Journal articles on the topic 'UN Organization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo'

Both because the United Nations (UN) spectacularly failed in Rwanda and because of the close links between the 1994 Rwandan genocide and the continuing conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), the United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo (MONUSCO) – formerly the United Nations Organization Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo (MONUC) – constitutes an important test-case for UN peacekeeping. However, since MONUSCO is ongoing, it is too early to assess whether or not it has passed this test. This article, however, focuses on a particular issue that may ultimately cause the mission to fail, namely contradictions within its ever-expanding mandate. It argues that MONUSCO itself is helping to fuel these tensions through its flawed approach to one of the key components of its mandate, namely DDR (disarmament, demobilization and reintegration) and DDRRR (disarmament, demobilization, repatriation, resettlement and reintegration). It thus suggests how MONUSCO might revise its approach to these processes, particularly through a more ‘bottom-up’ focus that engages directly with local communities and with former combatants as individuals.

Abstract Security sector reform and the protection of civilians are regular features within United Nations (UN) peace operations. However, the two areas are often distinct from one another in the mandates of missions. What then is the relationship between Security Sector Reform (ssr) and the Protection of Civilians (PoC) in contemporary missions and how does ssr impact PoC? This article aims to draw out this relationship by conducting a comparative case study analysis based on three missions that all combine a ssr and PoC mandate: the United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali (minusma), the United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in the Central African Republic (minusca) and the United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (monusco). The case studies provide a variety of examples which demonstrate elements of both convergence and divergence in the implementation of ssr and PoC. With ssr often taking place in a context of armed conflict, the current focus on human rights training and accountability is insufficient as the missions fail to achieve long-term ssr goals and instead must prioritise PoC due to the actions of the host states.

Abstract Peacekeeping during the Cold War was primarily, and in some cases exclusively, charged with monitoring cease-fires. This changed significantly, as peace operations evolved to include other missions (e.g., rule of law, election supervision), many under the rubric of peacebuilding. What is lacking is consideration of how the different missions affect one another, simultaneously and in sequences. This study addresses that gap by looking at the interconnectedness of missions and their success in the UN Organization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUC), which was mandated to perform eight different missions over a decade. The article examines success or failure in each of those missions and how they relate to one another guided by theoretical logics based on the “security first” hypothesis and mission compatibility expectations. Early failure to stem the violence had negative downstream consequences for later peacebuilding missions. Nevertheless, MONUC’s election supervision mission was successful.

As the role of United Nations peacekeeping operations has evolved in recent decades so too has the legal interpretation of the way in which international humanitarian law (ihl) is viewed as applying to its peacekeepers. While it has been understood that the un could become a party to armed conflict, the organization has never publicly acknowledged this until the establishment of the Intervention Brigade of the of the United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (monusco) pursuant to Security Council resolution 2098 of March 2013. This article addresses the legal consequences of the Intervention Brigade as a party to armed conflict and the insights it provides into the legal status of un peacekeeper under ihl. In particular, it will argue that the established legal framework for un peacekeeping operations as having the protected status of civilians under ihl has proved ill-suited for the Intervention Brigade and its experience has highlighted the inconsistencies and gaps in the rules that have been developed.

The features of the participation of military personnel of the Armed Forces of Ukraine (AFU) in multinational military exercises held in our country and abroad in 2014–2016 are considered. The occupation of the Crimean Peninsula by the Russian Federation (RF), the veiled appearance of Russian troops on the territory of Donetsk and Lugansk regions, which marked the beginning of the so-called "Hybrid warfare" forced the leadership of our state to intensify contacts with the member countries of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and pay considerable attention to multinational training, as within the framework of the Partnership for Peace program. During military exercises («Saber Guardian / Rapid Trident»), «Flaming Thunder», «Flaming Sword», «Anakonda», «Hunter», «Combined Resolve» etc.), military personnel exchange knowledge and combat experience, strengthening partnerships, compatibility, and ability of the military of Ukraine, NATO member states, and their partners to work together. The features of the AFU servicemen's peacekeeping activities at the initial stage of the modern Russian-Ukrainian war (United Nations operations in Côte d'Ivoire, Liberia, Afghanistan, the UN Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo etc.) are considered. It was stated that during peacekeeping operations, military personnel mainly patrolled the areas of responsibility, transported United Nations (UN) personnel, escorted humanitarian aid, controlled the ceasefire, as well as the withdrawal of troops. Keywords: NATO, Ukraine, Partnership for Peace, international military exercises, peacekeeping operations, Armed Forces of Ukraine.

In June 2003, the EU launched Operation “Artemis”, its first military mission outside Europe and independent of NATO, to the Democratic Republic of Congo. While it ultimately received an EU badge, its origin, command and control were French. The objective of Operation “Artemis” was to contribute to the stabilisation of the security conditions in Bunia, capital of Ituri, to improve the humanitarian situation, and to ensure the protection of displaced persons in the refugee camps in Bunia. Its mandate was to provide a short-term interim force for three months until the transition to the reinforced United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo (MONUC – Mission de l’Organisation des Nations Unies en République Démocratique du Congo; English: United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo). Although the EU can be said to have passed the first “test” of the European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP) mechanisms for the conduct of an autonomous operation, this test was a limited one. Operational constraints were caused by inadequate strategic lift capabilities and the lack of a strategic reserve.

The Democratic Republic of the Congo is still experiencing internal political turmoil between the Tutsi and Hutu tribes. Therefore, the United Nations through the Security Council established The United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO) to monitor the peace process after the Second Congo War. Several approaches must be applied so that the mission carried out is able to reconcile the conflicting actors. The purpose of this research is to find out the obstacles faced in the MONUSCO mission and their solutions. The method used in this research is to use a literature study to test the credibility of the data found. The peace mission carried out by MONUSCO can be said to be quite successful despite facing several strategic and operational challenges. The use of cultural intelligence and prospect theory in pre-mission training should be done in order to increase the success of the mission.

The United Nations has been engaged in peacekeeping in the Democratic Republic of the Congo since the period of the country’s independence. First it was the Opération des Nations Unies au Congo (onuc), then the Mission de l’Organisation des Nations Unies au Congo (monuc), and the most recent un peacekeeping force is called Mission de l’Organisation des Nations Unies pour la Stabilisation au Congo (monusco). Most recently, monusco acquired a Force Intervention Brigade (fib). In this contribution, an analysis is made of how the bedrock principles of peacekeeping – impartiality, consent, and a restricted use of force – have evolved in the Congo. To do so, the journey begins in the 1960s, and ends in early 2015. For each principle, we will look at its traditional meaning, as well as its application to onuc, monuc, and monusco with its Force Intervention Brigade.

