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Journal articles on the topic 'Tsunamis Chile 2010'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 1 February 2022

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Hong, Isabel, Tina Dura, Lisa L. Ely, et al. "A 600-year-long stratigraphic record of tsunamis in south-central Chile." Holocene 27, no. 1 (2016): 39–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0959683616646191.

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The stratigraphy within coastal river valleys in south-central Chile clarifies and extends the region’s history of large, earthquakes and accompanying tsunamis. Our site at Quidico (38.1°S, 73.3°W) is located in an overlap zone between ruptures of magnitude 8–9 earthquakes in 1960 and 2010, and, therefore, records tsunamis originating from subduction-zone ruptures north and south of the city of Concepción. Hand-dug pits and cores in a 3-m-thick sequence of freshwater peat in an abandoned meander (a little-examined depositional environment for tsunami deposits) and exposures along the Quidico River show five sand beds that extend as much as 1.2 km inland. Evidence for deposition of the beds by tsunamis includes tabular sand beds that are laterally extensive (>100 m), well sorted, fine upward, have sharp lower contacts, and contain diatom assemblages dominated by brackish and marine taxa. Using eyewitness accounts of tsunami inundation, 137Cs analyses, and 14C dating, we matched the upper four sand beds with historical tsunamis in 2010, 1960, 1835, and 1751. The oldest prehistoric bed dates to 1445–1490 CE and correlates with lacustrine and coastal records of similar-aged earthquakes and tsunamis in south-central Chile.

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He, Jianfeng, Fang Zhang, Ling Lin, Minghong Cai, Haizhen Yang, and Xiangnan Wang. "Effects of the 2010 Chile and 2011 Japan tsunamis on the Antarctic coastal waters as detected via online mooring system." Antarctic Science 24, no. 6 (2012): 665–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0954102012000326.

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AbstractSea level oscillations associated with both the 2010 Chile and 2011 Japan tsunamis were recorded in the coastal waters of King George Island off the west coast of Antarctica with an online coastal mooring system. The Chile tsunami arrived at the detection site within around five hours of the earthquake. The largest wave (84.4 mm) was measured 27 hours after the first arrival. In contrast, the Japan tsunami was detected around 26 hours after the earthquake, and the maximum wave height (180.8 mm) was observed around 11 hours after the initial wave. The energy level of the earthquake and the direction of energy propagation are probably the two most significant causes of the comparatively high amplitudes of the 2011 Japan tsunami, despite the fact that its epicentre was much further away than that of 2010 Chile tsunami. The sea level oscillations associated with the tsunami increased the level of mixing of seawater in the shallow Antarctic coastal waters and influenced the environment temporarily.

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Winckler, Patricio, Ignacio SepÃºlveda, Felipe Aron, and Manuel Contreras-LÃ³pez. "TIDE-TSUNAMI INTERACTION IN A HIGHLY ENERGETIC CHANNEL. A CASE STUDY." Coastal Engineering Proceedings, no. 36 (December 30, 2018): 83. http://dx.doi.org/10.9753/icce.v36.currents.83.

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Tsunamiâ€“tide interaction can be assessed using different approaches with increasing levels of complexity. The simplest is to compute the sea level through a linear superposition of the tide and the tsunami computed independently (composite model). Recent studies have found that composite models provide inaccurate results in shallow waters (e.g. Kowalik et al, 2010). A more realistic analysis is achieved by computing the tsunami and the tide together (full model). This approach is appropriate where nonlinear effects may be important due to strong tides or shallow bathymetries. This work is intended to improve the physical understanding of tide-tsunami interaction in Canal Chacao, a highly energetic channel sited in Chile. This channel is dominated by currents of up to 6 [m/s] during spring tide and is located in a region prone to tsunamis. The fundamental question is to assess under which conditions tides and tsunamis can be linearly superposed and in which they interact nonlinearly, thus enhancing or reducing the surface elevation and associated currents.

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An, Chao, and Philip L. F. Liu. "Characteristics of Leading Tsunami Waves Generated in Three Recent Tsunami Events." Journal of Earthquake and Tsunami 08, no. 03 (2014): 1440001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s1793431114400016.

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In this paper, the time series of ocean water surface elevation, recorded by Deep-ocean Assessment and Recording of Tsunamis (DART) sensors in the Pacific Ocean, during three recent tsunami events — 2010 Chile tsunami, 2011 Tohoku tsunami, and 2012 Haida Gwaii tsunami — are analyzed. The characteristics of leading tsunami waves are examined in terms of their propagation speed, wave period and wave amplitude so as to determine the importance of wave nonlinearity and frequency dispersion. Using the estimated arrival time of leading waves at each DART station and the distance from each station to the epicenter of the corresponding earthquake, the averaged propagation speed of leading waves for each event is calculated. It is found that the wave propagation speed for 2010 Chile tsunami is roughly 190 m/s, and is slightly slower than that of 2011 Tohoku and 2012 Haida Gwaii tsunamis, 210 m/s for both events. Two time scales associated with the leading waves are introduced: the duration of leading wave crest and the leading wave period obtained from a wavelet analysis. The results show that the leading wave crest duration is roughly 15–20 min and the wave period is roughly 25–30 min at most of DART stations for all the three events. The wave nonlinearity and frequency dispersion parameters, being defined as the wave amplitude to water depth ratio and the square of water depth to wavelength ratio, respectively, are calculated for the leading waves. The parameter for wave nonlinearity is found to be smaller than 4.0 × 10-4, while the parameter for frequency dispersion is smaller than 0.02 at all stations for all the three events. Finally, the cumulative effects of nonlinearity and frequency dispersion for the leading waves are investigated. It is found that the distances between the epicenter and all DART stations in each event are much smaller than those required for the nonlinearity and/or frequency dispersive effects to become significant.

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Shoji, Gaku, Hirofumi Shimizu, Shunichi Koshimura, Miguel Estrada, and Cesar Jimenez. "Evaluation of Tsunami Wave Loads Acting on Walls of Confined-Masonry-Brick and Concrete-Block Houses." Journal of Disaster Research 9, no. 6 (2014): 976–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.20965/jdr.2014.p0976.

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Damage to confined-masonry-brick or concrete-block house was assessed for being subjected to a tsunami wave load. This study was prompted by recent three tsunamis – one during 2001 on the Near Coast of Peru, one in 2009 in the Samoa Islands, and one in 2010 in Maule, Chile. We analyzed 13 damaged walls from 10 single-storey houses located near the coastline. We focused on evaluating the tsunami wave pressure distribution on house walls. Based on the formula proposed by Asakura et al. (2000) to evaluate tsunami wave pressure distribution on a structural component located on land behind on-shore structures, which is used for designing a tsunami evacuation building, we identify the values of horizontal wave pressure indexain Asakura’s formula for walls and discuss the boundary value ofaat which a wall presents structural damage, such as in collapse and cracking failure modes.

