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1
Clark, Truman R. "Prohibition in Puerto Rico,1917–1933." Journal of Latin American Studies 27, no. 1 (1995): 77–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022216x00010178.
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AbstractWith the passage of the Jones Act (1917), the United States expanded Puerto Rican autonomy, made Puerto Ricans citizens of the USA, and gave the island prohibition of alcohol. The Puerto Rican people overwhelmingly ratified prohibition in a referendum in July 1917. Prohibition won because it was emotionally linked to patriotism and morality. Prohibition enforcement was almost impossible, compounded by the colonial status of the island. It was that status which brought an immediate end to prohibition in Puerto Rico with the demise of prohibition in the United States in 1933.
2
Melendez, Edwin. "Puerto Rican Migration and Occupational Selectivity, 1982–1981." International Migration Review 28, no. 1 (1994): 49–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/019791839402800103.
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This study examines whether or not the likelihood of Puerto Rican workers choosing to migrate to the United States depends on their occupations or skills. The study determined that the occupational composition among thosemigrating from the island to the United States generally corresponds to the occupational distribution in Puerto Rico. The exception is that, after controlling for labor market conditions in Puerto Rico and in the United States and for other characteristics of the migrants, farm workers, laborers, and craft and kindred workers are overrepresented in the flow of migrants. The two most important factors contributing to the occupational distribution of migrants are whether or not they already have job offers in the United States and whether they are currently employed in Puerto Rico. Among those returning to Puerto Rico, the study found no positive or negative occupational selectivity.
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Amador, Emma. "Caring for Labor History." Labor 17, no. 4 (2020): 65–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/15476715-8643496.
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This essay charts how the author’s interest in labor history and the history of care work were inspired by her own family history of migrations from Puerto Rico to the United States. It considers how her grandmother’s stories about being a child needle worker in Puerto Rico and a migrant domestic worker in New York led her to think critically about the connections and overlap between the home and workplace in the lives of Puerto Rican women. As a student, investigating her personal history led her to discover a rich tradition of Puerto Rican feminist labor history that raised questions about reproductive politics and caring labor that remain pressing in our contemporary moment.
4
Charles, Guy-Uriel, and Luis Fuentes-Rohwer. "No Voice, No Exit, But Loyalty? Puerto Rico and Constitutional Obligation." Michigan Journal of Race & Law, no. 26.0 (2021): 133. http://dx.doi.org/10.36643/mjrl.26.sp.no.
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The Michigan Law Review is honored to have supported Professors Charles and Fuentes-Rohwer's Essay on the subjugated status of Puerto Rico as an "unincorporated territory." This Essay contextualizes Puerto Rico not as an anomalous colonial vestige but as fundamentally a part of the United States' ongoing commitment to racial economic domination. We are thrilled to highlight this work, which indicts our constitutional complacence with the second-class status of Puerto Rican citizens and demands a national commitment to self-determination for Puerto Rico.
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Zambrana-Echevarría, Cristina, Lorriane De Jesús-Kim, Rocio Márquez-Karry, Dimuth Siritunga, and David Jenkins. "Diversity of Papaya ringspot virus Isolates in Puerto Rico." HortScience 51, no. 4 (2016): 362–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.21273/hortsci.51.4.362.
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Papaya ringspot virus (PRSV) devastates papaya production worldwide. In Puerto Rico, papaya fields can be completely infected with PRSV within a year of planting. Information about the diversity of the Puerto Rican PRSV (PR-PRSV) population is relevant to establish a control strategy in the island. The coat protein gene (cp) of PRSV was sequenced from 62 isolates from different regions in Puerto Rico. The viral population of PRSV in Puerto Rico has 4% nucleotide and 5% amino acid diversity. Analysis of the coat protein (CP) amino acid sequence showed a variable amino terminal (N-terminal) region with a conserved aphid transmission motif and a variable EK repeat region. The core and carboxyl terminal (C-terminal) region were conserved. In the phylogenetic analysis, Puerto Rican isolates grouped independently of their geographical origin, with the exception of southern isolates that formed two separate subgroups and were the most divergent. Sequences of the cp from the Puerto Rican isolates, when compared with sequences from other countries, showed least genetic distance with isolates from the United States and Australia, followed by other American and Caribbean isolates. The U.S. and Australian isolates are sister taxa to the Puerto Rican isolates in the phylogenetic tree. This suggests that PRSV from Puerto Rico and the isolates from the United States and Australia have a common origin thought to be from a Mexican population.
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Safa, Helen I. "Changing Forms of U.S. Hegemony in Puerto Rico: The Impact on the Family and Sexuality." Itinerario 25, no. 3-4 (2001): 90–111. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s016511530001500x.
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It has been over a hundred years since the U.S. took control of Puerto Rico. In that time, the way in which the U.S. perceived Puerto Rico has changed from a colony requiring Americanisation to, in the 1950s, its showcase of democracy in the Caribbean, to today, an island that still retains geopolitical importance for the U.S., but represents an increasing economic burden. The failure of Operation Bootstrap, as the Puerto Rican industrialization program was known, resulted in permanent large-scale unemployment, with a population dependent on federal transfers for a living, and a constant source of migration to the mainland, where over half of Puerto Ricans now live. I shall trace the outline of these three stages in U.S. hegemony over Puerto Rico, and argue that throughout the U.S. Congress was reluctant to fully incorporate Puerto Rico, because its population was deemed racially and socially inferior to that of the mainland. Though the removal of Spain from Puerto Rico, Cuba and the Philippines was considered part of the its ‘manifest destiny’, the United States never intended to incorporate these people so different from the U.S. as part of the American nation, as was done with its earlier acquisitions in Texas, Alaska or even Hawaii.
7
Duany, Jorge. "Mobile Livelihoods: The Sociocultural Practices of Circular Migrants between Puerto Rico and the United States." International Migration Review 36, no. 2 (2002): 355–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-7379.2002.tb00085.x.
