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Journal articles on the topic 'Trypanosomiasis in cattle – Zambia'

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Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 1 February 2022

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1

Mulenga, Gloria M., Lars Henning, Kalinga Chilongo, Chrisborn Mubamba, Boniface Namangala, and Bruce Gummow. "Insights into the Control and Management of Human and Bovine African Trypanosomiasis in Zambia between 2009 and 2019—A Review." Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease 5, no. 3 (July 11, 2020): 115. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed5030115.

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Tsetse transmitted trypanosomiasis is a fatal disease commonly known as Nagana in cattle and sleeping sickness in humans. The disease threatens food security and has severe economic impact in Africa including most parts of Zambia. The level of effectiveness of commonly used African trypanosomiasis control methods has been reported in several studies. However, there have been no review studies on African trypanosomiasis control and management conducted in the context of One Health. This paper therefore seeks to fill this knowledge gap. A review of studies that have been conducted on African trypanosomiasis in Zambia between 2009 and 2019, with a focus on the control and management of trypanosomiasis was conducted. A total of 2238 articles were screened, with application of the search engines PubMed, PubMed Central and One Search. Out of these articles, 18 matched the required criteria and constituted the basis for the paper. An in-depth analysis of the 18 articles was conducted to identify knowledge gaps and evidence for best practices. Findings from this review provide stakeholders and health workers with a basis for prioritisation of African trypanosomiasis as an important neglected disease in Zambia and for formulation of One Health strategies for better control and/or management of the disease.

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Corten, J. J. F. M., A. A. H. M. ter Huurne, P. D. S. Moorhouse, and R. C. de Rooij. "Prevalence of trypanosomiasis in cattle in South-West Zambia." Tropical Animal Health and Production 20, no. 2 (June 1988): 78–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02242230.

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3

Mulenga, Gloria M., Boniface Namangala, Kalinga Chilongo, Chrisborn Mubamba, Kyoko Hayashida, Lars Henning, and Bruce Gummow. "Challenges in the Diagnostic Performance of Parasitological and Molecular Tests in the Surveillance of African Trypanosomiasis in Eastern Zambia." Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease 6, no. 2 (April 30, 2021): 68. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed6020068.

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African animal trypanosomiasis (AAT) control programs rely on active case detection through the screening of animals reared in disease endemic areas. This study compared the application of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and microscopy in the detection of trypanosomes in cattle blood in Mambwe, a rural district in eastern Zambia. Blood samples were collected from 227 cattle and tested for infection with trypanosomes using microscopy and Ribosomal RNA Internal Transcribed Spacers (ITS)-PCR. Microscopy on the buffy coat detected 17 cases, whilst thin and thick smears detected 26 cases and 28 cases, respectively. In total, microscopy detected 40 cases. ITS-PCR-filter paper (FP) on blood spots stored on FP detected 47 cases, and ITS-PCR-FTA on blood spots stored on Whatman FTA Classic cards detected 83 cases. Using microscopy as the gold standard, ITS-PCR-FTA had a better specificity (SP) and sensitivity (SE) (SP = 72.2%; SE = 77.5%; kappa = 0.35) than ITS-PCR-FP (SP = 88%; SE = 60%; kappa = 0.45). The prevalence of Trypanosoma brucei s.l. was higher on ITS-PCR-FTA (19/227) than on ITS-PCR-FP (0/227). Our results illustrate the complexities around trypanosomiasis surveillance in rural Africa and provide evidence of the impact that field conditions and staff training can have on diagnostic results, which in turn impact the success of tsetse and trypanosomiasis control programs in the region.

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Masumu, J., T. Marcotty, D. Geysen, S. Geerts, J. Vercruysse, P. Dorny, and P. Van den Bossche. "Comparison of the virulence of Trypanosoma congolense strains isolated from cattle in a trypanosomiasis endemic area of eastern Zambia." International Journal for Parasitology 36, no. 4 (April 2006): 497–501. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpara.2006.01.003.

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Simukoko, H., T. Marcotty, I. Phiri, D. Geysen, J. Vercruysse, and P. Van den Bossche. "The comparative role of cattle, goats and pigs in the epidemiology of livestock trypanosomiasis on the plateau of eastern Zambia." Veterinary Parasitology 147, no. 3-4 (July 2007): 231–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2007.04.005.

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MASUMU, J., T. MARCOTTY, N. NDELEDJE, C. KUBI, S. GEERTS, J. VERCRUYSSE, P. DORNY, and P. VAN DEN BOSSCHE. "Comparison of the transmissibility ofTrypanosoma congolensestrains, isolated in a trypanosomiasis endemic area of eastern Zambia, byGlossina morsitans morsitans." Parasitology 133, no. 3 (May 24, 2006): 331–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0031182006000369.