The article deals with the approach of strategic communication (formerly information intervention) of the United Nations (UN), focusing on the context of the use of media for these purposes. This text provides an evaluation of the communication and information strategy applied to the case study of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and the peacekeeping mission MONUC/MONUSCO. The aim is to reflect the evolution of media use in missions and to provide an overview of the development of the UN strategic information concept. Strategic communication with all stakeholders (involving the media access) is essential to establish and maintain mission effectiveness.

Objective: To study the Peacekeeping Stress syndrome and see its relationship with various demographic variables (age, years of service and marital status). Study Design: Cross sectional study. Place and Duration of Study: Study was carried out on Pakistani Peacekeepers who were deployed in Democratic Republic of Congo in Jun 2019. Methodology: About 536 Pakistani male peacekeepers with mean age of 33 years, deployed in Democratic Republic of Congo were taken as study sample. By group testing method, all participants were assessed through Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS-21), Urdu version and demographic form consisted of age, marital status, education, years of service and rank. Results: Results revealed that DASS-21 has good reliability (α=0.71) for the present sample and prevalence of depression, anxiety and stress among Pakistani peacekeepers was low (2.9%, 4% and 4% respectively). Further to it, there was significant negative correlation of depression and stress with the age and years of service whereas relationship of anxiety with these variables (age and years of service) was non-significant. There were significant mean differences between the married and unmarried peacekeepers on Anxiety and Stress and non-significant on depression. Conclusion: Present study provided useful information regarding the mental health of peacekeepers and highlighted the fact that Pakistani peacekeepers are resilient enough to handle the challenges of international environment.

AbstractThe United Nations (UN) is the world's most prominent international organization, and a key issue is its responsibility under international law. The contemporary growth in UN powers and activities has not been matched by parallel developments in accountability and checks and balances within the UN legal order. This was recently brought to the fore in the instance of UN peacekeepers providing support to Congolese army forces responsible for serious violations of international humanitarian and human rights law. It became a significant public issue and the Secretary-General eventually withdrew UN support from a unit of the Congolese army. This article demonstrates that this withdrawal of support by the Secretary-General represents a constitutional moment for the United Nations. It confirmed a key premise that the Secretary-General is normatively constrained under the Charter, including by the Organization's obligations, when implementing the decisions of the Security Council. This is a legal development which engages a number of emerging and uncertain areas of international law relating to the United Nations, including the UN's constitutional law, the responsibility of international organizations, the substantive obligations of the Organization, and the role of international law in peace and security. Recognizing this important development not only confirms the Secretary-General's legal responsibility under the Charter, it reinforces the view of the Charter as a living instrument and provides an effective and important means for incorporating the law of responsibility into the UN constitutional order and a check upon the expansive application of the Security Council's implied powers doctrine.

This paper examines the nature and impacts of two information intervention radio programmes broadcast on Radio Okapi—the radio service of the UN Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo. A matched randomization technique was used to assign Rwandan Hutus and Congolese autochthons in South Kivu to listen to either of the two programmes within their naturalistic contexts for 13 months. At the end of the treatment, participants’ perceptions of barriers to peace; descriptive and prescriptive interventions; victimhood and villainity; opportunities for personal development and civic engagement; and knowledge of repatriation processes were assessed in 16 focus groups across four contexts. The study concludes that international media intervention programmes that provide robust information and a platform for objective analyses within a multiple narrative and participatory framework can enhance greater engagement with nascent democratic reforms, positive perception of long term opportunities for personal development and empathy with the ethnic Other.

Abstract Largely uncredited in public media and academic literature, the United Nations has used armed force frequently in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (drc), probably more than in any other UN peacekeeping operation. Though unheralded, this saved lives and protected cities and towns. However, attacks on civilians in drc are so frequent and widespread that many times the mission has been unable to respond in a timely fashion. To save more lives and gain trust in the local population, a much greater UN effort is needed to support robust measures, with more resources, determination and accountability (for inaction as well as action), even as “donor fatigue” sets in for a mission that has been operating since 1999. Still, it is important for peacekeeping as a whole to recognize and learn from cases of use of force against Congolese illegal armed groups (iag s), like the adf, cndp, fdlr, frpi, and M23. These cases show some remarkable successes, including removing some major poc threats, fracturing rebel groups, increasing UN deterrence, and enhancing the rule of law in the still untamed “Wild East” of the immense African country.

The main historical and contemporary participation of the Armed Forces of Ukraine in peacekeeping operations are described. The key notions of peacekeeping are defined showing this definition as the main rational tool for preventing and resolving disputes, threats, conflicts at the national, regional and global levels is the modern peacekeeping system. The main laws of Ukraine concerning peacekeeping operations are characterized with defining objectives for these operations.The attention is focused on the Ukraine’s participation in different international peacekeeping operations including 26 operations which ended and 8 ongoing operations. An important aspect of Ukraine’s participation in peacekeeping on the African continent is its coordinated actions with the United Nations on the diplomatic settlement of conflicts and the adherence to official statements regarding them.Peacekeeping missions are currently operating in Liberia, Congo, Sierra Leone, Sudan (Darfur and Juba) and other African countries. In particular, these are peacekeeping missions such as: the United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL), the UN Mission in Côte d’Ivoire (ONUCI), the African Union – United Nations Operation in Darfur (UNAUMID), the UN peacekeeping operation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO), demilitarization and peacekeeping in the disputed area of Abyei (UNISFA), the UN Mission in the Republic of Southern Sudan (UNMISS), UN Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali (MINUSCA).Ukrainian peacekeeping potential is analysed. Participation of the armed forces of Ukraine in peacekeeping operations of the United Nations is one of the priority foreign policy tasks of our state, successful implementation of which positively influences strengthening of the national authority of Ukraine, promotes development of cooperation with Euro-Atlantic and regional security structures and has an exceptional significance for the national interests of our country. Ukraine claims to be a full-fledged subject of international relations, increases its credibility and demonstrates a peaceful policy.

The Prosecutions Support Cells is a programme of the United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo (MONUSCO), aimed at improving the capacity of the military judicial authorities to investigate and prosecute the commission of war crimes, crimes against humanity and acts of sexual violence perpetrated in the eastern provinces of the country. Notwithstanding the challenges faced by the pscs and, subject to a number of adjustments and improvements, this model of assistance in the fight against impunity for international and other serious crimes (including transnational crimes) could be replicated in similar post-conflict contexts where United Nations peace operations are mandated to support efforts to achieve peace, stability and security.

A Peacekeeping Operation (PKO) of the United Nations (UN) is a complex project whose objective is determined by the mandate, and which seeks to eliminate violence, achieve peace, and consolidate the future of society in conflict zones. For a PKO is important to assess the success or failure of the mission because might have implications for the outcomes of future missions. In this paper, it is proposed a methodology that combines two available tools, on the one hand the tool of PMI to determine the most appropriate approach to manage a PKO and on the other hand the NUPI tool, to measure the success of a PKO. The methodology is applied to two studies cases of fourth generation PKOs, the UNMISS PKO in South Sudan and the MONUSCO mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo. From the results obtained an adaptive approach enjoys a greater guarantee of success than does a predefined approach.