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This article focuses on the bilateral flow of people between Puerto Rico and the United States - what has come to be known as circular, commuter, or revolving-door migration. It documents the migrants' livelihood practices based on a recent field study of population flows between Puerto Rico and the mainland. Specifically, the basic characteristics of multiple movers, one-time movers and nonmovers residing in Puerto Rico are compared. More broadly, the article assesses the implications of circular migration for Puerto Rican communities on and off the island. The author's basic argument is that the constant displacement of people - both to and from the island – blurs the territorial, linguistic, and juridical boundaries of the Puerto Rican nation. As people expand their means of subsistence across space, they develop multiple attachments to various localities. In the Puerto Rican situation, such mobile livelihoods are easier to establish than in other places because of the free movement of labor and capital between the island and the mainland. The author hypothesizes that circulation does not entail major losses in human capital for most Puerto Ricans, but rather often constitutes an occupational, educational, and linguistic asset.
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Santiago, Carlos E. "The Migratory Impact of Minimum Wage Legislation: Puerto Rico, 1970–1987." International Migration Review 27, no. 4 (1993): 772–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/019791839302700403.
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Minimum wage research has historically focused on labor mobility between covered and uncovered labor markets within a geographic area. This study examines the impact of minimum wage setting on labor migration. A multiple time series framework is applied to monthly data for Puerto Rico from 1970–1987. The results show that net emigration from Puerto Rico to the United States fell in response to significant changes in the manner in which minimum wage policy was conducted, particularly after 1974. The extent of commuter type labor migration between Puerto Rico and the United States is influenced by minimum wage policy, with potentially important consequences for human capital investment and long-term standards of living.
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Basáñez Barrio, Endika. "Una revisión histórico-política de la producción literaria puertorriqueña. Entrevista con Fernando Feliú Matilla / A historical and political review of Puertorriquean Literatura. Interview to Fernando Feliú Matilla." Kamchatka. Revista de análisis cultural., no. 9 (August 31, 2017): 207. http://dx.doi.org/10.7203/kam.9.10150.
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Resumen: A lo largo de la siguiente entrevista, el profesor, historiador, crítico e investigador la de la Universidad de Puerto Rico, el catedrático en literatura puertorriqueña don Fernando Feliú Matilla, nos permite establecer una visión histórica de la génesis artística llevada a cabo en la Isla a través de los diferentes contextos socio-políticos que han tenido lugar en la misma desde la aparición de una literatura puertorriqueña propia y distintiva hasta la anexión de Puerto Rico a los Estados Unidos de América como Estado Libre Asociado en 1952 y su impronta en la génesis isleña. Si bien la entrevista tiene como objeto principal la literatura boricua, también se debaten en la misma el falocentrismo cultural presente en la cultura puertorriqueña, las relaciones políticas entre San Juan y Washington D.C., la influencia de los textos diaspóricos en la producción isleña o la situación del panorama artístico actual en Puerto Rico.Palabras clave: Literatura hispanoamericana; Literatura puertorriqueña; Estados Unidos; emigración; política. Abstract: Throughtout the following interview, professor Fernando Feliú Matilla, who holds a chair in Puerto Rican Studies and Literature, offers his personal point of view after years of research about Puerto Rican literature written in the 20th century. The interview is developed from a historical perspective, which means that it starts right from the moment Puerto Rico was still a Spanish colony in the Americas, until the present day, being Puerto Rico a Free Associated State of the United States of America (also known as American Commonwealth of Puerto Rico). Besides the literature, professor Feliú Matilla also gives his opinion about the absence of female writers in Puerto Rican literature, the relationships between San Juan and Washington D.C., the cultural movements that Puerto Rican literature written nowadays is influenced by, and many other different topics such as Caribbean literature written in the United States and its connection with Puerto Rican art.Keywords: Hispanic Literature; Puerto Rican Literature; USA; immigration; politics.
10
Funkhouser, Edward, and Fernando A. Ramos. "The Choice of Migration Destination: Dominican and Cuban Immigrants to the Mainland United States and Puerto Rico." International Migration Review 27, no. 3 (1993): 537–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/019791839302700303.
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Puerto Rico provides an alternative destination for immigrants from the Spanish-speaking Caribbean because the culture is similar to that in the source country. In this study, we use the 1980 Census of Population to examine the importance of relative earnings and culture in the choice of destination. The main finding is the similar pattern of choice of location for immigrants from the Dominican Republic and Cuba. The more educated and more professional immigrants are found in either Puerto Rico or outside the enclave on the mainland. Within this group, those with less time remaining in the labor market and lower English ability are found in Puerto Rico. We find that not all differences in location decision are attributable to differences in reward structure by location.
11
Lapp, Michael. "The Rise and Fall of Puerto Rico as a Social Laboratory, 1945–1965." Social Science History 19, no. 2 (1995): 169–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0145553200017284.
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Before the 1940s Puerto Rico was an obscure possession for most American social scientists, as indeed it was for most United States citizens. Conquered in the Spanish-American War, Puerto Rico was overshadowed in the American consciousness by its more tumultuous neighbor Cuba. To be sure, by the 1930s, there were sparks of interest among foundation staffs, New Dealers, and radicals in the plight of the Puerto Rican poor. Yet on the whole the island continued to merit only cursory attention.
12
Leguízamo, Alejandro, Seung C. Lee, Elizabeth L. Jeglic, and Cynthia Calkins. "Utility of the Static-99 and Static-99R With Latino Sex Offenders." Sexual Abuse 29, no. 8 (2015): 765–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1079063215618377.
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The predictive validity of the Static-99 measures with ethnic minorities in the United States has only recently been assessed with mixed results. We assessed the predictive validity of the Static-99 and Static-99R with a sample of Latino sex offenders ( N = 483) as well as with two subsamples (U.S.-born, including Puerto Rico, and non-U.S.-born). The overall sexual recidivism rate was very low (1.9%). Both the Static-99 measures were able to predict sexual recidivism for offenders born in the United States and Puerto Rico, but neither was effective in doing so for other Latino immigrants. Calibration analyses ( N = 303) of the Static-99R were consistent with the literature and provided support for the potential use of the measure with Latinos born in the United States and Puerto Rico. These findings and their implications are discussed as they pertain to the assessment of Latino sex offenders.