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Transmission experiments were conducted to compare the transmissibility of genetically differentTrypanosoma congolense(Savannah subgroup) strains isolated from cattle in a trypanosomiasis endemic area of eastern Zambia. A total of 17 strains were compared. Three strains were extremely virulent with a short pre-patent period, high parasitaemia and a short median survival time (between 5 and 9 days) in mice. The remainder of the strains belonged to the moderate (6 strains) or low (8 strains) virulence categories with median survival times between 10 and 30 days and >30 days, respectively. Batches of 40 teneralGlossina morsitans morsitans(Diptera: Glossinidae) were offered a single bloodmeal on mice infected with one of those strains. Flies were dissected to determine their infection status 21 days later. The proportion of flies with procyclic and metacyclic infections differed significantly between trypanosome strains and were significantly higher in flies infected with extremely virulent strains (P=0·033 andP=0·016 for the differences in the procyclic infection rate of strains with moderate and low virulence, respectively andP=0·005 andP=0·019 for the differences in the metacyclic infection rate of strains with moderate and low virulence, respectively). On the other hand, moderately virulent strains had, in general, higher procyclic and metacyclic infection rates compared to low virulent strains. But the differences were not significant (P>0·05). The outcome of those experiments shows clear differences in transmissibility of trypanosome strains associated with their virulence. This observation confirms the theory for the evolution and maintenance of virulence in a parasite population and may explain the persistence of virulent trypanosome strains in a susceptible host population.

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7

Krafsur, E. S., J. G. Marquez, and J. O. Ouma. "Phylogeography and genealogy of the tsetse fly Glossina pallidipes (Diptera: Glossinidae)." International Journal of Tropical Insect Science 36, no. 01 (February 3, 2016): 32–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1742758415000223.

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Glossina pallidipes, a widely but discontinuously distributed African savanna species, is one of the economically important tsetse flies because it is a vector of trypanosomiasis, a lethal disease of cattle and other domestic animals. DNA sequences of ribosomal (r16S2, 249 bp) and cytochrome oxidase I (COI, 421 bp) concatenated mitochondrial genes were analysed in 23 geographically diverse samples ofG. pallidipesfrom Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Among 873 flies, we detected 181 composite haplotypes and found that their spatial diversities and frequency distributions were heterogeneous. Haplotype and nucleotide diversities were greatest in Ethiopia and least in southern Africa. We observed little haplotype and nucleotide diversity among regions, and detected severely limited maternal gene flow among the sampled populations (ΦST= 0.42). Tests for demographic stability and analysis of mismatch distributions revealed regionally contrasting demographic histories. The Ethiopian populations were phylogenetically the oldest and genetically the most diverse, and exhibited successive waves of contraction and expansion. The southern African populations were phylogenetically the youngest and genetically the least diverse, and showed only a single, recent expansion. Likely ecological correlates of historical tsetse fly demography include population suppression trials in East Africa and recurring rinderpest epizootics in southern Africa, beginning in the late nineteenth century that reduced host mammalian populations.

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8

Tuntasuvan, Darunee, Nopporn Sarataphan, and Hiroaki Nishikawa. "Cerebral trypanosomiasis in native cattle." Veterinary Parasitology 73, no. 3-4 (December 1997): 357–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0304-4017(97)00128-3.

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9

Opasina, B. A., and J. O. Ekwuruke. "Trypanosomiasis in Nigerian trade cattle." Tropical Animal Health and Production 19, no. 4 (December 1987): 251–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02242126.

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10

De Bont, J., J. Vercruysse, V. R. Southgate, D. Rollinson, and A. Kaukas. "Cattle schistosomiasis in Zambia." Journal of Helminthology 68, no. 4 (December 1994): 295–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022149x00001516.

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AbstractA total of 358 cattle was examined for schistosome infection in Zambian slaughterhouses. A total of 542 worms collected from 104 infected individuals was examined for glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase and phosphoglucomutase using isoelectric focusing. The overall prevalence of infection was 51%. Ninety three percent of the infected animals had less than 100 worm pairs in the mesenteric veins. Schistosoma mattheei was the predominant species (75%); S. leiperi (12%) and S. margrebowiei (2%) were also identified. The remaining 11% of the worms showed one of two distinct heterozygote patterns. Pattern A is identical to that of a laboratory-produced Fl S. mattheei × S. haematobium hybrid, but could also represent a S. mattheei × S. leiperi hybrid. Further studies are required to elucidate the origins of pattern B.

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Squarre, David, Ilunga Kabongo, Musso Munyeme, Chisoni Mumba, Wizaso Mwasinga, Lottie Hachaambwa, Chihiro Sugimoto, and Boniface Namangala. "Human African Trypanosomiasis in the Kafue National Park, Zambia." PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases 10, no. 5 (May 19, 2016): e0004567. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0004567.

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12

Isoun, T. T., M. J. Isoun, and V. O. Anosa. "PLASMA FREE AMINO ACID PROFILES OF CATTLE INFECTED WITH TRYPANOSOMA VIVAX: A PRELIMINARY REPORT." Nigerian Journal of Animal Production 6 (January 19, 2021): 94–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.51791/njap.v6i.2675.

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EMACIATION and poor productivity have been recognised as some of the major features of the chronic form of bovine trypanosomiasis. However, the biochemical and nutritional bases of the Wasting and reduced growth rates of cattle with trypanosomiasis are yet to be adequately elucidated, such data may be needed, not only for the clinical management of the disease but also in the proper husbandry practice of cattle in endemic areas of trypanosomiasis for animal protein production.

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13

Katabazi, Aziz, Adamu Almustapha Aliero, Sarah Gift Witto, Martin Odoki, and Simon Peter Musinguzi. "Prevalence of Trypanosoma congolense and Trypanosoma vivax in Lira District, Uganda." BioMed Research International 2021 (June 14, 2021): 1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2021/7284042.