Background/Aim. Wars of the nineties in former Yugoslavia, Somalia, Rwanda imposed new tasks to the United Nations (UN) forces, such as providing humanitarian aid, protection of civilians, peacekeeping, and in many instances providing armed enforcement of peace. The aim of this study was an observational analysis of Serbian participation in the UNs Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo with the emphasis on stress and coping techniques. Methods. Serbian contribution in this mission dates back to April 2003 till the present days with a military contingent consisting of six members as a part of Air Medical Evacuation Team. The observed stressogenous factors acted before arrival to the mission area and in the mission area. In this paper we analysed ways to overcome them. Results. The productive ways of overwhelming stress used in this mission were: honesty and openness in interpersonal communications, dedication to work, maintaining discipline and order, strict following of appropriate regime of work, diet, rest and recreation; regular communication with family and organizing and participation in various social, cultural and sports manifestations. Conclusion. This analysis indicates that out of all the observed factors, the most important is appropriate selection of personnel.

This paper aims to provide a critical analysis of the integration of women into United Nations (UN) peacekeeping – particularly in the form of all-female units – as a means of deterring sexual exploitation and abuse (SEA) in conflict environments. Results from this study indicate that compared to both male peacekeepers and female peacekeepers from co-ed units, women from all-female units have a greater awareness of gender issues and SEA in a UN mission, sense of responsibility to address such issues, and experience doing so during deployment. The distinct gap in these measures between women from all-female units and co-ed units challenges the widespread assumption that women will inherently address SEA in a UN mission. Analyzing the variables that may contribute to the success of the all-female unit, the article concludes that these same factors may be applied to a wider distribution of women throughout peacekeeping operations. Recommendations presented in the article must be implemented as a component of a broad, long-term gender mainstreaming strategy to address the interrelated nature of gender inequality and sexual violence in conflict. Results of the study are analyzed with a focus on the role of UN peacekeeping in mitigating SEA in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).

Active United Nation missions on African soil are: MINURSO in Western Sahara, UNMISS in South Sudan, MINUSMA in Mali, MONUSCO in Democratic Republic of the Congo, MINUSCA in Central African Republic and UNISFA in Abyei. Peacekeeping has always been highly dynamic and has evolved in the face of new issues. But, in addition to the challenges they face while assisting host countries on the difficult path from conflict to peace, peacekeepers have recently had to deal with procedures and obstacles caused by the global COVID-19 pandemic. The aim of the article is to investigate the performance of everyday tasks in the COVID-19 era with an emphasis on issues related to the availability of basic supplies for UN peacekeepers, personal protective equipment, medical services, welfare, travel restrictions, and connections with the resident population in Africa. In this paper, we will present the results of qualitative research (in-depth interviews) on the experiences of UN staff from Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) who served in the mission in South Sudan (UNMISS), in the period 2020-2022. In anticipation of malaria, typhoid, hepatitis, salmonella, etc., the peacekeepers faced a new unknown disease, a shortage of medicines, they had no access to hospitals, and personal protective masks were made from their underwear. In some areas the local population believed that COVID19 was a “mysterious disease” brought and spread by peacekeepers and this fact shed new light on (non)cooperation with UN staff. Apart from the UN, the mission staff were (not) provided with support and assistance in various ways by the countries which they came from.

The NATO-led intervention in Libya, Operation Unified Protector, is noteworthy for two central reasons. First, it is the first instance in over a decade of what Andrew Cottey calls “classical humanitarian intervention”—that is, humanitarian intervention that lacks the consent of the government of the target state, has a significant military and forcible element, and is undertaken by Western states. Not since the NATO intervention in 1999 to protect the Kosovar Albanians from ethnic cleansing has there been such an intervention. To be sure, since 2000 there have been some robust peace operations that fall in the gray area between classical humanitarian intervention and first-generation peacekeeping (such as MONUC, the UN Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo). But, even if these operations were to some extent forcible, they had the consent of the government of the target state.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between procurement process and service delivery in MONUSCO Entebbe Support BaseMethodology: The study employed a descriptive case study design. The target population comprised of 261 employees of MONUSCO Entebbe Support Base holding international, United Nations Volunteers (UNV) and National contracts. Random and purposive sampling techniques were specifically used to select samples for this study. Data was collected using questionnaires and interview guides. The quantitative data collected was further analysed using SPSS for descriptive and inferential statistics while the qualitative data was analysed using content analysis.Findings: The study findings showed that procurement process contributed to effective and efficient service delivery in MONUSCO. However, the found relationship between procurement process and service delivery to be very weak. It was found that contracts were awarded to suppliers who met products/materials technical specifications which ensured clear meeting of product standards and service delivery in all MONUSCO user departments. Contracts were awarded to vendors who offer lower price which implied that the bidder with the lowest price is always considered for contract award in MONUSCO ESB. The study found that some vendors did not meet all the terms of contracts as agreed at the time of contract award at the MONUSCO ESB and that to some extent the organization had not taken full appropriate correction measures against non performing vendors. This has to some extent affected the service delivery levels of MONUSCO Entebbe Support Base. It was also found that to a larger extent most vendors had a delivery schedule as per the user department requirements. This meant that the vendors draw and share the supply delivery schedule with the user departments in MONUSCO ESB.Unique contribution to theory, practice and policy: The study recommends that the management needs to ensure that the procurement activities are accomplished in line with the outcome measures. MONUSCO Entebbe Support Base should focus on implementing strict procurement practices that must be followed with contract value thresholds dictating the procurement practices to be adopted by all MONUSCO sections.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between procurement process and service delivery in MONUSCO Entebbe Support BaseMethodology: The study employed a descriptive case study design. The target population comprised of 261 employees of MONUSCO Entebbe Support Base holding international, United Nations Volunteers (UNV) and National contracts. Random and purposive sampling techniques were specifically used to select samples for this study. Data was collected using questionnaires and interview guides. The quantitative data collected was further analysed using SPSS for descriptive and inferential statistics while the qualitative data was analysed using content analysis.Findings: The study findings showed that procurement process contributed to effective and efficient service delivery in MONUSCO. However, the found relationship between procurement process and service delivery to be very weak. It was found that contracts were awarded to suppliers who met products/materials technical specifications which ensured clear meeting of product standards and service delivery in all MONUSCO user departments. Contracts were awarded to vendors who offer lower price which implied that the bidder with the lowest price is always considered for contract award in MONUSCO ESB. The study found that some vendors did not meet all the terms of contracts as agreed at the time of contract award at the MONUSCO ESB and that to some extent the organization had not taken full appropriate correction measures against non performing vendors. This has to some extent affected the service delivery levels of MONUSCO Entebbe Support Base. It was also found that to a larger extent most vendors had a delivery schedule as per the user department requirements. This meant that the vendors draw and share the supply delivery schedule with the user departments in MONUSCO ESB.Unique contribution to theory, practice and policy: The study recommends that the management needs to ensure that the procurement activities are accomplished in line with the outcome measures. MONUSCO Entebbe Support Base should focus on implementing strict procurement practices that must be followed with contract value thresholds dictating the procurement practices to be adopted by all MONUSCO sections.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine the nature of procurement process followed by MONUSCO and the involvement of stakeholders in this process.Methodology: The study employed a descriptive case study design. The target population comprised of 261 employees of MONUSCO Entebbe Support Base holding international, United Nations Volunteers (UNV) and National contracts. Random and purposive sampling techniques were specifically used to select samples for this study. Data was collected using questionnaires and interview guides. The quantitative data collected was further analysed using SPSS for descriptive and inferential statistics while the qualitative data was analysed using content analysis.Findings: The study findings showed that there is procurement planning in most MONUSCO sections; that funds are available before planning; that staff are involved in procurement planning in their respective sections; and that procurement planning contributes to achieve the maximum value for expenditures on goods/services and works to be delivered at MONUSCO sections. The study found that procurement planning had led to improved levels of MONUSCO operations in the areas of humanitarian relief, peacekeeping, development assistance to affected communities. The study further found that staff are involved in the identification and definition of the needs of user sections and that the Statement of Requirements (SOR)/or Scope of Work (SOW) was important in their respective sections. These had aided in full scale involvement of relevant stakeholders in the procurement planning activities of MONUSCO ESB.Unique contribution to theory, practice and policy: The study recommends a clear determination of specifications in terms of required quality and quantities by the end-user departments in MONUSCO ESB. Planning and determination of needs should be done early to allow enough time to initiate the procurement process. The study further recommends that the procurement department should always engage all concerned stakeholders in determining the materials and service specification for quality assurance during service delivery. This will enable the sections to always get the quantity of items as requested by end-users, in their right quantity, right quality and at the right time.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine the nature of procurement process followed by MONUSCO and the involvement of stakeholders in this process.Methodology: The study employed a descriptive case study design. The target population comprised of 261 employees of MONUSCO Entebbe Support Base holding international, United Nations Volunteers (UNV) and National contracts. Random and purposive sampling techniques were specifically used to select samples for this study. Data was collected using questionnaires and interview guides. The quantitative data collected was further analysed using SPSS for descriptive and inferential statistics while the qualitative data was analysed using content analysis.Findings: The study findings showed that there is procurement planning in most MONUSCO sections; that funds are available before planning; that staff are involved in procurement planning in their respective sections; and that procurement planning contributes to achieve the maximum value for expenditures on goods/services and works to be delivered at MONUSCO sections. The study found that procurement planning had led to improved levels of MONUSCO operations in the areas of humanitarian relief, peacekeeping, development assistance to affected communities. The study further found that staff are involved in the identification and definition of the needs of user sections and that the Statement of Requirements (SOR)/or Scope of Work (SOW) was important in their respective sections. These had aided in full scale involvement of relevant stakeholders in the procurement planning activities of MONUSCO ESB.Unique contribution to theory, practice and policy: The study recommends a clear determination of specifications in terms of required quality and quantities by the end-user departments in MONUSCO ESB. Planning and determination of needs should be done early to allow enough time to initiate the procurement process. The study further recommends that the procurement department should always engage all concerned stakeholders in determining the materials and service specification for quality assurance during service delivery. This will enable the sections to always get the quantity of items as requested by end-users, in their right quantity, right quality and at the right time.