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Kaneda, Yoshiyuki. "Resilience Science for a Resilience Society in Seismogenic and Tsunamigenic Countries." Journal of Disaster Research 12, no. 4 (2017): 712–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.20965/jdr.2017.p0712.

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The world falls victim to many natural disasters, including disasters from tsunamis, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tornados, hurricanes, floods, landslides, and droughts.Above all, attention has been drawn to destructive tsunamis and earthquakes, such as the 2004 Sumatra earthquake and tsunami, the 2010 Chile earthquake, and the 2011 East Japan earthquake and tsunami.My personal experience with disasters, tsunamis, and earthquakes has taught me that they can cause severe damage to buildings, the environment, and people in societies in coastal areas (Fig. 1).Since the East Japan earthquake and tsunami in 2011, restoration and revival from the extensive damage caused by the natural disasters has not progressed rapidly in the coastal areas of East Japan.There are many reasons for this, such as the lead times for restoration and recovery, reconstruction budgets, and the time spent generating consensus among the national government, local governments, and people living in the coastal areas on the restoration plans.Furthermore, mental and economic restoration for each individual affected by the disaster in coastal areas and others is very far from returning to the normal state – the one before the disaster.Therefore, advanced measures for disaster mitigation, restoration, and revival in coastal areas are indispensable in advance of the next destructive earthquake and tsunami.In this paper, I will first present examples of tsunami and earthquake damage in Japan and the rest of the world, and countermeasures, resilience science, and resilience society.

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Quiñones-Bustos, Catalina, Maria Teresa Bull, and Claudio Oyarzo-Vera. "Seismic and Coastal Vulnerability Assessment Model for Buildings in Chile." Buildings 11, no. 3 (2021): 107. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/buildings11030107.

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This article proposes a vulnerability assessment model for evaluating buildings’ expected seismic performance, as well as their vulnerability to tsunamis. The objective of this assessment is to provide appropriate information for decision makers regarding the need of repairs and reinforcement of buildings or other mitigation measures that need to be applied in a territory. A procedure for assessing seismic vulnerability and another methodology for evaluating tsunami vulnerability faced by coastal structures is presented. Finally, a method that integrates both procedures is proposed, providing a combined index of vulnerability. The assessment model was applied to the central area of the city of Talcahuano, Chile, which was affected by the 2010 Maule earthquake and tsunami.

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Yoshii, Takumi, Masahiro Imamura, Masafumi Matsuyama, et al. "Salinity in Soils and Tsunami Deposits in Areas Affected by the 2010 Chile and 2011 Japan Tsunamis." Pure and Applied Geophysics 170, no. 6-8 (2012): 1047–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00024-012-0530-4.

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Roger, Jean, Bernard Pelletier, and Jérôme Aucan. "Update of the tsunami catalogue of New Caledonia using a decision table based on seismic data and marigraphic records." Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 19, no. 7 (2019): 1471–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/nhess-19-1471-2019.

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Abstract. Fourteen years ago, the 26 December 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami demonstrated the destructional capability of tsunamis to the entire world. Since then, many research programs have been initiated to try to understand the phenomenon and its related hazards better and to improve the early warning systems for exposed coastal populations. Pacific Islands Countries and Territories (PICTs) are especially vulnerable to tsunamis. Amongst them, New Caledonia is a French overseas territory located in the Southwest Pacific and exposed to several tsunami sources. In 2010, a catalogue of tsunamis that were visually observed or measured in New Caledonia was published. Since this first study, several events occurred between 2009 and 2019, and an update of this catalogue was necessary within the framework of a tsunami hazard assessment project in New Caledonia (TSUCAL). To complete this catalogue, a decision table has been designed to select potential tsunamigenic events within the USGS earthquake database, using criteria on the distance to New Caledonia, the magnitude and the hypocenter depth. Then a cross-comparison between these earthquakes, the NOAA National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC) tsunami catalogue and local tide gauge records provided 25 events that were recorded in New Caledonia for the period from 30 September 2009 to 10 January 2019. These events are added to the 12 events reported with certainty during previous studies, leading to a number of 37 tsunamis triggered by earthquakes reported or recorded in New Caledonia since 1875. Six of them have been identified only thanks to local tide gauges, supporting the fact that instrumental recording of tsunamis is paramount for tsunami hazard studies, from early warning to the validation of coastal models. In addition, unpublished tide gauge data are provided for the 1960 Chile tsunami.

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Borrero, Jose C., and S. Dougal Greer. "Comparison of the 2010 Chile and 2011 Japan Tsunamis in the Far Field." Pure and Applied Geophysics 170, no. 6-8 (2012): 1249–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00024-012-0559-4.

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Yeh, Harry, Elena Tolkova, David Jay, Stefan Talke, and Hermann Fritz. "Tsunami Hydrodynamics in the Columbia River." Journal of Disaster Research 7, no. 5 (2012): 604–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.20965/jdr.2012.p0604.

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On 11 March 2011, the Tohoku Tsunami overtopped a weir and penetrated 49 km up the Kitakami River, the fourth largest river in Japan [1]. Similarly, the 2010 Chile tsunami propagated at least 15 km up the Maule River [2]. In the Pacific Northwest of the United States, large tsunamis have occurred along the Cascadia subduction zone, most recently the ‘orphan tsunami’ of 1700 (Atwater et al. [3]). The expected future occurrence of a Cascadia tsunami and its penetration into the Lower Columbia River became the subject of “the Workshop on Tsunami Hydrodynamics in a Large River” held in Corvallis, Oregon, 2011. We found that tsunami penetration into the Columbia River is quite different from a typical river. The tsunami enters the vast river estuary through the relatively narrow river mouth of the Columbia, which damps and diffuses its energy. The tsunami transforms into a long period, small amplitude wave that advances to Portland, 173 km from the ocean. Understanding this unique tsunami behavior is important for preparing a forthcoming Cascadia tsunami event.

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Grawe, Matthew A., and Jonathan J. Makela. "The ionospheric responses to the 2011 Tohoku, 2012 Haida Gwaii, and 2010 Chile tsunamis: Effects of tsunami orientation and observation geometry." Earth and Space Science 2, no. 11 (2015): 472–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/2015ea000132.

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Martínez, Carolina, Octavio Rojas, Paula Villagra, Rafael Aránguiz, and Katia Sáez-Carrillo. "Risk factors and perceived restoration in a town destroyed by the 2010 Chile tsunami." Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 17, no. 5 (2017): 721–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/nhess-17-721-2017.