13
Joshi, Eric, and Amogh Joshi. "Where Credit is due: on the Puerto Rican Debt Crisis." Information Management and Business Review 9, no. 1 (2017): 6–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.22610/imbr.v9i1.1591.
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This paper provides a comprehensive breakdown of the ongoing economic crisis in the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. It explores the backdrop of the crisis by analyzing Puerto Rico’s relationship with the U.S., macroeconomic indicators and pertinent legislations. It’s entirely unique contribution is the analysis of the newly introduced act- PROMESA, which enables Puerto Rico to restructure its debt. We have provided an explanation of the important sections of this legislation which govern the debt negotiation process. The PROMESA act has been extended to apply to other unincorporated territories of the United States as well should they run into arrears, which broadens the scope of this paper. We have extended the findings of pre-existing body of work on sovereign debt restructuring hurdles and explained how PROMESA addresses them. We have also used previous works to suggest measures to expedite Puerto Rico’s debt restructuring process with creditors. This paper could also serve as a handbook for creditors looking to navigate through the post-PROMESA debt restructuring process.
14
Camacho-Mercado, Clara L., Raúl Figueroa, Heriberto Acosta, Steven E. Arnold, and Irving E. Vega. "Profiling of Alzheimer’s disease patients in Puerto Rico: A comparison of two distinct socioeconomic areas." SAGE Open Medicine 4 (January 1, 2016): 205031211562782. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2050312115627826.
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Objective: The Latino/Hispanic community in the United States is at higher risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease than other ethnic groups. Specifically, Caribbean Hispanics showed a more severe Alzheimer’s disease symptomatology than any other ethnic group. In a previous study, we demonstrated that the mortality rate associated with Alzheimer’s disease in Puerto Rico is higher than that reported in the United States. Moreover, the mortality rate associated with Alzheimer’s disease was higher among Puerto Rican living in Puerto Rico than those in the mainland United States. There is also a differential geographical distribution of mortality rate associated with Alzheimer’s disease in Puerto Rico, which may be associated with differential socioeconomic status and/or access to healthcare. However, there is no information regarding the clinical profile of Alzheimer’s disease patients in Puerto Rico. Methods: Here, we present the results of a retrospective study directed to profile Alzheimer’s disease patients clustered into two groups based on areas previously determined with low (Metro Region) and high (Northwest-Central Region) mortality rate associated with Alzheimer’s disease in Puerto Rico. Results: Significant difference in the age-at-diagnosis and years of education was found among patients within the two studied regions. Despite these differences, both regions showed comparable levels of initial and last Mini Mental State Examination scores and rate of cognitive decline. Significant difference was also observed in the occurance of co-morbidities associated with Alzheimer’s disease. Conclusions: The differential profile of Alzheimer’s disease patients correlated with differences in socioeconomic status between these two regions, suggesting that covariant associated with social status may contribute to increased risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease. Further studies should be conducted to determine the role of socioeconomic factors and healthy living practices as risk factors for Alzheimer’s disease.
15
Yuan, Fei, Jose Javier Lopez, Sabrina Arnold, et al. "Forestation in Puerto Rico, 1970s to Present." Journal of Geography and Geology 9, no. 3 (2017): 30. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/jgg.v9n3p30.
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It is important to monitor the trend of forestland changes, as forests are vital sources and sinks of carbon on the earth. One of the most densely populated jurisdictions of the United States, Puerto Rico, has experienced significant transformations in the past century. This study examines forestation in the main island of Puerto Rico during the past four decades using feature extraction and change detection analysis in multitemporal Landsat satellite imagery. The results of the study show that forest cover in Puerto Rico had almost tripled from 15.7% to 45.7% between 1972 and 2014. Moreover, the forestation trend and pace in abandoned coffee plantations and pastures continued after 1990, driven by continuous socioeconomic transformation. Natural forestation and conservation efforts from the government and nongovernment organizations have also contributed to the forest growth on the island. The information gained and lessons learned during the process may be applied to other densely populated tropical insular territories.
16
Levison, Julie H. "Beyond quarantine: a history of leprosy in Puerto Rico, 1898-1930s." História, Ciências, Saúde-Manguinhos 10, suppl 1 (2003): 225–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s0104-59702003000400011.
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From biblical times to the modern period, leprosy has been a disease associated with stigma. This mark of disgrace, physically present in the sufferers' sores and disfigured limbs, and embodied in the identity of a 'leper', has cast leprosy into the shadows of society. This paper draws on primary sources, written in Spanish, to reconstruct the social history of leprosy in Puerto Rico when the United States annexed this island in 1898. The public health policies that developed over the period of 1898 to the 1930s were unique to Puerto Rico because of the interplay between political events, scientific developments and popular concerns. Puerto Rico was influenced by the United States' priorities for public health, and the leprosy control policies that developed were superimposed on vestiges of the colonial Spanish public health system. During the United States' initial occupation, extreme segregation sacrificed the individual rights and liberties of these patients for the benefit of society. The lives of these leprosy sufferers were irrevocably changed as a result.
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Tooley, Paul W., Nichole R. O'Neill, Erin D. Goley, and Marie M. Carras. "Assessment of Diversity in Claviceps africana and Other Claviceps Species by RAM and AFLP Analyses." Phytopathology® 90, no. 10 (2000): 1126–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/phyto.2000.90.10.1126.