Recent developments in the availability of spatial data and the growing trend of spatial analysis in political science has given scholars the ability to account for local-level factors in the study of political violence and conflict management. In this paper, the authors contribute to this growing body of literature by employing geo-coded data to empirically explore a question central to the study of peacekeeping – when peacekeepers are authorized to enter a conflict, where do they go? In other words, what types of violence are peacekeeping forces most concerned with, and what geographic features might prevent or allow for the deployment of peacekeepers? Using the un mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the authors find that peacekeeping forces were less concerned with non-state violence (rebels fighting rebels) and instead focused on government-rebel confrontations and those instances in which government or rebels attacked unarmed civilians. In addition, peacekeepers are shown to cluster around transportation networks, densely populated areas, surface-based resources, and international borders.

The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), hit by the COVID-19 pandemic, has put in place a national response plan. We reviewed the organization of the response in light of the first objective of this plan during the first year of the crisis. This study reviewed the different components of surveillance and some pillars of the health system, which are critical to understanding the results of the response today and in the future. There was a lack of efficiency in internal communication chains due to poor coordination of stakeholders and their interventions; and insufficient financial resources. Despite these weaknesses, the DRC has avoided the announced disaster. Various factors related to the environment, the age structure of its population, the level of circulation of the virus within this population and others to be elucidated in future research could contribute to the understanding of the current situation and influence the future management of epidemics. It is clear that better coordination and resource mobilization, as well as a resilient health system, will allow for better surveillance and less stressful management of future health crises. La République démocratique du Congo (RDC), frappée par la pandémie de la COVID-19, a mis en place un plan de riposte national au regard du premier objectif de ce plan pendant la première année de crise. Cette étude a passé en revue les différentes composantes de la surveillance et certains piliers du système de santé, éléments critiques pour la compréhension des résultats de la riposte aujourd’hui et future. Un manque d’efficience a été observé dans les chaines internes de communication lié à une faible coordination des intervenants et de leurs interventions ; et des ressources financières insuffisantes. Malgré ces faiblesses la RDC a évité la catastrophe annoncée. Divers facteurs liés à l’environnement, à la structure d’âge de sa population, au niveau de circulation du virus au sein de cette population et d’autres à élucider dans les recherches futures pourraient contribuer à la compréhension de la situation actuelle et influencer la gestion future de gestion des épidémies. Il est évident qu’une meilleure coordination et mobilisation des ressources, ainsi qu’un système de santé résiliant, permettront une meilleure surveillance et une gestion moins stressante des crises sanitaires à venir.