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Abstract. A large earthquake and tsunami took place in February 2010, affecting a significant part of the Chilean coast (Maule earthquake, Mw of 8.8). Dichato (37° S), a small town located on Coliumo Bay, was one of the most devastated coastal areas and is currently under reconstruction. Therefore, the objective of this research is to analyze the risk factors that explain the disaster in 2010, as well as perceived restoration 6 years after the event. Numerical modeling of the 2010 Chile tsunami with four nested grids was applied to estimate the hazard. Physical, socioeconomic and educational dimensions of vulnerability were analyzed for pre- and post-disaster conditions. A perceived restoration study was performed to assess the effects of reconstruction on the community. It was focused on exploring the capacity of newly reconstructed neighborhoods to provide restorative experiences in case of disaster. The study was undertaken using the perceived restorativeness scale. The vulnerability variables that best explained the extent of the disaster were housing conditions, low household incomes and limited knowledge about tsunami events, which conditioned inadequate reactions to the emergency. These variables still constitute the same risks as a result of the reconstruction process, establishing that the occurrence of a similar event would result in a similar degree of devastation. For post-earthquake conditions, it was determined that all neighborhoods have the potential to be restorative environments soon after a tsunami. However, some neighborhoods are still located in areas devastated by the 2010 tsunami and again present high vulnerability to future tsunamis.

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Keen, Adam S., and Patrick J. Lynett. "A DESIGN LIFE BASED APPROACH TO MULTI-HAZARD RISK ANALYSIS." Coastal Engineering Proceedings, no. 36 (December 30, 2018): 81. http://dx.doi.org/10.9753/icce.v36.risk.81.

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Small craft harbors are important facets to many coastal communities providing a transition from land to ocean. Because of the damage resulting from the 2010 Chile and 2011 Japanese tele-tsunamis, the tsunami risk to the small craft harbors in California has become an important concern. However, tsunamis represent only one of many hazards a harbor is likely to see in California. Other natural hazards including wave attack, wind events, storm surge and sea level rise all can damage a harbor but are not typically addressed collectively in traditional risk studies. Existing approaches to assess small craft harbor vulnerably typically look at single events assigning likely damage levels to each event. However, a harbor will likely experience damage from several different types of hazards over its service life with each event contributing proportionally to the total damage state. The approach presented here will consider the how the damage from many different natural phenomena is likely to be distributed during a harbors service life and how the cumulative effect of the events could contribute to failure potential of components within the harbor.

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Orozco Salinas, Karina. "Paisaje de sal de mar en Chile. Desastre y Resiliencia. Breve reseña de la huella de algunos terremotos-tsunamis en las salinas costeras = Landscape of sea salt in Chile. Disaster and Resilience. Brief overview of the footprint of some earthquakes- tsunamis in coastal salt flats." Cuadernos de Investigación Urbanística, no. 129 (April 30, 2020): 74. http://dx.doi.org/10.20868/ciur.2020.129.4406.

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RESUMEN:La presente investigación se enfoca en el paisaje de sal de mar en Chile en el contexto de desastres, tomando como estudio de caso algunos de los terremotos- tsunamis y su huella en las salinas costeras, a fin de observar la resiliencia de estospaisajes.La metodología se ha desarrollado en tres fases y ha consistido en un estudio descriptivo, mediante una recopilación y revisión bibliográfica de fuentes primarias y secundarias online, que permitieron identificar como casos de estudio los terremotos-tsunamis de 1730,1751, 1906, 1960 y 2010 y, las afectaciones en algunas de las salinas litorales.Los resultados arrojaron que hay salinas que han tenido una respuesta resiliente ante los efectos de al menos 6 terremotos-tsunamis en un periodo de 280 años. En definitiva, los paisajes de sal de mar activos en Chile conllevan la incertidumbre latente en ellos, en donde los eventos catastróficos han puesto a prueba su capacidad de adaptación, resiliencia y su memoria colectiva para poder sobreponerse al desastre. De esta forma albergan la huella e internalizan la recurrencia de fenómenos que, aunque no son inusuales, son imprevisibles en elterritorio. ABSTRACT:The present investigation focuses on the sea salt landscape in Chile in the context of disasters, taking as a case study some of the earthquakes-tsunamis and their footprint on the coastal salt flats, in order to observe the resilience of theselandscapes.The methodology has been developed in three phases and has consisted of a descriptive study, through a collection and bibliographic review of primary and secondary sources online, that allowed to identify as case studies the earthquakes-Tsunamis of 1730, 1751, 1906, 1960 and 2010 and, the effects on some of the salines.The results showed that there are salines that have had a resilient response to the effects of at least 6 earthquakes-tsunamis over a period of 280 years. In short, the active sea salt landscapes in Chile carry the uncertainty inherent in them, where catastrophic events have tested their capacity to adapt, resilience and collective memory to overcome the disaster. In this way, they house the footprint and internalize the recurrence of phenomena that, although not unusual, are unpredictable in theterritory.

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Mora Soto, Alejandra. "Dinámicas de resiliencia en la zona de Constitución (Maule, Chile) después del terremoto y tsunami de 2010." Espacios 4, no. 8 (2017): 95. http://dx.doi.org/10.25074/07197209.8.368.

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Los tsunamis transforman el espacio, forzando a los sistemas ambientales a cambiar, recuperarse y hacer frente a nuevos eventos de desastre. En este estudio, se identificaron cambios en el área de Constitución (región del Maule, Chile) según sus usos y coberturas de suelo (plantación forestal, vegetación nativa, usos agrícolas y praderas, urbano e industrial, playas, dunas y humedales) y se analizaron en terreno las modificaciones más significativas, identificando su recuperación posterior al evento del tsunami del 27 de febrero de 2010. Se estableció que los cambios más significativos asociados al tsunami fueron los urbanos, a través de procesos de renovación urbana y aumento de construcciones en altura y en algunos casos, en sitios con alto riesgo de ser afectados en remociones en masa e inundaciones. También se identificó una modificación en la distribución de los humedales en las dunas de Putú – Quivolgo que podrían estar asociadas al movimiento de sedimentos de tsunami. Otras coberturas, como las agrícolas y las forestales no han sufrido cambios que se puedan comprender por este fenómeno. Se postula que la resiliencia ambiental ha sido diferencial, variable, y que en ciertos casos ha aumentado las posibilidades de riesgos naturales en el área de estudio.PALABRAS CLAVE: Constitución, Terremoto y tsunami de 2010, Resiliencia, Usos y coberturas de suelo

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Dunbar, Paula, Kelly Stroker, and Heather McCullough. "Do the 2010 Haiti and Chile earthquakes and tsunamis indicate increasing trends?" Geomatics, Natural Hazards and Risk 1, no. 2 (2010): 95–114. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19475705.2010.487322.

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Dunbar, Paula, Kelly Stroker, and Heather McCullough. "Do the 2010 Haiti and Chile earthquakes and tsunamis indicate increasing trends?" Geomatics, Natural Hazards and Risk 2, no. 1 (2011): 94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19475705.2011.558719.