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Genetic diversity among isolates of Claviceps africana, the sorghum ergot pathogen, and isolates of other Claviceps spp. causing ergot on sorghum or other hosts, was analyzed by random amplified microsatellite (RAM) and amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) analyses. Of the RAM primer sets tested, one revealed polymorphism in C. africana isolates, with Australian and Indian isolates possessing a unique fragment. AFLP analysis, in addition to clearly distinguishing Claviceps spp., revealed polymorphisms in C. africana. A group of isolates from the United States, Puerto Rico, and South Africa exhibited 95 to 100% similarity with one another. Several isolates from Isabela, Puerto Rico were 100% similar to an isolate from Texas, and another isolate from Puerto Rico was identical with one from Nebraska. Australian and Indian isolates showed greater than 90% similarity with isolates from the United States., Puerto Rico, and South Africa. A number of polymorphisms existed in the United States group, indicating that the recently introduced population contains multiple genotypes. Isolates of C. sorghicola, a newly described sorghum pathogen from Japan, were very distinct from other species via RAM and AFLP analyses, as were isolates from outgroups C. purpurea and C. fusiformis. Both RAM and AFLP analysis will be useful in determining future patterns of intercontinental migration of the sorghum ergot pathogen, with the AFLP method showing greater ability to characterize levels of intraspecific variation.
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Zambrana, Rocío. "Introduction." Critical Times 4, no. 1 (2021): 125–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/26410478-8855275.
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Abstract The essays translated in this cluster explore the work of debt, blame, and responsibility in the continuation of and resistance to colonial life in contemporary Puerto Rico. In the colony of Puerto Rico, debt represents the continuation of the colonial condition—Puerto Rico's status as an unincorporated territory of the United States. Ariadna Michelle Godreau-Aubert, Vanesa Contreras Capó, Anayra Santory Jorge, and Eva Prados Rodríguez show furthermore how debt actualizes a racial and gender order that exceeds colonialism as a juridical-political predicament. Their essays track forms of resistance to the work of debt.
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Govindasamy, Ramu, Venkata S. Puduri, and James E. Simon. "Willingness to Buy New Ethnic Produce Items: A Study of Latino Consumers from Mexico and Puerto Rico in the Eastern United States." HortTechnology 21, no. 2 (2011): 202–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.21273/horttech.21.2.202.
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The purpose of this study was to predict Latinos', consumers from Mexico and Puerto Rico, willingness to buy ethnic produce recently introduced or new to market. Specifically, we analyzed and compared socioeconomic characteristics of 542 Mexican and Puerto Rican consumers and expressed value judgments on their willingness to buy ethnic produce that has been recently introduced or new to market. This study was based on a primary data set collected from interviewing 542 Latino consumers (Mexico and Puerto Rico origin). A bilingual questionnaire was prepared in Spanish and English for Mexicans and Puerto Ricans in 16 states (Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Vermont, and Virginia) and Washington, DC. Attributes that contributed toward willingness to buy new ethnic produce include respondent's expenditure on total produce and ethnic produce, perceptions such as the importance of store availability, language, willingness to buy locally grown, organic, genetically modified, and country of origin labeled produce items. This information will assist market intermediaries and farmers better understand Latino consumers' (Mexico and Puerto Rico group) perceptions and factors that drive willingness to buy ethnic produce that is recently introduced or new to market.
20
Preble, Kristen, and Bradford Benggio. "MANAGING THE RESOURCE CONSULTATION PROCESS: A CASE STUDY FROM THE JIREH GROUNDING RESPONSE." International Oil Spill Conference Proceedings 2014, no. 1 (2014): 686–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.7901/2169-3358-2014.1.686.
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ABSTRACT The grounding of the 202-foot freight vessel JIREH, which occurred on June 21, 2012 on the Mona Island Natural Reserve in Puerto Rico, triggered a three month long response in what is arguably the most environmentally sensitive location in Puerto Rico and much of the Caribbean. Prior to, during, and after the response, the Federal On-Scene Coordinator worked closely with United States Government and Commonwealth of Puerto Rico agencies to ensure all natural and historic resource consultation mandates required under Federal law were initiated properly. This paper explores how the Endangered Species Act, Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act, and National Historic Preservation Act consultation requirements were applied before the JIREH response through development of the Puerto Rico and U.S. Virgin Islands Area Contingency Plan, during the response through multiple informal Emergency Consultations, and post-response through Formal Consultations. This examination will serve to highlight, through the lens of the JIREH response, the complexities of pre-planning for resource consultations, the challenges experienced by the Federal On-Scene Coordinator during an event, and provide recommendations to ensure resource consultation requirements are applied consistently and transparently in the future.
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Valdez, Juan R. "The battleground of metaphors: language debates and symbolic violence in Puerto Rico (1930–1960)." Journal of Historical Sociolinguistics 2, no. 1 (2016): 1–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/jhsl-2016-0001.
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AbstractIn Puerto Rico, the defense of Spanish and discussions of bilingualism have been conditioned by the island’s local politics and its relationships with the United States. Previous research has looked at how identity politics and specific political players produced arguments in favor or against various language proposals. Yet, questions regarding the complex ideological nature of the language debate in Puerto Rico remain to be examined with greater focalization and critical scrutiny. To this end and employing an interdisciplinary approach to issues of language and linguistic representation, I explore the ideological complexity of bilingualism in Puerto Rico during several decades from the perspective of the politics of language and by taking into account the phenomenon of symbolic violence. I argue that particular metaphors of language exemplify the link between symbolic and material violence in the context of this society’s struggles for political self-determination.
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Landale, Nancy S., and Nimfa B. Ogena. "Migration and Union Dissolution among Puerto Rican Women." International Migration Review 29, no. 3 (1995): 671–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/019791839502900303.
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This study examines the relationship between migration and union dissolution among Puerto Ricans, a Latino subgroup characterized by recurrent migration between Puerto Rico and the U.S. mainland. Based on pooled life-history data from comparable surveys undertaken in Puerto Rico and the United States, we find that: 1) Puerto Rican women who have lived on the U.S. mainland have markedly higher rates of union disruption than those with no U.S. experience; and 2) even net of a wide variety of possible explanatory factors, the relatively high rates of union instability among first and second generation U.S. residents and return migrants are strongly related to recent and lifetime migration experience. The results suggest that the weak social ties of migrants provide limited social support for their unions and few barriers to union disruption.