The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) declared an Ebola virus disease (EVD) outbreak in North Kivu in August 2018. By June 2019, the outbreak had spread to 26 health zones in northeastern DRC, causing >2,000 reported cases and >1,000 deaths. On June 10, 2019, three members of a Congolese family with EVD-like symptoms traveled to western Uganda’s Kasese District to seek medical care. Shortly thereafter, the Viral Hemorrhagic Fever Surveillance and Laboratory Program (VHF program) at the Uganda Virus Research Institute (UVRI) confirmed that all three patients had EVD. The Ugandan Ministry of Health declared an outbreak of EVD in Uganda’s Kasese District, notified the World Health Organization, and initiated a rapid response to contain the outbreak. As part of this response, UVRI and the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, with the support of Uganda’s Public Health Emergency Operations Center, the Kasese District Health Team, the Superintendent of Bwera General Hospital, the United States Department of Defense’s Makerere University Walter Reed Project, and the United States Mission to Kampala’s Global Health Security Technical Working Group, jointly established an Ebola Field Laboratory in Kasese District at Bwera General Hospital, proximal to an Ebola Treatment Unit (ETU). The laboratory consisted of a rapid containment kit for viral inactivation of patient specimens and a GeneXpert Instrument for performing Xpert Ebola assays. Laboratory staff tested 76 specimens from alert and suspect cases of EVD; the majority were admitted to the ETU (89.3%) and reported recent travel to the DRC (58.9%). Although no EVD cases were detected by the field laboratory, it played an important role in patient management and epidemiological surveillance by providing diagnostic results in <3 hours. The integration of the field laboratory into Uganda’s National VHF Program also enabled patient specimens to be referred to Entebbe for confirmatory EBOV testing and testing for other hemorrhagic fever viruses that circulate in Uganda.

This article analyses the application of the 1972 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Convention (the WHC) in the context of the armed conflicts that have taken place in the Virunga National Park (the Park), a natural world heritage site in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (the DRC). Instead of addressing wartime environmental damage under the law of armed conflict, this article seeks to establish how such damage can be addressed using multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs). MEAs often consist of general principles and vague obligations and their relevance or applicability during situations of armed conflict may be questioned. However, a number of MEAs, including the WHC, authorise their convention bodies to develop detailed and substantive obligations applicable to their parties. Thus, the decisions and recommendations adopted by the World Heritage Committee, a body established under the WHC, provide substantive content to the provisions of the WHC. These decisions and recommendations may, however, run counter to the requirements of military necessity thereby affecting the application of the law of armed conflict. While the position adopted by the World Heritage Committee does not inevitably imply a clash between the obligations in the WHC and the law of armed conflict, it does raise the question of whether the outstanding values of world heritage should trump the rules of military necessity and other pressing concerns during armed conflict. On an informal basis, the World Heritage Committee and the UN peacekeeping forces deployed in the DRC have agreed to perform operations that jointly address the interconnected concerns of security and conservation of natural resources in the region of the Park. This cooperative ‘green-keeping’ operation represents a useful approach to regime interaction and the harmonisation of obligations set out in different legal regimes that are applicable to the same subject matter.

Dans un contexte où la demande des écailles des pangolins pour la médicine traditionnelle chinoise ne cesse d’augmenter, ces animaux se trouvent de plus à plus braconner. Il est donc important que les études soient menées dans leur zone de répartition pour arriver à dégager les motivations de cette exploitation dans chaque zone. C’est dans cet angle que l’étude sur l’exploitation des pangolins et de leurs produits dérivés a été réalisée autour du parc national de Kahuzi-Biega avec pour objectif de dégager les différentes fins pour lesquelles ces animaux y sont exploités et identifier les différents acteurs intervenant dans ce domaine via l’information et les connaissances des riverains. La méthode d’enquête individuelle et collective a été conduite auprès de 116 personnes pendant une période de deux mois (mars et avril 2019) autour du Secteur Tshivanga et du Secteur Itebero. Les analyses comparatives, Khi-deux, Ficher et les analyses à correspondances multiples (ACM) ont été effectuées à l’aide du logiciel Past 3.2. Les résultats obtenus montrent que les pangolins sont principalement exploités pour l’alimentation et la médecine traditionnelles. Cependant, le trafic de leurs écailles a fait augmenter la demande dans la zone. Les demandeurs des écailles viennent principalement des grandes villes (Bukavu, Goma, Kisangani) et des certaines pays étrangers (Ouganda, Burundi, Tanzanie et les agents de la Mission des Nations-Unies pour la Stabilisation au Congo). Le commerce des écailles pour satisfaire la demande externe, bien qu’encore à ces débuts, vient menacer les pangolins dans cette zone où la chasse est strictement interdite. Ce commerce passe par des intermédiaires, dont les principaux sont les enfants du milieu.Mots clés : Étude préliminaire, exploitation, pangolins, Kahuzi-biega, RDC English Title: Preliminary data on the exploitation of Pangolins (Pholidota) about the National Park of Kahuzi-Biega, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)In a context where the demand for pangolin scales for traditional Chinese medicine continues to increase, these animals are increasingly being poached. It is therefore important that studies be carried out in their area of distribution in order to identify the motivations for this exploitation in each area. It is in this perspective that the study on the exploitation of pangolins and their by-products was carried out around the Kahuzi-Biega National Park with the aim of identifying the different purposes for which these animals are exploited there and to identify the different actors involved in this field through the information and knowledge of local residents. The individual and collective survey method was conducted among 116 people over a two-month period (March and April 2019) around the Tshivanga Sector and the Itebero Sector. Comparative, Chi-square, File and Multiple Correspondence Analysis (MCA) analyses were carried out using Past 3.2 software. The results obtained show that pangolins are mainly exploited for traditional food and medicine. However, the trafficking of their scales has increased demand in the area. The demand for the scales comes mainly from the big cities (Bukavu, Goma, Kisangani) and from some foreign countries (Uganda, Burundi, Tanzania and agents of the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Congo). The trade in scales to satisfy external demand, although still in its infancy, is threatening pangolins in this area where hunting is strictly prohibited. This trade goes through intermediaries, the main ones being local children.Keywords: Preliminary study, exploitation, pangolins, Kahuzi-biega, DRC.

The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) is a country with the longest rebel conflict of the 21st century. This article analyzes the causes of the UN’s difficulties in finding a solution to the crisis of rebel groups which threaten security in the DRC, particularly in its eastern part. Most of the existing work on the subject under study state that the failure of peacekeeping missions in the DRC are due to various factors such as mandate, strength, complexity of violence, etc. However, existing studies have not analyzed the work of MONUSCO as a regime and why this regime is not effective. In approaching the theory of the international regime, this article uses the internal and external factors of the regime to analyze the causes of this ineffective peacekeeping mission in the DRC. Research applies qualitative research methods with data from primary and secondary data obtained from official MONUSCO documents, books, journals, and online news. This article shows that the rebel crisis in the DRC is due to various internal problems and that the MONUSCO principles and rules are ineffective in eradicating the rebel groups which cause insecurity hence deterring peace in the DRC.AbstrakRepublik Demokratik Kongo (DRC) adalah negara dengan konflik pemberontakan terpanjang pada abad ke-21. Artikel ini menganalisis penyebab kesulitan PBB dalam mencari solusi atas krisis kelompok pemberontak yang mengancam keamanan di DRC, khususnya yang terjadi di wilayah bagian timurnya. Sebagian besar tulisan yang sudah ada mengenai subjek yang diteliti menyatakan bahwa kegagalan misi penjaga perdamaian di DRC disebabkan oleh berbagai faktor seperti mandat, kekuatan, kompleksitas kekerasan, dll. Namun, penelitian terdahulu belum pernah menganalisis MONUSCO sebagai rezim dan mengapa rezim ini tidak efektif. Dengan pendekatan teori rezim internasional, artikel ini menggunakan faktor internal dan eksternal rezim untuk menganalisis penyebab tidak efektifnya misi pemeliharaan perdamaian di DRC. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode penelitian kualitatif dengan data primer dan data sekunder yang diperoleh dari dokumen resmi MONUSCO, buku, jurnal, dan berita online. Artikel ini menunjukkan bahwa krisis pemberontak di DRC disebabkan oleh berbagai masalah internal dan bahwa prinsip dan aturan MONUSCO tidak efektif dalam memberantas kelompok pemberontak yang menyebabkan ketidakamanan sehingga menghalangi perdamaian di DRC.