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Wen, Ruizhi, Yefei Ren, Xiaojun Li, and Rong Pan. "Comparison of two great Chile tsunamis in 1960 and 2010 using numerical simulation." Earthquake Science 24, no. 5 (2011): 475–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11589-011-0809-z.

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Omira, R., M. A. Baptista, and F. Lisboa. "Tsunami Characteristics Along the Peru–Chile Trench: Analysis of the 2015 Mw8.3 Illapel, the 2014 Mw8.2 Iquique and the 2010 Mw8.8 Maule Tsunamis in the Near-field." Pure and Applied Geophysics 173, no. 4 (2016): 1063–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00024-016-1277-0.

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Peacock-Chambers, Elizabeth, Pilar del Canto, Douglas Ahlers, Mario Valdivia Peralta, and Judith Palfrey. "School-Based Disaster Recovery: Promotion of Children’s Mental Health Over the Long Haul." Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness 11, no. 5 (2017): 633–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/dmp.2016.200.

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AbstractThe February 2010 earthquake and tsunamis destroyed 80% of the coastal town of Dichato, Chile, displacing over 400 families for nearly 4 years. The coalition Recupera Chile (RC) participated in the town’s integrated recovery process from January 2011 to the present with a focus on children’s mental health. The multidisciplinary RC coalition emphasized community-led post-disaster recovery, economic capacity rebuilding, and community health promotion (www.recuperachile.org). RC’s child health team fostered partnerships between the local elementary school, health clinic, Universidad de Concepcion, and Boston Children’s Hospital. The team responded to priorities identified by the town with a three-pronged approach of (1) case management, (2) resource development, and (3) monitoring and evaluation. This work resulted in the development of a model school-based program: La Escuela Basada en Realidad, which encompassed (1) health and mental health, (2) language and literacy, and (3) love of the sea. Post-disaster programs targeting mental health require a multi-year approach that extends beyond the completion of the physical reconstruction. Recovery is an organic process that cannot be prescripted and depends on solutions that emerge from the community. Finally, partnerships between schools and universities can foster resiliency and sustainability of programs for children and families. (Disaster Med Public Health Preparedness. 2017;11:633–636)

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Galvan, David A., Attila Komjathy, Michael P. Hickey, and Anthony J. Mannucci. "The 2009 Samoa and 2010 Chile tsunamis as observed in the ionosphere using GPS total electron content." Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics 116, A6 (2011): n/a. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2010ja016204.

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Martínez, Carolina, Einer Sepúlveda-Zúñiga, Mauricio Villagrán, et al. "Coastal Evolution in a Wetland Affected by Large Tsunamigenic Earthquakes in South-Central Chile: Criteria for Integrated Coastal Management." Water 13, no. 11 (2021): 1467. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w13111467.

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The coastal evolution of the microtidal Tubul-Raqui wetland in south-central Chile (36° S), which historically has been affected by large earthquakes and tsunamis, particularly the 1960 (Mw = 9.5) and 2010 (Mw = 8.8) subduction earthquakes and their associated tsunamis, is analyzed. Historical aerial photographs and topographic and bathymetric surveys from the 1961–2017 period, as well as salinity, sediment, and flora data obtained following the 2010 earthquake were used for comparison with data from prior to the event. A steady state of the shoreline was established, with an average erosion rate of −0.016 m/year in the 1961–2017 period. However, erosion predominated in the period between these two large earthquakes (1961–2009), with an average rate of −0.386 m/year. The wetland dried up, partially recovered saline intrusion a year later, and recovered the salinity conditions it had before the earthquake two years later. The postearthquake effects on the floristic composition were not significant, with the species Spartina densiflora, which presented a high tolerance to these types of changes, predominating. Moreover, 75 percent of the taxa in pre- and postearthquake conditions coincided, with the halophyte species Spartina densiflora, Sarcocornia fructicosa, and Cotula coronopifolia predominating, while the best-conserved community was Spartina-Sarcocornia association located in the saltmarsh. Seven years after the earthquake, the shoreline presented an accretion rate of 2.935 m/year; if the current tectonic conditions prevail, an erosive trend can be expected in the coming decades. The morphological variability and the changes associated with the shoreline in this wetland are strongly controlled by tectonic factors. Criteria aimed at integrated coastal management to promote its occupancy and use in accordance with its evolutionary dynamics are proposed.

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Inzulza-Contardo, Jorge, and Paulina Gatica-Araya. "Subsidiary displacement and empty plots: Dilemmas of original residents and newcomers in the reconstruction of Talca, Chile 2010–2016." Urban Studies 56, no. 10 (2018): 2040–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0042098018787967.

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Throughout history people have been affected by disaster events such as earthquakes, tsunamis, floods and landslides, with devastating effects for cities and towns around the world. Since the 1990s, post-disaster reconstruction has often been seen as an opportunity to invest in new projects following market forces and property speculation rather than for implementing rehabilitation strategies to address physical, social and psychological effects. Housing subsidies provided by the government seem to be a new issue creating more social disparity in the case of Talca, Chile after the 2010 magnitude 8.8 earthquake. This paper explores the contemporary urban landscape of this intermediate city, shaped between 2010 and 2016, which shows a great number of empty plots being filled by gated community typologies. By using ethnography and semi-structured interviews of residents from four historic neighbourhoods, the results show key patterns of physical and social change such as displacement of original residents by newcomers and lack of social cohesion along with tensions among them. The case of the Talca, Chile reconstruction is educational for understanding the ways in which many inner cities are affected by reconstruction policies with property speculation and gentrification effects. This paper concludes with the criteria that are being applied to redesign historic neighbourhoods and provides reflections for improving urban planning mechanisms to include both original residents and newcomers who are sharing these historic neighbourhoods.

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Barría, Pilar, María Luisa Cruzat, Rodrigo Cienfuegos, et al. "From Multi-Risk Evaluation to Resilience Planning: The Case of Central Chilean Coastal Cities." Water 11, no. 3 (2019): 572. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w11030572.

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Multi-hazard evaluations are fundamental inputs for disaster risk management plans and the implementation of resilient urban environments, adapted to extreme natural events. Risk assessments from natural hazards have been typically restricted to the analysis of single hazards or focused on the vulnerability of specific targets, which might result in an underestimation of the risk level. This study presents a practical and effective methodology applied to two Chilean coastal cities to characterize risk in data-poor regions, which integrates multi-hazard and multi-vulnerability analyses through physically-based models and easily accessible data. A matrix approach was used to cross the degree of exposure to floods, landslides, tsunamis, and earthquakes hazards, and two dimensions of vulnerability (physical, socio-economical). This information is used to provide the guidelines to lead the development of resilience thinking and disaster risk management in Chile years after the major and destructive 2010 Mw8.8 earthquake.

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Atwater, Brian, Sergio Barrientos, Inés Cifuentes, Marco Cisternas, and Kelin Wang. "Observing the Greatest Earthquakes: AGU Chapman Conference on Giant Earthquakes and Their Tsunamis: Viña del Mar and Valparaíso, Chile, 16–20 May 2010." Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union 91, no. 45 (2010): 420. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2010eo450007.