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Trypanosomes are the causative agents of animal African trypanosomiasis (AAT) and human African trypanosomiasis (HAT), the former affecting domestic animals prevalent in Sub-Saharan Africa. The main species causing AAT in cattle are T. congolense, T. vivax, and T. b. brucei. Northern Uganda has been politically unstable with no form of vector control in place. The return of displaced inhabitants led to the restocking of cattle from AAT endemic areas. It was thus important to estimate the burden of trypanosomiasis in the region. This study was designed to compare the prevalence of animal African trypanosomes in cattle in Lira District using microscopy and polymerase chain reaction amplification (PCR) methods. In this cross-sectional study, a total of 254 cattle from the three villages of Acanakwo A, Barropok, and Acungkena in Lira District, Uganda, were selected by simple random sampling technique and screened for trypanosomiasis using microscopy and PCR methods. The prevalence of trypanosomiasis according to microscopic results was 5/254 (2.0%) as compared to 11/254 (4.3%) trypanosomiasis prevalence according to PCR analysis. The prevalence of trypanosomiasis infection in the animal studied is 11/254 (4.3%). Trypanosoma congolense was the most dominant trypanosome species with a proportion of 9/11 (81.8%), followed by T. vivax 1/11 (9.1%) and mixed infection of T. congolense/T. vivax1/11 (9.1%). Barropok village had the highest prevalence of trypanosomiasis with 6/11 (54.5%). There is a statistically significant relationship ( OR = 6.041 ; 95% CI: 1.634-22.331; p < 0.05 ) between abnormal PCV and trypanosome infection. Polymerase reaction amplification was the most reliable diagnostic method due to its high sensitivity and specificity as compared to the conventional microscopic method. Polymerase reaction amplification appears to have adequate accuracy to substitute the use of a microscope where facilities allow. This study, therefore, underscores the urgent need for local surveillance schemes more especially at the grassroots in Uganda to provide data for reference guideline development needed for the control of trypanosomiasis in Uganda.

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14

Trail, J. C. M., M. Murray, K. Sones, J. M. C. Jibbo, J. Durkin, and D. Light. "Boran cattle maintained by chemoprophylaxis under trypanosomiasis risk." Journal of Agricultural Science 105, no. 1 (August 1985): 147–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021859600055829.

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SUMMARYReproductive performance, mortality, growth, and culling and replacement rates based on 20000 calving records were evaluated for grade Boran beef cattle maintained with trypanocidal drugs in an area of high trypanosomiasis risk in Tanzania. Under ranching conditions, over a 10-year period in this area of high Glossina morsitans morsitans, G. pallidipes and G. brevipalpis challenge, a calving interval of 15·9 months, pre-weaning mortality of 8%, annual cow mortality of 5·8% and 8-month weaning weight of 133·5 kg resulted in a herd productivity of 96 kg of weaner calf per cow per year. The proportion of heifers required as replacements (45%) and the generation interval (6·9 years) indicated scope for implementation of selection programmes on growth traits. The level of productivity achieved compared favourably with major data sets recently analysed from pure Boran cattle under trypanosomiasis-free ranching conditions in Kenya, and from trypanotolerant N'Dama cattle in West Africa. These results indicate the possibility of improving livestock production in tsetse-infested areas by the rational use of chemoprophylaxis as an integral part of management.Year, season, cow age, calf sex and location on ranch had significant effects on practically all the traits of calving interval, pre-weaning mortality and growth, and cow productivity. Superior performance where bush clearance and tsetse fly control had taken place suggests that economic evaluation of these interventions should be attempted. The season of calving had a major effect on productivity. Cows of 5–8 years of age were the most productive, as were animals producing male calves, features well recognized in beef cattle production.An average of 4·4 treatments with Samorin, a prophylactic, and 0·6 treatments with Berenil, a therapeutic, were required per year. The number of treatments varied from year to year and by area, being greater in the south of the ranch where the tsetse challenge was considered higher. However, the age and season of calving had little effect on the number of treatments required. Despite such extensive use of trypanocidal drugs, there was no indication that drug resistance had developed or evidence that repeated inoculation of Samorin had affected productivity.Grading-up of small East African Zebu cattle to Boran over an 8-year period allowed annual comparison of birth weights, pre-weaning growth and weaning weights of two groups of calves, one having a higher level of Boran genes (varying from 12 to 6% higher annually) than the other. Those with the higher level of Boran genes performed better by 3·3% for all attributes studied, but as the percentage difference in Boran genes decreased, so did this difference. In an environment improved through bush clearance and tsetse fly control, the calves with higher levels of Boran genes were superior, but this superiority was not expressed in the unimproved environment.

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15

Murray, Max, and S. J. Black. "African trypanosomiasis in cattle: Working with nature's solution." Veterinary Parasitology 18, no. 2 (August 1985): 167–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0304-4017(85)90065-2.

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Doko, A., B. Guedegbe, R. Baelmans, F. Demey, A. N'Diaye, V. S. Pandey, and A. Verhulst. "Trypanosomiasis in different breeds of cattle from Benin." Veterinary Parasitology 40, no. 1-2 (October 1991): 1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0304-4017(91)90078-a.