Abstract: The economists agree that actually the African economies did take off. A further growth, however, needs investments. Attracting these investments is precisely one of the purposes of the African Union with her 54 Member States and of - in a geographically more limited area - the OHADA, the organization for the harmonization of business law in mainly French-speaking Africa. The originality of the OHADA consists in the adoption of uniform Acts, which apply in all 17 Member States. It is only fair to say that through these uniform statutes the influence of France and that of the French juridical culture are perpetuated in Africa. In this paper, the OHADA legislation is described, more specifically from the perspective of one of the Member States, namely the Democratic Republic of Congo, the former Belgian colony. An overview of the uniform Acts relating to the following commercial contracts is given: sale, arbitration agreement, carriage of goods by land, lease for professional purposes, lease of the management of a business, agency and brokerage, pledge, surety, and other guarantees. The uniform Acts modernize the outdated law of the Member States. Some of the introduced innovations are the Trade and Personal Property Credit Register and the Trustee for the guarantees. The French law as it stands in our days (including e.g. the trust-like device of the "fiducie") serves as a model, but so does the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG) and the UNIDROIT Principles. The latter is not faithfully followed, though. For instance, the remedy of the anticipatory breach (provided for in the CISG) did disappear out of the revised uniform Act relating to the general commercial law. The unilateral avoidance for breach of contract (provided for in the UNIDROIT Principles), on the other hand, is only by exception allowed and the exceptional circumstances are not defined. The creditor must normally thus apply to the court for an order resolving the contract. The non-commercial special contracts continue to be regulated by the national law of each Member State. This can produce odd effects, so is the ownership of the goods sold transferred to the buyer at the very moment of the agreement of the contracting parties according to the Congolese Civil Code, while the ownership of the goods sold in Congo by commercial contract takes place at the moment of the delivery since the joining of the OHADA. In the present state of affairs, the general law of contracts (as opposed to the OHADA special rules for the different nominate contracts) remains also part of the national law of the Member States. Obviously, this has to change by all means, if one wants the harmonization of the commercial contracts. This article deals therefore also with a text that should become the cornerstone of the OHADA legislation, i.e., the preliminary draft on general contract law. It follows as close as possible the UNIDROIT Principles and there are good reasons for this, as explained by the draughts man professor M. Fontaine. Unfortunately, this draft is momentarily blocked off backstage by some lawyers steeped in the myth of the French legal culture. It may indeed seem hard to imagine, for instance, that the causa disappears! But then also does the consideration in the UNIDROIT Principles.

The article explores the functioning of the institutional and legal protection of victims of terrorist acts at the international universal and regional level. The role of international legal acts aimed at preventing terrorist attacks, which have the effect of harming victims of terrorism, is emphasized. Attention was paid to the provisions of the UN Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy (A/RES/60/288) on the protection of victims of terrorism, the acts adopted at the international, universal and regional levels, which regulate the issue of the legal status of victims of crimes, including persons who suffered as a result of terrorist crimes, providing them with legal and other types of assistance (psychological, financial, etc.) were highlighted. The institutions created at the international universal level and their contribution to providing assistance to persons affected by terrorist acts are characterized, among them: the United Nations Victims of Terrorism Support Portal, the Counter-Terrorism Implementation Task Force (CTITF), the United Nations Office on Drugs and crime (UNODC). The article defines the powers of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism, whose activities contribute to the protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms by recommending relevant rights, laws and policies to combat terrorism.The activities of regional international institutions operating within the European Union (EU) and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) that make a significant contribution to the provision of assistance to victims of terrorism by fulfilling the mission assigned to them (provision of expert knowledge, recommendations and assistance to national authorities and organizations, application of relevant norms, etc.), namely the EU Centre of Expertise for Victims of Terrorism, the European Network of Victims’ Rights, the OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR), were analyzed. The role of non-governmental institutions in the protection of victims of terrorism is emphasized. In particular, attention is focused on the activities of the Lebanese Association for Victims of Terrorism, which is a non-governmental, non-commercial structure operating throughout the territory of the Republic of Lebanon. Relevant conclusions were made.

The pandemic of COVID-19 has afflicted every individual and has initiated a cascade of directly or indirectly involved events in precipitating mental health issues. The human species is a wanderer and hunter-gatherer by nature, and physical social distancing and nationwide lockdown have confined an individual to physical isolation. The present review article was conceived to address psychosocial and other issues and their aetiology related to the current pandemic of COVID-19. The elderly age group has most suffered the wrath of SARS-CoV-2, and social isolation as a preventive measure may further induce mental health issues. Animal model studies have demonstrated an inappropriate interacting endogenous neurotransmitter milieu of dopamine, serotonin, glutamate, and opioids, induced by social isolation that could probably lead to observable phenomena of deviant psychosocial behavior. Conflicting and manipulated information related to COVID-19 on social media has also been recognized as a global threat. Psychological stress during the current pandemic in frontline health care workers, migrant workers, children, and adolescents is also a serious concern. Mental health issues in the current situation could also be induced by being quarantined, uncertainty in business, jobs, economy, hampered academic activities, increased screen time on social media, and domestic violence incidences. The gravity of mental health issues associated with the pandemic of COVID-19 should be identified at the earliest. Mental health organization dedicated to current and future pandemics should be established along with Government policies addressing psychological issues to prevent and treat mental health issues need to be developed. References World Health Organization (WHO) Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Dashboard. 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William Lacy Swing is the Director General of the International Organization for Migration (IOM). He has held the office of Special Representative to the UN Secretary-General for the Democratic Republic of Congo (2003–2008) and Western Sahara (2001–2003), and headed the UN Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara. This followed a long career in the United States Department of State, during which he served as ambassador six times.