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Muñoz LeBreton, Susana. "La edificación en madera en el sur de Chile. Historia de una tradición cultural y su recuperación en un caso: Casa Procelle I." Devenir - Revista de estudios sobre patrimonio edificado 1, no. 1 (2018): 109–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.21754/devenir.v1i1.240.

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En el marco de la investigación bibliográfica acerca de la arquitectura patrimonial de la Región de los Ríos, proyecto de puesta en valor, organizado por la Dirección de Arquitectura del Ministerio de Obras Públicas, que tuvo por objetivo final, compilar y graficar todos los elementos de contenido patrimonial tangibles e intangibles, relacionados con el territorio, durante los años 2009-2010, se extrae parte de esa investigación que viene a dar luces sobre una secuencia de eventos asociativos, también llamado herencia cultural, sobre la edificación histórica de la zona sur de Chile, y que en general se disocia en los grupos culturales que ocuparon el territorio Mapuche-Williche, Español y el Alemán. Esta investigación pretende dar luces sobre esta evolución pluricultural de la arquitectura, basada en un ecosistema específico y adaptado a una dinámica terrestre como son los sismos y tsunamis. Este proceso lo veremos finalizado en una edificación declarada hoy Monumento Histórico Nacional en el marco de la edificación en madera. Sin dejar de destacar que la arquitectura lígnea es parte de una tradición constructiva de más de catorce mil años de evolución, y que hoy, en la primera decena del siglo XXI, está en un acelerado proceso de extinción.

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Chacón Barrantes, Silvia. "Evaluación de la peligrosidad del tsunami de Chile del 16 de setiembre del 2015 para Costa Rica." Revista Ciencias Marinas y Costeras 8, no. 1 (2016): 113. http://dx.doi.org/10.15359/revmar.8-1.8.

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El 16 de setiembre del 2015 un sismo Mw 8.3 en Chile causó un tsunami que afectó únicamente a dicho país. Sin embargo, este sismo motivó la realización de un análisis de peligrosidad de tsunami por parte del Sistema Nacional de Monitoreo de Tsunamis (SINAMOT) para recomendar a la Comisión Nacional de Emergencias (CNE) las medidas a tomar al respecto para Costa Rica. Este evento representó un ejercicio de los procedimientos operativos estandarizados con los que cuenta el SINAMOT y la utilización por primera vez de herramientas locales de pronóstico de alturas y corrientes de tsunamis, además con resultados exitosos. En este artículo se detallan el desarrollo del evento y las herramientas usadas para el análisis de peligrosidad por tsunami, así como los registros que se dieron del tsunami en territorio nacional. Dicho tsunami fue registrado en Costa Rica continental únicamente en mareógrafos, tal y como había sido pronosticado por el SINAMOT. Este artículo tiene un enfoque operativo y muestra los resultados en la misma forma en que se usan durante el evento para la toma de decisiones.

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Williams, James H., Thomas M. Wilson, Nick Horspool, et al. "Assessing transportation vulnerability to tsunamis: utilising post-event field data from the 2011 Tōhoku tsunami, Japan, and the 2015 Illapel tsunami, Chile." Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 20, no. 2 (2020): 451–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/nhess-20-451-2020.

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Abstract. Transportation infrastructure is crucial to the operation of society, particularly during post-event response and recovery. Transportation assets, such as roads and bridges, can be exposed to tsunami impacts when near the coast. Using fragility functions in an impact assessment identifies potential tsunami effects to inform decisions on potential mitigation strategies. Such functions have not been available for transportation assets exposed to tsunami hazard in the past due to limited empirical datasets. This study provides a suite of observations on the influence of tsunami inundation depth, road-use type, culverts, inundation distance, debris and coastal topography. Fragility functions are developed for roads, considering inundation depth, road-use type, and coastal topography and, for bridges, considering only inundation depth above deck base height. Fragility functions are developed for roads and bridges through combined survey and remotely sensed data for the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, Japan, and using post-event field survey data from the 2015 Illapel earthquake and tsunami, Chile. The fragility functions show a trend of lower tsunami vulnerability (through lower probabilities of reaching or exceeding a given damage level) for road-use categories of potentially higher construction standards. The topographic setting is also shown to affect the vulnerability of transportation assets in a tsunami, with coastal plains seeing higher initial vulnerability in some instances (e.g. for state roads with up to 5 m inundation depth) but with coastal valleys (in some locations exceeding 30 m inundation depth) seeing higher asset vulnerability overall. This study represents the first peer-reviewed example of empirical road and bridge fragility functions that consider a range of damage levels. This suite of synthesised functions is applicable to a variety of exposure and attribute types for use in global tsunami impact assessments to inform resilience and mitigation strategies.

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Hébert, H., F. Schindelé, and P. Heinrich. "Tsunami risk assessment in the Marquesas Islands (French Polynesia) through numerical modeling of generic far-field events." Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 1, no. 4 (2001): 233–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/nhess-1-233-2001.

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Abstract. Earthquakes occurring at the Pacific Rim can trigger tsunamis that propagate across the ocean and can produce significant damages far away from the source. In French Polynesia, the Marquesas Islands are the most exposed to the far-field tsunami hazards, since they are not protected by any outer coral reef and since submarine slopes are less steep than in other islands. Between 1994 and 1996, four tsunamis have reached the bays of the archipelago, among them, the tsunami initiated by the Chilean Mw 8.1 earthquake, produced up to 3 m high waves in Tahauku Bay. Numerical modeling of these recent events has already allowed us to validate our method of resolution of hydrodynamics laws through a finite-difference scheme that simulates the propagation of the tsunamis across the ocean and computes the inundation heights (run-up) in remote bays. We present in this paper the simulations carried out to study potentially threatening areas located at the Pacific Rim, on the seismogenic Aleutian and Tonga subduction zones. We use a constant seismic moment source (that of the Mw 8.1 Chile 1995 earthquake, M0 = 1.2 1021 N.m) located at several potential epicenters, with the fault strike adapted from the regional seismotectonics pattern. Our results show that the sources chosen in the Aleutian trench do not produce large inundations in the Marquesas bays, except for the easternmost source (longitude 194° E). Sources located in the Tonga trench do not produce high amplifications either, except for the northernmost one (latitude 16° S). We also discuss the behaviour of the tsunami waves within the archipelago, and evidence contrasting responses depending on the arrival azimuths. These results show that, for a given initial seismic energy, the tsunami amplification in remote bays is highly dependent on the source location and fault strike.

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Aránguiz, Rafael, Luisa Urra, Ryo Okuwaki, and Yuji Yagi. "Development and application of a tsunami fragility curve of the 2015 tsunami in Coquimbo, Chile." Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 18, no. 8 (2018): 2143–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/nhess-18-2143-2018.