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17

Giblin, James. "Trypanosomiasis Control in African History: An Evaded Issue?" Journal of African History 31, no. 1 (March 1990): 59–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021853700024786.

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Social control of trypanosomiasis in African history deserves further study. The pioneering work in this field is John Ford's respected but neglected The Role of the Trypanosomiases in African Ecology (1971). While Ford's arguments have received support from recent findings in immunological, epidemiological and epizootiological research, they have rarely met with evaluation or engagement, either in historical or scientific literature. Historians have tended to describe trypanosomiasis control as a matter of avoiding contact with tsetse fly. In so doing they have implicitly rejected the position of Ford, who regarded infrequent contacts between tsetse and mammalian hosts as necessary for the maintenance of host resistance. Ford believed that host resistance, rather than avoidance of tsetse, was the basis of trypanosomiasis control. The historical nature of Ford's work requires that a satisfactory evaluation of The Role of the Trypanosomiases make use of historical, as well as scientific, data. The evidence of trypanosomiasis and cattle-keeping from one region of north-eastern Tanzania supports Ford and suggests that other explanations of trypanosomiasis control are inadequate. The Tanzanian evidence shows that precolonial societies coexisted with, but could not avoid, tsetse. They could not eradicate tsetse because scarcity of water prevented permanent occupation of large areas. Tsetse and trypanosomiasis did not prevent cattle-keeping, but helped to keep the region's cattle population low and confined it to relatively densely settled neighbourhoods. Social control of trypanosomiasis collapsed during the pre-Second World War period of colonial rule. Economic and political developments were primarily responsible for a series of famines between 1894 and 1934. Famine-induced depopulation allowed steady spread of tsetse and wildlife reservoirs of trypanosomes into formerly cultivated areas which had been free of tsetse before the colonial period.

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Muma, John Bwalya, Girja Shankar Pandey, Musso Munyeme, Chisoni Mumba, Ethel Mkandawire, and Henry Mwelwa Chimana. "Brucellosis among smallholder cattle farmers in Zambia." Tropical Animal Health and Production 44, no. 4 (September 27, 2011): 915–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11250-011-9987-x.

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Vieira, Osires Lustosa Eloi, Lucia Oliveira de Macedo, Marcos Antônio Bezerra Santos, José Augusto Bastos Afonso Silva, Carla Lopes de Mendonça, Maria Aparecida da Gloria Faustino, Carlos Alberto do Nascimento Ramos, Leucio Câmara Alves, Rafael Antonio Nascimento Ramos, and Gílcia Aparecida de Carvalho. "Detection and molecular characterization of Trypanosoma (Duttonella) vivax in dairy cattle in the state of Sergipe, northeastern Brazil." Revista Brasileira de Parasitologia Veterinária 26, no. 4 (October 30, 2017): 516–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s1984-29612017048.

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Abstract Trypanosoma (Duttonella) vivax is an important cause of economic losses among feedlot cattle. These losses are related to the morbidity, mortality, reproductive issues and decreased production. It is known that the clinical signs observed in infections by this protozoon are similar to other hemoparasitosis, which difficult the diagnosis. Therefore, the aim of this study was to detect and molecularly characterize an outbreak of trypanosomiasis caused by T. (D.) vivax in dairy cattle in the municipality of São Miguel Aleixo, state of Sergipe, Brazil. Blood samples from cattle (n = 15) presenting clinical signs compatible with trypanosomiasis were collected and parasitological and molecular evaluated. Among the samples analyzed, 34% (5/15) were positive from blood smears, 60% (9/15) from the buffy coat method and 80% (12/15) from the molecular method. The DNA sequence obtained (659 bp) showed 99% similarity to T. (D.) vivax sequences that are available in the GenBank database. The presence of this protozoon in cattle herds is a problem for producers. Diagnosing trypanosomiasis is problematic because its evolution is similar to that of other parasitic blood diseases. In addition, this is the first report of infection by T. (D.) vivax in cattle in the state of Sergipe, northeastern Brazil.

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Otieno, J., J. Y. T. Mugisha, B. K. Nannyonga, and P. Oleche. "Parameter driven dynamics of trypanosomiasis in a cattle population." Applied Mathematical Sciences 8 (2014): 2665–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.12988/ams.2014.4114.

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Authié, E. "Trypanosomiasis and trypanotolerance in cattle: A role for congopain?" Parasitology Today 10, no. 9 (January 1994): 360–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0169-4758(94)90252-6.

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22

Kakoma, I., F. K. Wurapa, B. Boatin, and M. Bulsara. "Diagnostic Value of the Indirect Immunofluorescent Antibody Test for Trypanosomiasis in Zambia." American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 34, no. 1 (January 1, 1985): 69–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.1985.34.69.

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Rajavel, Abirami, Felix Heinrich, Armin Otto Schmitt, and Mehmet Gültas. "Identifying Cattle Breed-Specific Partner Choice of Transcription Factors during the African Trypanosomiasis Disease Progression Using Bioinformatics Analysis." Vaccines 8, no. 2 (May 23, 2020): 246. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/vaccines8020246.