UN peacekeeping missions involve the participation of military personnel from different countries, and all the interactions between soldiers take place in a culturally diverse military environment. Deployment in a foreign soil, away from family and home creates a lot of physical and emotional challenges for the soldiers; therefore the emotional climate of the military base gains importance. This paper aims to explore the emotional climate and the factors influencing it in a UN military organization in Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Africa. The data was gathered from 5 officers of Indian Armed Forces deployed in DRC, using e-mail interviewing technique in which participants’ responses were gathered using an interview schedule of open-ended questions. The findings suggest that overall a positive emotional climate of security and trust exists in the organization. Political context, commanders’ practices and the relationships among soldiers are the factors influencing and shaping the emotional climate. Future research into these factors is important to help identify positive climate practices (PEC) which have several implications for the soldiers’ performance, motivation, and well-being.

Abstract Background The United Nations (UN) Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo (MONUSCO) comprises the largest and longest serving peacekeeping operation to date. Since the launch of the mission in 1999, sexual relations between UN peacekeepers and the local population regularly occur; some resulting in children being conceived. Reports have indicated that women and girls bearing children from such relations face difficult socio-economic realities. The present study is the first to explore the situation of peacekeeper fathered children (PKFC) through a qualitative analysis that includes interview material from mothers and child participants. Methods The article uses theories from stigma research to illustrate how children conceived through sexual relations with UN peacekeepers integrate into social networks. We conducted a case study of mothers and their PKFC at different sites of UN peacekeeping (UNPK) in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Based on 95 in-depth interviews held in 2018, a thematic qualitative analysis examined experiences of stigma and discrimination. In order to understand the challenges of mothers and children from a transgenerational perspective, we evaluated perceptions of rejection rooted in the mother-child relationship. Results Of the mothers and children surveyed, a large majority struggled with stigmatizing behaviour by family and/or community members. PKFC perceived their discrimination to be based upon their mixed ethnicity, fatherlessness, illegitimacy at birth, as well as a lack of resources and opportunity. Mothers most often attributed their stigma to economic deprivation, extra-marital sexual relations, single parenting and being associated with UNPK. Parallels in the experiences of mothers and children suggest a bi-directional transmission of status loss and stigma between generations. Conclusions This is the first empirical study to compare the situation of PKFC and their mothers in any country of UNPK deployment. The findings highlight multiple burdens that affect their daily lives and illustrate an interplay between drivers of stigmatization for mothers and children. The overarching needs identified are financial, and these call for action regarding policies and programmes that provide resources to those concerned. The results further demonstrate the need for psychosocial support that considers transgenerational dynamics and both mothers and children as core addressees of assistance.

This article examines the activities of the UN peacekeeping mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and the main problems associated with its organization and conduct. The author analyzes the prospects for effective modernization of the UN mission in this country, taking into account the historical, socio-political, ethnic, economic contradictions existing there. Based on his own experience of participation in the UN mission in the DRC and the experience of his colleagues, the author provides a comprehensive assessment of the conflict and possible ways to resolve it. The research has shown that mission work can be significantly more efficient under certain conditions. The author, on the basis of personal participation in the UN mission in the DRC, for the first time summarized the problem zones in the work of the mission and the reasons for their existence and proposed direction for increasing the efficiency of the UN mission in the DRC, the prospect for its development. Despite the multimillion-dollar infusion, the country has remained one of the most economically backward in the world for decades. Many analysts agree that expensive development projects tend to work for themselves rather than for the Congolese. The shadow economy in the DRC is flourishing, and with it the illegal export of the most valuable minerals (coltan, tungsten, cassiterite, gold, diamonds and much more), the final destination of which is in the largest industrial corporations in Europe and America. As the analysis has shown, the colossal financial flows going to the DRC are primarily aimed at protecting the sphere of raw material interests of foreign companies in this country. This is precisely where the policy of double standards of Western and now Eastern partners is manifested.

Abstract Background The United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo (MONUSCO) has been marred by widespread allegations of sexual exploitation and abuse (SEA) of women and girls by UN peacekeepers. There is minimal research conducted on the perceptions of communities most affected by the SEA themselves, and even less about those below the age of 18. Methods Using mixed-methods data, we examined the perceptions of adolescents aged 13–17 on how the lives of women and girls have been affected by the presence of UN peacekeepers within the DRC. SenseMaker, a mixed-methods narrative capture tool, was used to survey participants around six United Nations bases across eastern DRC. Each participant shared a story about the experiences of Congolese women and girls in relation to MONUSCO personnel and interpreted their own stories by answering a series of questions. Patterns of adolescent perspectives (aged 13–17) were analyzed in comparison to all other age groups and emerging qualitative themes were mapped onto quantitative variables. Results Quantitative data showed that adolescents were more likely, in comparison to all other age groups, to perceive interactions between peacekeepers and women/girls as being initiated by the woman/girl, that the MONUSCO personnel was perceived to be able to offer protection, and that the interactions between local women/girls and peacekeepers were sexual in nature. Three qualitative themes emerged: poverty bringing peacekeepers and women/girls together, material/financial gain through transactional sex and sex work, and support-seeking actions of affected women/girls. Conclusions Our mixed methods data illustrate the problematic finding that adolescents facing poverty may perceive SEA as protective through the monetary and material support gained. These findings contribute to the growing body of literature on peacekeeping economies and have implications for the prevention of, and response to, peacekeeper-perpetrated SEA.

Purpose This study aims to identify the main challenges to achieving humanitarian logistics in the context of United Nations peace missions in sub-Saharan Africa and to present suggestions for overcoming the logistical gaps encountered. Design/methodology/approach The methodological approach of the work focuses on the comparative case study of the United Nations Mission in South Sudan, the United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilisation Mission in the Central African Republic and The United Nations Organisation Stabilisation Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo from 2014 to 2021. The approach combined a systematic literature review with the authors’ empirical experience as participant observers in each mission, combining theory and practice. Findings As a result, six common challenges were identified for carrying out humanitarian logistics in the three peace missions. Each challenge revealed a logistical gap for which an appropriate solution was suggested based on the best practices found in the case study of each mission. Research limitations/implications This paper presents limitations when addressing the logistical analysis based on only three countries under the UN mission as a case study, as well as conceiving that certain flaws in the system, in the observed period, are already in the process of correction with the adoption of the 2016–2021 strategy by the UN Global Logistic Cluster. The authors suggest that further studies can be carried out by expanding the number of cases or using countries where other bodies (AU, NATO or EU) work. Originality/value To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this study is the first comparative case study of humanitarian logistics on the three principal missions of the UN conducted by academics and practitioners.

The purpose of this research is to analyze the capabilities of the Indonesian peacekeepers and the TNI's strategies in carrying out the development of the capabilities of the Indonesian peacekeepers to face multidimensional threats in the United Nations Peacekeeping Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. This research uses a qualitative method with a case study research design on several events in the implementation of the UN peacekeeping capability development carried out by the TNI in the period of 2018 to 2020. The case studies describes the positive things of the capability development process shown by some achivements gained by Indonesian Peacekeeping Forces as well as some incidents that need to draw attention by TNI in one of the Indonesian peacekeeping missions in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Data collection was carried out openly through interviews with research subjects which were directly involved in the capabilities building of the Indonesian peacekeeping forces that are supported by the researcher’s experiences, field observations and data analysis referring to literature studies. The research shows that the capabilities of the Indonesian peacekeepers have not been fully prepared to face multidimensional threats. Among some successes in the mission area, several incidents occurred and caused both personnel and material losses. The TNI needs to adopt the United Nations Peacekeeping Capability Readiness System (UNPCRS) as the current UN system to provide UN units that allows the development of UN peacekeeping capabilities to be carried out systematically, comprehensively and involves all aspects of capability, including human resource and unit capability standards, leadership, networking, materials, facilities and infrastructure. In addition, regulatory and budgetary aspects are critical in overall capability development efforts.