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Abstract. The last earthquake that affected the city of Coquimbo took place in September 2015 and had a magnitude of Mw=8.3, resulting in localized damage in low-lying areas of the city. In addition, another seismic gap north of the 2015 earthquake rupture area has been identified; therefore, a significant earthquake (Mw=8.2 to 8.5) and tsunami could occur in the near future. The present paper develops a tsunami fragility curve for the city of Coquimbo based on field survey data and tsunami numerical simulations. The inundation depth of the 2015 Chile tsunami in Coquimbo was estimated by means of numerical simulation with the Non-hydrostatic Evolution of Ocean WAVEs (NEOWAVE) model and five nested grids with a maximum grid resolution of 10 m. The fragility curve exhibited behavior similar to that of other curves in flat areas in Japan, where little damage was observed at relatively high inundation depths. In addition, it was observed that Coquimbo experienced less damage than Dichato (Chile); in fact, at an inundation depth of 2 m, Dichato had a ∼75 % probability of damage, while Coquimbo proved to have only a 20 % probability. The new fragility curve was used to estimate the damage by possible future tsunamis in the area. The damage assessment showed that ∼50 % of the structures in the low-lying area of Coquimbo have a high probability of damage in the case of a tsunami generated off the coast of the study area if the city is rebuilt with the same types of structures.

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Fujisaki, Koichi, Yasutomo Morita, Toshio Kajitani, et al. "Survey on Railway Operator Actions and Preparedness in Transportation Against 2010 Chile Earthquake Tsunami and 2011 Tohoku Earthquake Tsunami." Journal of Earthquake and Tsunami 08, no. 02 (2014): 1450006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s1793431114500067.

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The preparedness and the emergency management against tsunami are an increasingly important issue for public transportation operators. The current state of these two is studied by conducting the hearing and questionnaire survey for domestic operators, in addition to the hearing by the national and local governments, focusing on actual actions taken against the 2010 Chile Earthquake Tsunami and the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake Tsunami. Critical issues are discussed in order to promote the preparedness against Tokai–Tonankai–Nankai Earthquake Tsunami which is likely to occur in the near future.

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Takahashi, Hiroaki. "Proposal for Robust Monitoring of Catastrophic Tsunami Using Onshore Strain and Tilt Geodetic Sensors." Journal of Disaster Research 10, sp (2015): 770–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.20965/jdr.2015.p0770.

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Tsunami monitoring is fundamental and essential for disaster warnings and rescue operations. The gigantic tsunami caused by the Tohoku earthquake off Japan’s Pacific coast in 2011 completely destroyed tsunami observation facilities along the seashore. The subsequent lack of real-time monitoring data caused confusions in devastated area rescue operations. These experiences indicate a need for more robust tsunami monitoring techniques to enable catastrophic events observation. We tested a hypothesis on whether secure onshore strain and tilt sensors could be used as tsunami gauges. We compared data from tsunami gauges and strain and tilt meters for 2011 Japan and 2010 Chile tsunami events clearly indicating that geodetic sensors recorded tsunami signals well. The high correlation between geodetic signals and tsunami height indicated that tsunami height could be estimated using only onshore geodetic data, i.e., secure onshore strain and tilt meters could act as robust tsunami monitoring systems when catastrophic events occur.

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Álvarez, Gonzalo, Marco Quiroz, Jorge León, and Rodrigo Cienfuegos. "Identification and classification of urban micro-vulnerabilities in tsunami evacuation routes for the city of Iquique, Chile." Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 18, no. 7 (2018): 2027–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/nhess-18-2027-2018.

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Abstract. Many coastal cities around the world are threatened by tsunamis; some of these events have caused great impacts in recent times. The loss of human lives during these events is the main cause of concern of the authorities, and evacuation planning has been recognized as one of the best tools for safeguarding the population. In this context, urban design appears to be critical for the execution of prompt and efficient evacuation processes to safe areas; however, evacuation assessment has been traditionally carried out at a large urban scale, mostly taking into consideration urban morphology and connectivity. In the present work, urban spaces available for tsunami evacuation are explored in detail by developing a methodology to identify and classify urban micro-vulnerabilities that may reduce the capacity of the evacuation routes and hinder evacuees' safety. The method is applied to the Chilean city of Iquique, affected by an earthquake and subsequent tsunami in 2014.

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MATSUTOMI, Hideo, Kenji HARADA, Toshinori OGASAWARA, and Shunichi KATAOKA. "Aspects of the 2010 Chile Earthquake Tsunami." Journal of Japan Society of Civil Engineers, Ser. B2 (Coastal Engineering) 67, no. 2 (2011): I_291—I_295. http://dx.doi.org/10.2208/kaigan.67.i_291.

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Wu, T. R., and T. C. Ho. "High resolution tsunami inversion for 2010 Chile earthquake." Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 11, no. 12 (2011): 3251–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/nhess-11-3251-2011.

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Abstract. We investigate the feasibility of inverting high-resolution vertical seafloor displacement from tsunami waveforms. An inversion method named "SUTIM" (small unit tsunami inversion method) is developed to meet this goal. In addition to utilizing the conventional least-square inversion, this paper also enhances the inversion resolution by Grid-Shifting method. A smooth constraint is adopted to gain stability. After a series of validation and performance tests, SUTIM is used to study the 2010 Chile earthquake. Based upon data quality and azimuthal distribution, we select tsunami waveforms from 6 GLOSS stations and 1 DART buoy record. In total, 157 sub-faults are utilized for the high-resolution inversion. The resolution reaches 10 sub-faults per wavelength. The result is compared with the distribution of the aftershocks and waveforms at each gauge location with very good agreement. The inversion result shows that the source profile features a non-uniform distribution of the seafloor displacement. The highly elevated vertical seafloor is mainly concentrated in two areas: one is located in the northern part of the epicentre, between 34° S and 36° S; the other is in the southern part, between 37° S and 38° S.

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Dengler, Lori, Sebastian Araya, Nicholas Graehl, Francisco Luna, and Troy Nicolini. "Factors that Exacerbated or Reduced Impacts of the 27 February 2010 Chile Tsunami." Earthquake Spectra 28, no. 1_suppl1 (2012): 199–213. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.4000033.

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The 27 February 2010 Maule earthquake produced a significant tsunami that caused damage along over 600 kilometers of the Chilean coast. At least 124 of the confirmed 525 deaths were attributed to the tsunami. We examine factors that influenced losses from the tsunami. Chile's Servicio Hidrográfico y Oceanográ–fico de la Armada (SHOA) issued a tsunami warning about 11 minutes after the earthquake that was canceled shortly afterwards. Few coastal residents heard the warning or the cancelation due to widespread power outages, and the official warning had little impact on survival. Interviews with coastal residents showed a high level of awareness of natural tsunami warning signs. Coastal residents cited the importance of school and government education programs, tsunami evacuation drills, signs, the media, and informed local officials in their decision to evacuate. There were two notable failures: the vulnerability of transient populations and people in areas with no access to high ground.