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African Animal Trypanosomiasis (AAT) is a disease caused by pathogenic trypanosomes which affects millions of livestock every year causing huge economic losses in agricultural production especially in sub-Saharan Africa. The disease is spread by the tsetse fly which carries the parasite in its saliva. During the disease progression, the cattle are prominently subjected to anaemia, weight loss, intermittent fever, chills, neuronal degeneration, congestive heart failure, and finally death. According to their different genetic programs governing the level of tolerance to AAT, cattle breeds are classified as either resistant or susceptible. In this study, we focus on the cattle breeds N’Dama and Boran which are known to be resistant and susceptible to trypanosomiasis, respectively. Despite the rich literature on both breeds, the gene regulatory mechanisms of the underlying biological processes for their resistance and susceptibility have not been extensively studied. To address the limited knowledge about the tissue-specific transcription factor (TF) cooperations associated with trypanosomiasis, we investigated gene expression data from these cattle breeds computationally. Consequently, we identified significant cooperative TF pairs (especially D B P − P P A R A and D B P − T H A P 1 in N’Dama and D B P − P A X 8 in Boran liver tissue) which could help understand the underlying AAT tolerance/susceptibility mechanism in both cattle breeds.

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Vincendeau, Philippe, and Bernard Bouteille. "Immunology and immunopathology of African trypanosomiasis." Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências 78, no. 4 (December 2006): 645–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s0001-37652006000400004.

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Major modifications of immune system have been observed in African trypanosomiasis. These immune reactions do not lead to protection and are also involved in immunopathology disorders. The major surface component (variable surface glycoprotein,VSG) is associated with escape to immune reactions, cytokine network dysfunctions and autoantibody production. Most of our knowledge result from experimental trypanosomiasis. Innate resistance elements have been characterised. In infected mice, VSG preferentially stimulates a Th 1-cell subset. A response of <FONT FACE=Symbol>gd</FONT> and CD8 T cells to trypanosome antigens was observed in trypanotolerant cattle. An increase in CD5 B cells, responsible for most serum IgM and production of autoantibodies has been noted in infected cattle. Macrophages play important roles in trypanosomiasis, in synergy with antibodies (phagocytosis) and by secreting various molecules (radicals, cytokines, prostaglandins,...). Trypanosomes are highly sensitive to TNF-alpha, reactive oxygen and nitrogen intermediates. TNF-alpha is also involved in cachexia. IFN-gamma acts as a parasite growth factor. These various elements contribute to immunosuppression. Trypanosomes have learnt to use immune mechanisms to its own profit. Recent data show the importance of alternative macrophage activation, including arginase induction. L-ornithine produced by host arginase is essential to parasite growth. All these data reflect the deep insight into the immune system realised by trypanosomes and might suggest interference therapeutic approaches.

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Lopes, Sabrina Thabla Pereira, Bruno Da Silva Prado, Gustavo Henrique Chaves Martins, Hiran Esmeraldo Albuquerque Beserra, Marcos Antônio Celestino de Souza Filho, Luanna Soares de Melo Evangelista, Janaina De Fátima Saraiva Cardoso, Ana Lys Bezerra Barradas Mineiro, and José Adalmir Torres De Souza. "Trypanosoma vivax in Dairy Cattle." Acta Scientiae Veterinariae 46 (April 30, 2018): 5. http://dx.doi.org/10.22456/1679-9216.86772.

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Background: Trypanosoma vivax is a protozoan that causes reproductive disorders and decreased production in domestic and wild ungulate animals. The bovine are the main hosts of the disease and the transmission occurs by the bite of hematophagous insects, mainly tabanids. Several diagnostic techniques can be used to detect the parasite, both in parasitologicalform and by serological kits. In Brazil, the disease has been reported in bovines, goats and sheep of some states, with high morbidity and mortality and due to the scarcity of results on the epidemiology of the disease, this work had the objective to report the presence of T. vivax in a female bovine of a dairy herd in Parnaíba county, Piauí.Case: The animal naturally infected by Trypanosoma vivax, was a three-year-old cow from a dairy farm in the Parnaíba county, located in the north of Piauí state. The farm had a herd whith 62.20% of young Girolando breed cows and the breeding system used was semi-confinement, with two mechanical milking per day. At the time of a Veterinarian’s technicalvisit to the property, it was observed the occurrence of abortions, mastitis, estrus repetitions and cows with hematuria, leading to the suspicion of the bovine leptospirosis occurrence. Blood samples were collected from 78 cows from the herd for hematological, biochemical and serological tests, and 72 (92.30%) were reactive to some Leptospira serovars. All the exams were carried out at the Federal University of Piauí (UFPI). In the group of animals negative for leptospirosis, a female was diagnosed positive for bovine trypanosomiasis, confirming the result in the blood smear. This animal had no clinical signs characteristic of the disease at the time of the evaluation.Discussion: Blood trypomastigote forms of Trypanosoma vivax were visualized on several slides of the animal smear and all the morphological structures of the parasite found were clearly seen under microscopyas described in the literature. The hematological alterations observed were normochromic normocytic anemia, thrombocytopenia, leukocytosis due tolymphocytosis, monocytosis and eosinophilia. The anemia and leukocytosis clinical condition found in the specific animal is commonly found in bovines naturally infected by trypanosomiasis in the chronic phase of the disease. The results of the serum biochemistry revealed decreased blood glucose and increased renal and hepatic parameters, as well as the inversion of the albumin-globulin ratio. Similar laboratory results were also described previously. The animal had a good body score, a good diet and showed no clinical signs of the disease. A good nutrition may have controlled the T. vivax parasitaemia, avoiding the characterization of the clinical condition. This fact can be attributed to the differences in pathogenicity of the parasite and/or susceptibility of a particular host. In the area of the farm where the cattle were housed the presence ofseveral tabanids was noticed and the increase of these insects in the environment is considered a risk factor, predisposing, even, the occurrence of new outbreaks. The epidemiological situation of the disease in Brazil is described, for the most part, by reports of outbreaks or specific events, revealing the lack of more consistent studies. With this result it is knownthat trypanosomiasis exists in the dairy herd of the state of Piauí, being important to carry out new work to diagnose the epidemiological situation of the disease within the productive context of our region.Keywords: bovine, dairy herd, trypanosomiasis.