Conflict recurrence in the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) provides a litmus test to the Southern African Development Community’s (SADC’s) capacity to sustainably resolve the conflict and build peace. The surrender of the March 23 (M23) rebels, followed by overtures to incorporate the same into the Congolese military and political institutions, seem not to have made much significant impact on the security stability in the eastern part of the country. Armed activities by militia groups such as the Democratic Liberation Forces of Rwanda (FDLR), the Allied Democratic Forces (ADF), the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA), and various Mayi Mayi groups are likely to cause a recurrence of a fully fledged armed conflict in eastern Congo. Whilst the UN Mission for the Stabilisation of Congo (MONUSCO), along with its Intervention Brigade continue to make efforts to support the Congolese government to address the security situation in the country, this article presents a critical analysis on the prospects and constraints of SADC to sustainably resolve the conflict and build peace in the context of conflict recurrence. For purposes of conflict resolution and peacebuilding, the DRC falls within SADC’s area of sub-regional responsibility, which overlaps that of the International Conference of the Great Lakes Region (ICGLR). The paper looks at the political/diplomatic and military/ security initiatives that SADC can take to complement the current efforts of critical role players such as MONUSCO and ICGLR in sustainably resolving the recurring conflict and building peace.It also analyses the prospects of such sub-regional initiatives. Considering the conflict matrix of the eastern Congo conflict with specific reference to its recurrence, an examination of the likely constraints that SADC could encounter in trying to resolve the eastern Congo conflict will be presented. Policy suggestions will be proffered on what can be done to encounter such constraints.The research adopted a qualitative approach premised on interviews. Secondary sources, including key policy documents and statements of the SADC, AU, ICGLR and UN, were utilised. To complement the primary sources, structured opportunity interviews were conducted at seminars and workshops with academics and senior political and security analysts conversant with the SADC conflict and peace dynamics.

The spectrum of peacekeeping operations has grown increasingly broad and has come to include various – and sometimes simultaneous – dimensions, such as conflict prevention, peacekeeping, peacemaking, peace enforcement and peacebuilding. With the ascendancy of more robust peacekeeping mandates, such as the one assigned by United Nations (UN) Security Council Resolution 2098 to the UN Organisation Stabilisation Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO), there is a need to analyse thoroughly the complexity of the contexts in which peacekeepers are deployed today, the rules applicable to their engagement, and the modalities they can introduce to adapt to new realities. In this interview, the Review sought the opinion of a distinguished military commander and strategist on the future evolution of peacekeeping missions.Lieutenant General Babacar Gaye has been the serving UN Military Adviser for Peacekeeping Operations and Head of the Office of Military Affairs for the past three years. He has exercised command responsibilities at all levels of the military hierarchy and has been among the privileged officers to lead the Senegalese military. Besides his participation in Operation Fode Kaba II in Gambia and the conduct of several campaigns in Casamance, Senegal, General Gaye has taken part in UN operations in Sinai, Lebanon, and Kuwait, where he commanded the Senegalese battalion during Operation Desert Storm. His experience also includes a tour of duty of more than five years in the Democratic Republic of the Congo as MONUC/MONUSCO Force Commander. Prior to that, he served as Ambassador of the Republic of Senegal to Germany, Austria, and the organs of the UN in Vienna. General Officer of the Armoured Cavalry branch, General Gaye is a graduate of the prestigious Saint-Cyr military academy and the Ecole Supérieure de Guerre of France.

Ambassador Abdou Abarry, Permanent Representative of Niger to the United Nations (UN), presented his credentials to UN Secretary-General Antonío Guterres on 4 June 2019. Mr Abarry had previously been the Special Representative of the Chairperson of the African Union (AU) Commission and AU Head of Office in the Democratic Republic of the Congo since 2014. Prior to that, he headed the AU Liaison Office to the Economic Community of West African States in Abuja, Nigeria, beginning in 2011. A career diplomat, Mr Abarry was Ambassador to Belgium from 2003 to 2011, accredited concurrently to Greece, Luxembourg and the Netherlands; he also had accreditation to the UN Offices in Geneva and Vienna, the European Union Commission and the African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States. He was Diplomatic Adviser to the President of the Republic of Niger and Director-General of State Protocol from 1999 to 2003, and served as a Counsellor at Niger's Permanent Mission in New York from 1992 to 1997. Mr Abarry holds a master's degree in international relations from the Ecole Supérieure d'Administration et des Carrières Juridiques de Lomé, in Togo, and earned a diploma from the International Relations Institute of Cameroon. He has received honorific distinctions including the Chevalier de l'Ordre National du Mérite du Niger (1999), Grand-Croix de la Couronne du Royaume de Belgique (2011), Commandeur de l'Ordre National du Niger (2014) and Officier de la Légion d'Honneur Française (2014).

The violence in the African region has been alarming in regard to colonial domination, tribal differences, economic marginalization, majoritarianism, political instability, and civil wars. This research’s key areas of concern are the Democratic Republic of Congo and Liberia, where years of civil wars and political instability have called for an effective course of action. In such a scenario, women are the most vulnerable social gender group in any society, and how they are affected due to an armed conflict also differs from the effects of conflict on men. United Nations Organization introduced peacekeeping Resolution 1325, in the year 2000, which focuses on the impacts of armed conflict and war on women and works for their inclusion in peacekeeping and peacebuilding processes. However, due to many shortcomings in the implementation of this resolution and the lack of accountability and overall cooperation between the recipient states and UNO, this resolution has not been implemented with efficacy in Congo and Liberia. In order to analyze the achievements and failures of this resolution and for the establishment of possible solutions/recommendations for the operational effectiveness of the resolution and the induction of women into peace processes, this research has been conducted. This is a qualitative and deductive research. The research design is based on a descriptive method. The theory used is “Feminism” with a slight reference to Johan Galtung’s model of the violence triangle. The literature used is taken from secondary data, gathered through ‘Purposive Sampling.’ The data analysis conducted is Thematic Analysis, with different sorts of coding methods. However, due to less time and limited access we could only use secondary and nonstructured interviews for the data analysis. The findings are based on a comparative analysis between Congo and Liberia, which claims that Resolution 1325 so far has been the most successful in Liberia, and violence in Congo has continued so far.