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MIKAMI, Takahito, Tomoya SHIBAYAMA, Satoshi TAKEWAKA, et al. "FIELD SURVEY OF TSUNAMI DISASTER IN CHILE 2010." Journal of Japan Society of Civil Engineers, Ser. B3 (Ocean Engineering) 67, no. 2 (2011): I_529—I_534. http://dx.doi.org/10.2208/jscejoe.67.i_529.

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Michelin, Alberto, Valentino Lauciani, Giulio Selvaggi, and Anthony Lomax. "The 2010 Chile Earthquake: Rapid Assessments of Tsunami." Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union 91, no. 35 (2010): 305. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2010eo350002.

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Keen, Adam Steven, Patrick Lynett, Martin Eskijian, and Aykut AyÃ§a. "FRAGILITY OF FLOATING DOCKS FOR SMALL CRAFT MARINAS." Coastal Engineering Proceedings, no. 35 (June 23, 2017): 21. http://dx.doi.org/10.9753/icce.v35.management.21.

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As a result of damage from the 2010 Chile and 2011 Japanese teletsunamis, the tsunami risk to the small craft marinas in California has become an important concern. This paper outlines an assessment tool which can be used to assess the tsunami hazard to small craft harbors. The methodology is based on the demand and capacity of a floating dock system. Results are provided as fragility curves and give a quantitative assessment of survivability. This tool is not exact and is provided only to give an indication as to survivability and/or failure of a floating dock system of vessels and floating components/piles, subject to tsunami events. The purpose is to quickly evaluate whether or not a floating dock is likely to survive or be destroyed by a tsunami having the input properties.

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Tomita, Takashi, Kentaro Kumagai, Cyril Mokrani, Rodrigo Cienfuegos, and Hisashi Matsui. "Tsunami and Seismic Damage Caused by the Earthquake Off Iquique, Chile, in April, 2014." Journal of Earthquake and Tsunami 10, no. 02 (2016): 1640003. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s1793431116400030.

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On Tuesday, April 1, 2014, at 8:46 p.m. local time in Chile, a subduction earthquake of Mw 8.2 occurred about 100[Formula: see text]km northwest of the city of Iquique, where the Nazca plate subducts beneath the South American plate. This earthquake triggered a tsunami, which hit coastal areas in northern Chile. A joint Japan–Chile team conducted a post-tsunami field survey to measure the height of the tsunami traces and to investigate the damage caused by the earthquake and tsunami. Based on measurements of the tsunami traces, it is estimated that a tsunami 3–4[Formula: see text]m in height hit the coast from Arica, which is near the border between Chile and Peru, to Patache, south of Iquique, a straight-line distance of approximately 260[Formula: see text]km. The tsunami caused only minor inundations near shorelines, and caused no damage to buildings because living spaces were higher than the tsunami run-up height. Seismic damage was more extensive than that caused by the tsunami, especially in Iquique, and included the destruction of houses, buildings, and other infrastructure. It also ignited fires. In the Port of Iquique, a wharf, before earthquake-resistant improvements were implemented, was destroyed by the strong ground motions that resulted from the earthquake.

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Palermo, Dan, Ioan Nistor, Murat Saatcioglu, and Ahmed Ghobarah. "Impact and damage to structures during the 27 February 2010 Chile tsunami." Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering 40, no. 8 (2013): 750–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/cjce-2012-0553.

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Damage to structures and infrastructure due to the Chile tsunami of 27 February 2010, is presented. Robust, modern engineered structures performed well during this tsunami and, generally, damage only to non-structural components was evident. The majority of damage was sustained by non-engineered residential homes located within the inundation zone. These dwellings consisted of either light timber frame construction or concrete frame construction with brick masonry infill walls. Many of the dwellings incorporated sheet metal as exterior cladding or roofing. The hydrodynamic (drag) forces, impulsive loading, hydrostatic forces, buoyant forces, and debris impact loading were probable sources during the tsunami causing the observed damage. Failures included punching of brick masonry infill walls, partial and complete collapse of load bearing elements such as columns, and sliding and unseating failures of second storey levels and roofs. A discussion of the state of the art in tsunami design practice is also provided.

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Jaque-Castillo, Edilia, Leticia Astudillo-Reyes, Solange Espinoza-Espinoza, and Andreas Christian-Braun. "Evaluación de la vulnerabilidad social pos-tsunami 2010 en Caleta Tumbes - Chile a través del modelo “presión y descompresión”." Revista Urbano 23, no. 41 (2020): 130–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.22320/07183607.2020.23.41.07.

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Kim, Su-Kyung, Eunju Lee, Jihye Park, and Sungwon Shin. "Feasibility Analysis of GNSS-Reflectometry for Monitoring Coastal Hazards." Remote Sensing 13, no. 5 (2021): 976. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs13050976.

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Coastal hazards, such as a tsunamis and storm surges, are a critical threat to coastal communities that lead to significant loss of lives and properties. To mitigate their impact, event-driven water level changes should be properly monitored. A tide gauge is one of the conventional water level measurement sensors. Still, alternative measurement systems can be needed to compensate for the role of tide gauge for contingency (e.g., broken and absence, etc.). Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) is an emerging water level measurement sensor that processes multipath signals reflected by the water surface that is referred to as GNSS-Reflectometry (GNSS-R). In this study, we adopted the GNSS-R technique to monitor tsunamis and storm surges by analyzing event-driven water level changes. To detect the extreme change of water level, enhanced GNSS-R data processing methods were applied which included the utilization of multi-band GNSS signals, determination of optimal processing window, and Kalman filtering for height rate determination. The impact of coastal hazards on water level retrievals was assessed by computing the confidence level of retrieval (CLR) that was computed based on probability of dominant peak representing the roughness of the water surface. The proposed approach was validated by two tsunami events, induced by 2012 Haida Gwaii earthquake and 2015 Chile earthquake, and two storm surge events, induced by 2017 Hurricane Harvey and occurred in Alaska in 2019. The proposed method successfully retrieved the water levels during the storm surge in both cases with the high correlation coefficients with the nearby tide gauge, 0.944, 0.933, 0.987, and 0.957, respectively. In addition, CLRs of four events are distinctive to the type of coastal events. It is confirmed that the tsunami causes the CLR deduction, while for the storm surges, GNSS-R keep high CLR during the event. These results are possibly used as an indicator of each event in terms of storm surge level and tsunami arrival time. This study shows that the proposed approach of GNSS-R based water level retrieval is feasible to monitor coastal hazards that are tsunamis and storm surges, and it can be a promising tool for investigating the coastal hazards to mitigate their impact and for a better decision making.

