes from Pyrolyzed Photoresist for the Investigation of Phenomena at Electrified Carbon-Solution Interfaces. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), January 2007. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/933140.

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Gordon, R. G., H. Sato, H. Liang, X. Liu, and J. Thornton. Optimization of transparent and reflecting electrodes for amorphous silicon solar cells. Annual technical report, April 1, 1995--March 31, 1996. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), August 1996. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/285504.

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