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Shenk, Elaine M. "H.R. 2499 Puerto Rico Democracy Act of 2010." Journal of Language and Politics 12, no. 4 (2013): 583–605. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/jlp.12.4.05she.
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In 2010, the U.S. House of Representatives passed The Puerto Rico Democracy Act, a bill that ostensibly focused on the authorization of a plebiscite on the Island’s future political status in relationship to the United States. Nevertheless, the final text included language policy on (a) ballot language, (b) official language legislation, and (c) language ideologies favoring English as the “language of opportunity ”. Using CDA, this paper examines the House discussion of the bill on April 29, 2010, as found in the Congressional Record Proceedings and Debates of the 111th Congress. The paper focuses on how the discussion of the bill shifted from political status issues to the inclusion of language policies to be imposed on the Island, the role of the Burton Amendment in shaping these policies, and the ways in which the construction of identity with and through language was both promoted and erased on the House floor.
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Duany, Jorge. "A Transnational Colonial Migration: Puerto Rico’s Farm Labor Program." New West Indian Guide / Nieuwe West-Indische Gids 84, no. 3-4 (2010): 225–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/13822373-90002441.
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In this article, the author defines Puerto Rico as a nation, an imagined community with its own territory, history, language, and culture. Nevertheless, the Island lacks a sovereign state, an independent government that represents the population of that territory. This unsovereign state has long sponsored population displacements from Puerto Rico to the United States. Since the beginning of the twentieth century, colonial officials embraced migration as a safety valve for the Island’s overpopulation. During the 1950s and 1960s, the Commonwealth government spurred the "Great Migration" to the U.S. mainland. The Farm Labor Program, overseen by the Migration Division of Puerto Rico’s Department of Labor, illustrates the complicated negotiations required by a transnational colonial state.
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Schultz, Thomas D., and Kyle Scott. "Puerto Rico: The Evolution of America's Corporate Tax Haven." ATA Journal of Legal Tax Research 12, no. 1 (2014): 17–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.2308/jltr-50746.
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ABSTRACT We examine the taxation of corporate income earned in the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and how the repeal of the possession tax credit available under Internal Revenue Code (IRC) §936 resulted in many U.S. companies converting former possessions corporations into controlled foreign corporations. Although Puerto Rico is a U.S. territory, the conversions highlight that corporations organized under the laws of the Commonwealth generally are foreign corporations for U.S. tax purposes. A U.S. Senate Subcommittee reports Microsoft Corporation shifted offshore the recognition of nearly one-half of its U.S. net retail sales revenue for the period 2009–2011 by transferring intellectual property rights to a controlled subsidiary in Puerto Rico. We find that the corresponding U.S. tax benefits are significant compared to the credits once claimed under IRC §936, and over 20 percent of Standard & Poor's (S&P) 500 firms were in a similar position to avoid federal taxation by shifting income between political subdivisions of the United States.
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Alamo, Carlos. "DISPATCHES FROM A COLONIAL OUTPOST." Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race 9, no. 1 (2011): 201–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1742058x11000312.
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AbstractOver the last few decades social movements and race scholars have begun to uncover and critically examine the social, economic, and political linkages shared between Puerto Ricans and African Americans. Much of this literature has focused exclusively on the period of the Civil Rights Movement with particular emphasis on the Young Lords and Black Panthers. Despite this rich and informative literature, we know very little of the connective social histories and relationships between African Americans and Puerto Ricans that preceded these later social movements. This article traces the historically contingent and multifaceted ways in which African American journalists, between 1942 and 1951, found new political meanings in Puerto Rico as the island underwent a massive economic and social transformation, and how they used that knowledge to reconceptualize challenges to Black personhood in the United States. Examining the Black popular press in Puerto Rico during this period reveals that Black journalists took an active interest in the island because it represented a useful point of comparison for understanding the internal colonial model of social inequality hampering the U.S. African American community during the first half of the twentieth century. The racialized nature of U.S. colonialism experienced by the island, the sociopolitical and economic effects of its monocultural sugar economy, and the second-class citizenship of Puerto Ricans were among the most salient factors that led African American journalists to a broader anti-imperialist understanding of racism, illuminating the lack of civil and economic rights Blacks experienced within the United States.
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Rivera-Rideau, Petra, and Jericko Torres-Leschnik. "The Colors and Flavors of My Puerto Rico." Journal of Popular Music Studies 31, no. 1 (2019): 87–108. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/jpms.2019.311009.
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Luis Fonsi and Daddy Yankee’s song “Despacito” shattered numerous records to become one of the most successful Spanish-language songs in U.S. pop music history. Declared 2017’s “Song of the Summer,” the “Despacito” remix featuring Justin Bieber prompted discussions about the racial dynamics of crossover for Latin music and Latina/o artists. However, little attention was paid to the ways that “Despacito”’s success in the Latin music market demonstrated similar racial dynamics within Latin music, especially in the song’s engagement with reggaeton, a genre originally associated with Black and working-class communities. This paper examines the racial politics that surround “Despacito”’s success in both the Latin mainstream and the U.S. mainstream. We argue that “Despacito” reinforces stereotypes of blackness in the Latin mainstream in ways that facilitate reggaeton’s crossover. In turn, Fonsi himself becomes attributed with similar stereotypes, especially around hypersexuality, that represent him as a tropical Latina/o racialized other in the United States. Through close readings of media coverage of “Despacito” alongside the song’s music video, we argue that it is critical to look at “Despacito”’s success in both the Latin mainstream and the U.S. mainstream in order to examine the complex and contradictory process of crossing over.
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Arbino, Daniel. "“The Gifts of the Hurricane:” Reimagining Post-María Puerto Rico through Comics." eTropic: electronic journal of studies in the Tropics 20, no. 2 (2021): 156–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.25120/etropic.20.2.2021.3815.