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González-Riancho, P., B. Aliaga, S. Hettiarachchi, M. González, and R. Medina. "A contribution to the selection of tsunami human vulnerability indicators: conclusions from tsunami impacts in Sri Lanka and Thailand (2004), Samoa (2009), Chile (2010) and Japan (2011)." Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 15, no. 7 (2015): 1493–514. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/nhess-15-1493-2015.

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Abstract. After several tsunami events with disastrous consequences around the world, coastal countries have realized the need to be prepared to minimize human mortality and damage to coastal infrastructures, livelihoods and resources. The international scientific community is striving to develop and validate methodologies for tsunami hazard and vulnerability and risk assessments. The vulnerability of coastal communities is usually assessed through the definition of sets of indicators based on previous literature and/or post-tsunami reports, as well as on the available data for the study site. The aim of this work is to validate, in light of past tsunami events, the indicators currently proposed by the scientific community to measure human vulnerability, to improve their definition and selection as well as to analyse their validity for different country development profiles. The events analysed are the 2011 Great Tohoku tsunami, the 2010 Chilean tsunami, the 2009 Samoan tsunami and the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. The results obtained highlight the need for considering both permanent and temporal human exposure, the former requiring some hazard numerical modelling, while the latter is related to site-specific livelihoods, cultural traditions and gender roles. The most vulnerable age groups are the elderly and children, the former having much higher mortality rates. Female mortality is not always higher than male mortality and not always related to dependency issues. Higher numbers of disabled people do not always translate into higher numbers of victims. Besides, it is clear that mortality is not only related to the characteristics of the population but also of the buildings. A high correlation has been found between the affected buildings and the number of victims, being very high for completely damaged buildings. Distance to the sea, building materials and expected water depths are important determining factors regarding the type of damage to buildings.

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González-Riancho, P., B. Aliaga, S. Hettiarachchi, M. González, and R. Medina. "A contribution to the selection of tsunami human vulnerability indicators: conclusions from tsunami impacts in Sri Lanka and Thailand (2004), Samoa (2009), Chile (2010) and Japan (2011)." Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences Discussions 2, no. 12 (2014): 7679–734. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/nhessd-2-7679-2014.

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Abstract. After several tsunami events with disastrous consequences around the world, coastal countries have realized the need to be prepared to minimize human mortality and damage to coastal infrastructures, livelihoods and resources. The international scientific community is striving to develop and validate methodologies for tsunami hazard and vulnerability and risk assessments. The vulnerability of coastal communities is usually assessed through the definition of sets of indicators based on previous literature and/or post-tsunami reports, as well as on the available data for the study site. The aim of this work is to validate in light of past tsunami events the indicators currently proposed by the scientific community to measure human vulnerability, to improve their definition and selection as well as to analyse their validity for different country development profiles. The events analyzed are the 2011 Great Tohoku tsunami, the 2010 Chilean tsunami, the 2009 Samoan tsunami and the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. The results obtained highlight the need for considering both permanent and temporal human exposure, the former requiring some hazard numerical modelling while the latter is related to site-specific livelihoods, cultural traditions and gender roles. The most vulnerable age groups are the elderly adults and the children, the former having much higher mortality rates. Female mortality is not always higher than male and not always related to dependency issues. Higher numbers of disabled people do not always translate into higher numbers of victims. Besides, it is clear that mortality is not only related to the characteristics of the population but also the buildings. A high correlation has been found between the affected buildings and the number of victims, being very high for completely damaged buildings. Distance to the sea, building materials and expected water depths are highly determining factors regarding the type of damage in buildings.

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Fritz, Hermann M., Catherine M. Petroff, Patricio A. Catalán, et al. "Field Survey of the 27 February 2010 Chile Tsunami." Pure and Applied Geophysics 168, no. 11 (2011): 1989–2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00024-011-0283-5.

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Fujisaki, Koichi, Yasutomo Morita, Toshio Kajitani, et al. "Erratum: "Survey on Railway Operator Actions and Preparedness in Transportation Against 2010 Chile Earthquake Tsunami and 2011 Tohoku Earthquake Tsunami"." Journal of Earthquake and Tsunami 09, no. 01 (2015): 1592001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s1793431115920013.

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Robertson, Ian, Gary Chock, and Juan Morla. "Structural Analysis of Selected Failures Caused by the 27 February 2010 Chile Tsunami." Earthquake Spectra 28, no. 1_suppl1 (2012): 215–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.4000035.

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Following the 2010 Chile earthquake and tsunami, the authors participated in the EERI reconnaissance team that traveled to Chile to document damage and structural performance. The authors focused on tsunami damage following the earthquake. A summary of tsunami damage to structures is given. Based on a series of well-defined structural element failures at sites where inundation depth was measured, the team was able to evaluate the hydrodynamic loading required to cause these failures and derive estimated lower bound flow velocity overland during the event. It was estimated that the velocity exceeded 3.2 m/s in Talcahuano harbor and 4.3 m/s in the coastal town of Dichato. When found in proximity to damaged buildings and other larger structures of interest, these simple structures can serve as “flow surrogate instruments” to estimate the local flow velocity. Failure analysis of these simple structures indicated that the hydrodynamic loading estimates provided by FEMA P646 may be unconservative.

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Tashiro, Ai, Kayako Sakisaka, Etsuji Okamoto, and Honami Yoshida. "Differences in infant and child mortality before and after the Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami: a large population-based ecological study." BMJ Open 8, no. 11 (2018): e022737. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2018-022737.

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ObjectivesTo examine associations between access to medical care, geological data, and infant and child mortality in the area of North-Eastern Japan that was impacted by the Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami (GEJET) in 2011.DesignA population-based ecological study using publicly available data.SettingTwenty secondary medical areas (SMAs) in the disaster-affected zones in the north-eastern prefectures of Japan (Iwate, Fukushima and Miyagi). Participants: Children younger than 10 years who died in the 20 SMAs between 2008 and 2014 (n=1 748). Primary and secondary outcome measures: Multiple regression analysis for infant and child mortality rate. The mean values were applied for infant and child mortality rates and other factors before GEJET (2008–2010) and after GEJET (2012–2014).ResultsBetween 2008 and 2014, the most common cause of death among children younger than 10 years was accidents. The mortality rate per 100 000 persons was 39.1±41.2 before 2011, 226.7±43.4 in 2011 and 31.4±39.1 after 2011. Regression analysis revealed that the mortality rate was positively associated with low age in each period, while the coastal zone was negatively associated with fewer disaster base hospitals in 2011. By contrast, the number of obstetrics and gynaecology centres (β=−189.9, p=0.02) and public health nurses (β=−1.7, p=0.01) was negatively associated with mortality rate per person in 2011.ConclusionsIn 2011, the mortality rate among children younger than 10 years was 6.4 times higher than that before and after 2011. Residence in a coastal zone was significantly associated with higher child mortality rates.

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