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Simukoko, H., T. Marcotty, J. Vercruysse, and P. Van den Bossche. "Bovine trypanosomiasis risk in an endemic area on the eastern plateau of Zambia." Research in Veterinary Science 90, no. 1 (February 2011): 51–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2010.04.021.

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Tuchili, L., G. Pandey, P. Sinyangwe, and T. Kaji. "Anthrax in cattle, wildlife and humans in Zambia." Veterinary Record 132, no. 19 (May 8, 1993): 487. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/vr.132.19.487-a.

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Chilonda, P., G. Van Huylenbroeck, L. D'Haese, K. L. Samui, E. C. Musaba, M. Imakando, and B. Ahmadu. "Cattle Production and Veterinary Care Systems in Zambia." Outlook on Agriculture 28, no. 2 (June 1999): 109–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/003072709902800208.

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29

SCORZIELLO, MARIA, ADRIANO MANTOVANI, DANIELE DE MENEGHI, SILVANA DIVERIO, and PETER MASUNU. "Occupational health promotion amongst cattle farmers in Zambia." Health Promotion International 8, no. 2 (1993): 103–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/heapro/8.2.103.

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30

KADOHIRA, Mutsuyo, and Kenny SAMUI. "Traditional cattle farmers in Monze district of Zambia." Journal of African Studies 2002, no. 61 (2002): 73–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.11619/africa1964.2002.61_73.

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31

Lubungu, Mary, and Regina Birner. "Gender relations in smallholder cattle production in Zambia." World Development Perspectives 22 (June 2021): 100309. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wdp.2021.100309.

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32

Dolan, R. B., G. Okech, H. Alushula, M. Mutugi, P. Stevenson, P. D. Sayer, and A. R. Njogu. "Homidium bromide as a chemoprophylactic for cattle trypanosomiasis in Kenya." Acta Tropica 47, no. 3 (March 1990): 137–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0001-706x(90)90019-v.

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33

Claxton, J. R., P. Leperre, P. Rawlings, W. F. Snow, and R. H. Dwinger. "Trypanosomiasis in cattle in Gambia: Incidence, prevalence and tsetse challenge." Acta Tropica 50, no. 3 (February 1992): 219–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0001-706x(92)90078-c.

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34

Leeflang, P. "Trypanosomiasis And Animal Production In Nigeria." Nigerian Journal of Animal Production 2, no. 1 (January 8, 2021): 27–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.51791/njap.v2i1.2319.

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TRYPANOSOMIASIS is one of the principal factors restricting growth of the livestock industry in Nigeria and, therefore, is a direct concern of animal scientists who aspire to increase the production of animal protein in this country. The present paper reviews the value of drug treatment of disease animals, destruction of game, clearing of vegetation, and the extermination of the tse-tse flies by insecticides as methods of controlling this disease; it also discusses the contribution of integrated land use, improved standards of nutrition and management, and trypanosome-tolerant cattle to minimize, for the present, the effect of trypanosomiasis on the development of the livestock industry.

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35

Munang'andu, Hetron Mweemba, Victor Siamudaala, Musso Munyeme, and King Shimumbo Nalubamba. "A Review of Ecological Factors Associated with the Epidemiology of Wildlife Trypanosomiasis in the Luangwa and Zambezi Valley Ecosystems of Zambia." Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Infectious Diseases 2012 (2012): 1–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2012/372523.

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Trypanosomiasis has been endemic in wildlife in Zambia for more than a century. The disease has been associated with neurological disorders in humans. Current conservation strategies by the Zambian government of turning all game reserves into state-protected National Parks (NPs) and game management areas (GMAs) have led to the expansion of the wildlife and tsetse population in the Luangwa and Zambezi valley ecosystem. This ecological niche lies in the common tsetse fly belt that harbors the highest tsetse population density in Southern Africa. Ecological factors such as climate, vegetation and rainfall found in this niche allow for a favorable interplay between wild reservoir hosts and vector tsetse flies. These ecological factors that influence the survival of a wide range of wildlife species provide adequate habitat for tsetse flies thereby supporting the coexistence of disease reservoir hosts and vector tsetse flies leading to prolonged persistence of trypanosomiasis in the area. On the other hand, increase in anthropogenic activities poses a significant threat of reducing the tsetse and wildlife habitat in the area. Herein, we demonstrate that while conservation of wildlife and biodiversity is an important preservation strategy of natural resources, it could serve as a long-term reservoir of wildlife trypanosomiasis.