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Although the media framed Hurricanes Irma and María and their aftermath as a tragedy, and indeed it was, a small literary canon has emerged that explores the storms as an opportunity to rethink Puerto Rico’s future. The aftermath of the hurricanes impacted cultural production two-fold; by forcing writers to engage with climate change, while also rethinking the colonial relationship that Puerto Rico has with the United States. Looking specifically at selections from English- and Spanish-language comic anthologies Ricanstruction (2018), Puerto Rico Strong (2018) and Nublado: Escombros de María (2018) as well as single-author graphic novels like María and Temporada (2019), I explore how authors used Hurricane María as a catalyst to reimagine and recreate a more autonomous future for the island through decolonial imaginaries, a notion laid out by Emma Pérez. Despite their different approaches to Puerto Rico’s future, the comics’ commonality lies in counter-narratives that espouse community values, indigeneity, innovation, and reclamation of nature as a means to confront hardship. Together they produce alternative modalities for transcending the vulnerabilities of debilitating disasters brought on by climate change. They offer a return to pre-colonial values combined with new technologies to empower the island to break from the United States and withstand future storms.
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Diaz-Zabala, Hector, Ana Ortiz, Lisa Garland, et al. "A Recurrent BRCA2 Mutation Explains the Majority of Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer Syndrome Cases in Puerto Rico." Cancers 10, no. 11 (2018): 419. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/cancers10110419.
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Breast cancer is the most common cause of cancer diagnosis in women and is responsible for considerable mortality among the women of Puerto Rico. However, there are few studies in Puerto Rico on the genetic factors influencing risk. To determine the contribution of pathogenic mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2, we sequenced these genes in 302 cases from two separate medical centers, who were not selected for age of onset or family history. We identified nine cases that are carriers of pathogenic germline mutation. This represents 2.9% of unselected cases and 5.6% of women meeting National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN) criteria for BRCA testing. All of the identified pathogenic mutations were in the BRCA2 gene and the most common mutation is the p.Glu1308Ter (E1308X) mutation in BRCA2 found in eight out of nine cases, representing 89% of the pathogenic carriers. The E1308X mutation has been identified in breast and ovarian cancer families in Spain, and analysis of flanking DNA polymorphisms shows that all E1308X carriers occur on the same haplotype. This is consistent with BRCA2 E1308X being a founder mutation for the Puerto Rican population. These results will contribute to better inform genetic screening and counseling of breast and ovarian cancer cases in Puerto Rico and Puerto Rican populations in mainland United States.
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Esparza, René. "“Qué Bonita Mi Tierra”." Radical History Review 2021, no. 140 (2021): 107–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/01636545-8841706.
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Abstract Employing an anticolonial and anticapitalist approach to HIV/AIDS, the activists of the Latina/o Caucus of ACT UP/NY pushed beyond a biomedical framework of “drugs into bodies” that tended to dominate the larger organization. As US queer racialized/colonial subjects, Latinx AIDS activists enacted a queer and feminist decolonial activism that looked past the continental United States to the global South. In Puerto Rico, Latinx AIDS activists helped establish the first chapter of ACT UP in a Spanish-speaking country. Together, the Latina/o Caucus and ACT UP/Puerto Rico spearheaded a campaign against the colonial policies of the United States, the corporate greed of island-based pharmaceutical firms, and the heteropatriarchal investments of church and commonwealth officials—conditions that exacerbated the disproportionate rates of HIV/AIDS among Puerto Rican island and diasporic communities. Through these efforts, Latinx AIDS activists transformed the domestic and global fight against AIDS into a queer, feminist, and decolonial endeavor.
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Bailey, Adrian J., and Mark Ellis. "Going Home: The Migration of Puerto Rican-Born Women from the United States to Puerto Rico∗." Professional Geographer 45, no. 2 (1993): 148–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0033-0124.1993.00148.x.
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Haverhals, Leah. "You Can’t Just Hope for the Best: VA and Non-VA Home-Based Long-Term Care in Puerto Rico Following Hurricane Maria." Innovation in Aging 4, Supplement_1 (2020): 591. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/geroni/igaa057.1981.
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Abstract This research describes how home-based long-term care settings in Puerto Rico, connected to the United States Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) and in non-VA settings, prepared for and secured the safety and wellbeing of elderly and disabled persons during and after Hurricane Maria, which struck Puerto Rico on September 20, 2017. I collected data via in-person interviews, home visits, and field observations between January-March 2019. Guided by a social vulnerability and health model, I interviewed a multitude of people connected to and/or caring for elderly and disabled populations in these settings. Results emphasize importance of disaster preparedness, incorporating lessons learned from hardships, and how Puerto Rico’s colonial status and economic realities influenced recovery. VA’s interconnected nature provided a stronger support network compared to non-VA settings that were often independently or family run. Regardless of setting, the resilience and collaborative spirit of Puerto Ricans proved instrumental in recovery and disaster management.
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Backiel, Linda. "The People of Vieques, Puerto Rico vs. the United States Navy." Monthly Review 54, no. 9 (2003): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.14452/mr-054-09-2003-02_1.
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Muschkin, Clara G. "Consequences of Return Migrant Status for Employment in Puerto Rico." International Migration Review 27, no. 1 (1993): 79–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/019791839302700104.
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At the aggregate level, return migrants in Puerto Rico in 1970 and 1980 faced greater employment-related difficulties, as compared with nonmigrants. This article explores the individual-level relationship of return migrant status to employment outcomes. The conceptual framework takes into consideration local and regional contextual factors, particularly the employment conditions prevailing in Puerto Rico during this period. Within this framework, specific hypotheses suggest a negative influence of return migrant status, as return migrants are particularly vulnerable to discontinuities in employment and to spells of unemployment. The findings substantiate the hypotheses for both census years and indicate the importance of the duration of residence in the United States and the timing of the return move as mediating factors.