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Marsela, Megasari, Kyoko Hayashida, Ryo Nakao, Elisha Chatanga, Alex Kiarie Gaithuma, Kawai Naoko, Janelisa Musaya, Chihiro Sugimoto, and Junya Yamagishi. "Molecular identification of trypanosomes in cattle in Malawi using PCR methods and nanopore sequencing: epidemiological implications for the control of human and animal trypanosomiases." Parasite 27 (2020): 46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/parasite/2020043.

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This study aimed to identify trypanosomes infecting cattle in Malawi in order to understand the importance of cattle in the transmission dynamics of Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT) and Animal African Trypanosomosis (AAT). A total of 446 DNA samples from cattle blood from three regions of Malawi were screened for African trypanosomes by ITS1 PCR. The obtained amplicons were sequenced using a portable next-generation sequencer, MinION, for validation. Comparison of the results from ITS1 PCR and MinION sequencing showed that combining the two methods provided more accurate species identification than ITS1 PCR alone. Further PCR screening targeting the serum resistance-associated (SRA) gene was conducted to detect Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense. Trypanosoma congolense was the most prevalent Trypanosoma sp., which was found in Nkhotakota (10.8%; 20 of 185), followed by Kasungu (2.5%; 5 of 199). Of note, the prevalence of T. b. rhodesiense detected by SRA PCR was high in Kasungu and Nkhotakota showing 9.5% (19 of 199) and 2.7% (5 of 185), respectively. We report the presence of animal African trypanosomes and T. b. rhodesiense from cattle at the human–livestock–wildlife interface for the first time in Malawi. Our results confirmed that animal trypanosomes are important causes of anemia in cattle and that cattle are potential reservoirs for human African trypanosomiasis in Malawi.

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Makumi, J. N., P. Stevenson, and C. H. Green. "Control ofGlossina longipennis(Diptera: Glossinidae) by insecticide-treated targets at Galana Ranch, Kenya, and confirmation of the role ofG.longipennisas a vector of cattle trypanosomiasis." Bulletin of Entomological Research 90, no. 5 (October 2000): 397–406. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0007485300000535.

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AbstractGlossina longipennisCorti was studied in Galana Ranch, Kenya over a four year period, in two areas (Tank E and Lali) where the species was abundant and other species were absent or scarce. There was active transmission of trypanosomiasis to cattle in both areas, the parasite species beingTrypanosoma vivaxZiemann andT. congolenseBroden. Mean infection rates of theG. longipenniswere 1.1% and 0.55% forT. vivaxandT. congolenserespectively at Tank E, and 0.88% and 0.15% at Lali. Experimental transmission studies showed that cattle in fly-proof enclosures challenged with wildG. longipenniscollected from Galana became infected with both trypanosome species. A tsetse control operation in one area (Tank E) using targets impregnated with deltamethrin in an oil formulation reduced the population ofG. longipennisby 98% over one year, despite evidence of re-invasion. Populations ofG. longipennisin the other area (Lali) were relatively stable over the whole study period. The effect of tsetse control on the incidence of cattle trypanosomiasis at Tank E was less clear than that on tsetse numbers, probably due to the lack of a sustained reduction in tsetse numbers. However, a significant relationship was demonstrated between fortnightly incidence measurements and electric net catches ofG. longipennisat Tank E. A further significant predictor of incidence was rainfall in the previous four to seven weeks. This study confirms the importance ofG. longipennisas a vector of bovine trypanosomiasis in areas where it is the predominant tsetse present.

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Hota, Abhishek, SK Maiti, RC Ghosh, and K. Mukherjee. "Therapeutic efficacy of Isometamidium chloride in Trypanosomiasis affected cattle." Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies 7, no. 3 (May 1, 2019): 1622–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.22271/j.ento.2019.v7.i3aa.5405.

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39

Haruna, M. K., A. U. Malala, B. Wayo, U. O. Adamu, H. M. Sumayin, F. T. Shettima, and J. O. Kalejaiye. "Trypanosomiasis in a migrating herd of cattle in Kaduna State Nigeria." African Journal of Clinical and Experimental Microbiology 18, no. 2 (March 31, 2017): 129. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/ajcem.v18i2.12.

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40

Naessens, J., A. J. Teale, and M. Sileghem. "Identification of mechanisms of natural resistance to African trypanosomiasis in cattle." Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 87, no. 3-4 (September 2002): 187–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0165-2427(02)00070-3.

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41

SILEGHEM, M., and J. N. FLYNN. "Suppression of T-Cell Responsiveness during Tsetse-Transmitted Trypanosomiasis in Cattle." Scandinavian Journal of Immunology 36, s1 (December 1992): 37–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3083.1992.tb01616.x.

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42

Turkson, Paa Kobina. "Seroepidemiological survey of cattle trypanosomiasis in coastal savanna zone of Ghana." Acta Tropica 54, no. 1 (June 1993): 73–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0001-706x(93)90069-n.

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43

SAMUI, Kenny L., Shingo INOUE, Aaron S. MWEENE, Andrew M. NAMBOTA, James E. D. MLANGWA, Pius CHILONDA, Misao ONUMA, and Chiharu MORITA. "DISTRIBUTION OF RIFT VALLEY FEVER AMONG CATTLE IN ZAMBIA." Japanese Journal of Medical Science and Biology 50, no. 2 (1997): 73–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.7883/yoken1952.50.73.

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44

PEGRAM, R. G., J. LEMCHE, H. G. B. CHIZYUKA, R. W. SUTHERST, R. B. FLOYD, J. D. KERR, and P. J. McCOSKER. "Ecological aspects of cattle tick control in central Zambia." Medical and Veterinary Entomology 3, no. 3 (July 1989): 307–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2915.1989.tb00233.x.

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45

Lemche, J., and R. Pegram. "Control of cattle ticks using flumethrin in central Zambia." Veterinary Record 121, no. 5 (August 1, 1987): 110–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/vr.121.5.110.

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46

Wacher, T. J., P. J. M. Milligan, P. Rawlings, and W. F. Snow. "Tsetse–trypanosomiasis challenge to village N'Dama cattle in The Gambia: field assessments of spatial and temporal patterns of tsetse–cattle contact and the risk of trypanosomiasis infection." Parasitology 109, no. 2 (August 1994): 149–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0031182000076265.

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SUMMARYThe severity of the trypanosomiasis problem in a particular location is traditionally assessed in terms of a challenge index – the product of some measure of tsetse abundance and infection rate – which is assumed to be proportional to the force of infection. However, this index masks variation in the force of infection between herds and among individuals within herds. It is also not comparable between sites since the relative abundance of tsetse to hosts may vary. We have studied spatial distribution of herds of cattle in relation to tsetse in The Gambia and calculated an index of challenge based on the ratio of vectors to hosts over the livestock ranging area. This index is strongly correlated with estimates of the force of infection calculated from the incidence of infection in susceptible zebu; and it provides information on heterogeneity in exposure of different herds to tsetse.

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47

Kargbo, Alpha, and Rex A. Kuye. "Epidemiology of tsetse flies in the transmission of trypanosomiasis: technical review of The Gambia experience." International Journal of Biological and Chemical Sciences 14, no. 3 (June 19, 2020): 1093–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/ijbcs.v14i3.35.

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Climate change has posed serious health threats on both man and animals. This ranges from effects of progressive temperature rises from global warming to extreme weather events and anthropogenic activities and this has affected insect-vector distributions worldwide. Tsetse fly species transmit Trypanosomes but relative significance depends largely on the strength of their interactions with susceptible hosts. Tsetse flies are the main vectors of Trypanosomiasis and their existence pose a threat to the survival of cattle, small ruminates and equines in The Gambia. It is known to be one of the most vital parasitic diseases affecting livestock productivity in The Gambia and equines are very susceptible. Central River Region is mainly infested with the tsetse fly Glossina morsitan submorsitan a major vector of Trypanosomiasis among animals in the country and it is mainly found in dry, canopied, savannah woodland. Glossina palpalis is also present, but are more limited to riverine vegetation in the area. This work seeks to show the havoc caused by trypanosomiasis and the urgency for more studies to investigate the patterns of transmission of this disease especially in the context of climate change in other for a better control program for this zoonosis in The Gambia.Keywords: Climate Change, Glossina, Trypanosome, Cattle, Equine.

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48

Davies, F. G., E. Kilelu, K. J. Linthicum, and R. G. Pegram. "Patterns of Rift Valley fever activity in Zambia." Epidemiology and Infection 108, no. 1 (February 1992): 185–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0950268800049633.

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SUMMARYSummary An hypothesis that there was an annual emergence of Rift Valley fever virus in Zambia, during or after the seasonal rains, was examined with the aid of sentinel cattle. Serum samples taken during 1974 and 1978 showed evidence of epizootic Rift Valley fever in Zambia, with more than 80% positive. A sentinel herd exposed from 1982 to 1986 showed that some Rift Valley fever occurred each year. This was usually at a low level, with 3–8% of the susceptible cattle seroconverting. In 1985–6 more than 20% of the animals seroconverted, and this greater activity was associated with vegetational changes - which could be detected by remote-sensing satellite imagery-which have also been associated with greater virus activity in Kenya.

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Mckendrick, Iain J., George Gettinby, Yiqun Gu, Andrew Peregrine, and Crawford Revie. "Hybrid Information Systems for Agriculture: The Case of Cattle Trypanosomiasis in Africa." Outlook on Agriculture 23, no. 4 (December 1994): 261–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/003072709402300405.

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Large scale population growth in sub-Saharan Africa makes it imperative to achieve an equivalent increase in food production in this area. It is also important that any increase be sustainable in the long-term, not causing lasting damage to local ecosystems. Recent advances in information technology make the successful diffusion of relevant expertise to farmers a more practical option than ever before. How this might be achieved is described in this paper, which considers the transfer of expertise in the diagnosis, treatment and management of trypanosomiasis in cattle. Using current technology, the combination of different software systems in one integrated hybrid system could allow the delivery of high quality, well focused information to the potential user.

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Camus, Emmanuel. "Evaluation of trypanosomiasis and brucellosis control in cattle herds of Ivory coast." Agriculture and Human Values 12, no. 2 (March 1995): 90–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02217299.

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