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Ortiz, Vilma. "Changes in the Characteristics of Puerto Rican Migrants from 1955 to 1980." International Migration Review 20, no. 3 (1986): 612–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/019791838602000304.
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This article tests the assumption that recent cohorts of migrants from Puerto Rico to the United States are a more select portion of the population, i.e., more educated and professional, than earlier cohorts. In this analysis, the demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of three cohorts of Puerto Rican migrants over the last 30 years are compared utilizing data from the 1960, 1970, and 1980 censuses.
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Dobles, Ricardo, and Jose Antonio Segarra. "Introduction: Symposium: Puerto Rican Education." Harvard Educational Review 68, no. 2 (1998): vii—xvi. http://dx.doi.org/10.17763/haer.68.2.l15pq831t2671850.
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When the writers and producers of the NBC television series Seinfeld, including Jerry Seinfeld himself, decided to burn the Puerto Rican flag on national television, they performed a great service for the Puerto Rican people. Albeit unwittingly, this singular event reminded Puerto Ricans of how poorly we are regarded in the American psyche. Puerto Ricans everywhere were forced to ask themselves, would the people of Seinfeld and NBC dare burn any flag other than the Puerto Rican flag? That act, committed presumably in the interest of humor, only poured salt on a hundred-year-old wound. Since October 18, 1898, the day the United States raised its flag on the island of Puerto Rico, Puerto Ricans and their flag have been little more than a joke and an occasional nuisance to the American people.
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La Fountain-Stokes, Lawrence. "Boricuas cruzando fronteras: autobiografías y testimonios trans puertorriqueños." Clepsydra. Revista de Estudios de Género y Teoría Feminista 21 (2021): 95–120. http://dx.doi.org/10.25145/j.clepsydra.2021.21.05.
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Puerto Rican trans experience has been documented in different ways in the speeches, interviews, and publications of the activist Sylvia Rivera, the artist Holly Woodlawn, the hairstylist and activist Soraya (Bárbara Santiago Solla), and the artist and university professor Luis Felipe Díaz, also known as Lizza Fernanda. The scarcity of traditional publications in the genre of Puerto Rican trans autobiography invites a conceptual expansion, including theorizations on «testimonio» in Latin America and alternate modalities of publication such as self-publishing and the use of online blogs. The particularities of the colonial situation in Puerto Rico and Puerto Ricans’ experiences of racialization in the United States requires a careful reading, paying attention to the racial, ethnic, economic, and social dimensions of trans Puerto Rican lives.
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Zwartjes, Patrick W. "Genetic Structuring Among Migratory Populations of the Black-Whiskered Vireo, with a Comparison to the Red-Eyed Vireo." Condor 103, no. 3 (2001): 439–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/condor/103.3.439.
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AbstractThe Black-whiskered Vireo (Vireo altiloquus) breeds from coastal southern Florida in the United States through the islands of the West Indies, and thus consists of several populations separated by large regions of uninhabitable space. I examined genetic variation within and among six migratory populations in the Florida Keys, Jamaica, and Puerto Rico, using random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers and analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA). Calculations of variance components revealed that over 90% of the variance was among individuals; a significant portion also occurred among regional groups (Florida, Jamaica, and Puerto Rico). Variance between subpopulations within the regional groups was not significantly different from zero. This contrasts with the closely related Red-eyed Vireo (V. olivaceus) of continental North America, in which analyses of three widely separate geographic localities revealed that over 99% of the genetic variance was among individuals, with no significant variance detectable among localities. The greatest differences in V. altiloquus were detected between the Florida Keys populations and the populations from Jamaica and Puerto Rico; the latter two showed no significant differentiation. Estimates of gene flow from the AMOVA analog to Wright's F-statistics suggest that there is enough gene flow among regions to prevent differentiation by genetic drift. Although not strongly isolated, the Florida population of V. altiloquus is sufficiently differentiated to suggest reduced genetic exchange with the populations on Puerto Rico and Jamaica.Estructura Genética entre Poblaciones Migratorias de Vireo altiloquus con una Comparación con Vireo olivaceusResumen. Vireo altiloquus se reproduce desde la costa del sur de la Florida en los Estados Unidos hasta las islas de las Antillas, y por lo tanto presenta varias poblaciones separadas por extensas regiones de espacio no habitable. Examiné la variación genética dentro y entre seis poblaciones migratorias en los Cayos de la Florida, en Jamaica y en Puerto Rico, usando marcadores polimórficos de ADN amplificados al azar (RAPD) y análisis de varianza molecular (AMOVA). Los cálculos de los componentes de la varianza indicaron que más del 90% de la varianza se presentó entre individuos; una porción significativa también estuvo presente entre los grupos regionales (Florida, Jamaica y Puerto Rico). La varianza entre subpoblaciones dentro de grupos regionales no fue significativamente diferente de cero. Esto contrasta con los resultados para V. olivaceus de Norteamérica continental, donde los análisis de tres localidades alejadas revelaron que más del 99% de la varianza genética se registró entre individuos, sin varianza significativa detectable entre localidades. Las mayores diferencias en V. altiloquus fueron detectadas entre las poblaciones de los Cayos de la Florida y las poblaciones de Jamaica y Puerto Rico; las últimas dos no mostraron diferencias significativas. Las estimaciones de flujo génico a partir del AMOVA, análogo al estadístico F de Wright, sugieren que hay suficiente flujo génico entre las regiones para evitar diferenciación por deriva génica. Aunque no está muy aislada, la poblacion de V. altiloquus de la Florida se diferencia lo suficiente como para sugerir un intercambio génico reducido con las poblaciones de Puerto Rico y Jamaica.
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Nwangwu-Ike, Ndidi, Chan Jin, Zanetta Gant, Shacara Johnson, and Alexandra B. Balaji. "An Examination of Geographic Differences in Social Determinants of Health Among Women with Diagnosed HIV in the United States and Puerto Rico, 2017." Open AIDS Journal 15, no. 1 (2021): 10–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1874613602115010010.
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Objective: To examine differences, at the census tract level, in the distribution of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) diagnoses and social determinants of health (SDH) among women with diagnosed HIV in 2017 in the United States and Puerto Rico. Background: In the United States, HIV continues to disproportionately affect women, especially minority women and women in the South. Methods: Data reported in the National HIV Surveillance System (NHSS) of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention were used to determine census tract-level HIV diagnosis rates and percentages among adult women (aged ≥18 years) in 2017. Data from the American Community Survey were combined with NHSS data to examine regional differences in federal poverty status, education level, income level, employment status, and health insurance coverage among adult women with diagnosed HIV infection in the United States and Puerto Rico. Results: In the United States and Puerto Rico, among 6,054 women who received an HIV diagnosis in 2017, the highest rates of HIV diagnoses generally were among those who lived in census tracts where the median household income was less than $40,000; at least 19% lived below the federal poverty level, at least 18% had less than a high school diploma, and at least 16% were without health insurance. Conclusion: This study is the first of its kind and gives insight into how subpopulations of women are affected differently by the likelihood of an HIV diagnosis. The findings show that rates of HIV diagnosis were highest among women who lived in census tracts having the lowest income and least health coverage.
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Colón-Warren, Alice E., and Idsa Alegria-Ortega. "Shattering the Illusion of Development: The Changing Status of Women and Challenges for the Feminist Movement in Puerto Rico." Feminist Review 59, no. 1 (1998): 101–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/014177898339488.
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In this paper we examine the weaknesses of development strategies which have been applied in Puerto Rico. The process of industrialization by invitation, referred to as Operation Bootstrap, was instituted by the United States of America by the end of the 1940s. This involved tax incentives and subsidies for companies and was dependent on industrial peace and low wages in labor-intensive, low-wage industries, especially those of textile and clothing. Naturally, women's labor was encouraged as a result of the lower cost, as well as assumed dexterity, of the female in such areas. While these new activity areas for women also allowed other benefits in the form of legislation and increased social services, the inherent problems of rapid, labor-intensive industrialization also led to displacement and increased underemployment and impoverization of female headed families from the 1960s onwards. The paper explores some of the changes in gender relations which resulted from these policies and looks at the challenges which the feminist movement in Puerto Rico has made, particularly with regard to state processes to bring about beneficial changes in the economic, legal, political and social status of women in Puerto Rico.
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Charles, Laurent, and Arnaud Lenoble. "Confirmation of Polygyra cereolus (Gastropoda: Polygyridae) in Puerto Rico, Greater Antilles." Novitates Caribaea, no. 16 (July 23, 2020): 159–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.33800/nc.vi16.234.
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Polygyra cereolus (Megerle von Mühlfeld, 1816) is a small air-breathing snail originating in Florida, which is considered as an invasive species and is reported from a wide area in the south of the United States to Mexico and in some in some Caribbean Islands, Hawaii, Spain and the Arabian peninsula. Here we report the observation of this species in Puerto Rico.
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Cabrera, Fedor F., Erik R. Gamarra, Tiffany E. Garcia, et al. "Opioid distribution trends (2006–2017) in the US Territories." PeerJ 7 (January 15, 2019): e6272. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.6272.
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BackgroundThe US mainland is experiencing an epidemic of opioid overdoses. Unfortunately, the US Territories (Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands) have often been overlooked in opioid pharmacoepidemiology research. This study examined common prescription opioids over the last decade.MethodsThe United States Drug Enforcement Administration’s Automation of Reports and Consolidated Orders System (ARCOS) was used to report on ten medical opioids: buprenorphine, codeine, fentanyl, hydrocodone, hydromorphone, meperidine, methadone, morphine, oxycodone, and oxymorphone, by weight from 2006 to 2017. Florida and Hawaii were selected as comparison areas.ResultsPuerto Rico had the greatest Territorial oral morphine mg equivalent (MME) per capita (421.5) which was significantly higher (p< .005) than the Virgin Islands (139.2) and Guam (118.9) but significantly lower than that of Hawaii (794.6) or Florida (1,509.8). Methadone was the largest opioid by MMEs in 2017 in most municipalities, accounting for 41.1% of the total in the Virgin Islands, 37.9% in Florida, 36.6% in Hawaii but 80.8% in Puerto Rico. Puerto Rico and Florida showed pronounced differences in the distribution patterns by pharmacies, hospitals, and narcotic treatment programs for opioids.ConclusionsContinued monitoring of the US Territories is needed to provide a balance between appropriate access to these important agents for cancer related and acute pain while also minimizing diversion and avoiding the opioid epidemic which has adversely impacted the US mainland.
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Hart, Daniel, Nydia Lucca-Irizarry, and William Damon. "The Development of Self-Understanding in Puerto Rico and the United States." Journal of Early Adolescence 6, no. 3 (1986): 293–304. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0272431686063007.
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Wagenheim, Olga Jiménez. "Constructing a Colonial People: Puerto Rico and the United States, 1898–1932." Hispanic American Historical Review 81, no. 1 (2001): 217–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/00182168-81-1-217.
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Colón, Héctor M., and Marizaida Sánchez-Cesareo. "Disparities in Health Care in Puerto Rico Compared With the United States." JAMA Internal Medicine 176, no. 6 (2016): 794. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2016.1144.
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Kling, Stephen J., Kimberly A. Jones, and George M. Rodgers. "A second case of prothrombin puerto rico I in the united states." American Journal of Hematology 82, no. 7 (2007): 661–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajh.20839.
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Swenson-Lepper, Tammy, Michelle A. Leavitt, Melba Hoffer, et al. "Communication Ethics in the Communication Curriculum: United States, Canada, and Puerto Rico." Communication Education 64, no. 4 (2015): 472–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03634523.2015.1041996.
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Ríos-Bedoya, Carlos F., and Joseph J. Gallo. "The Association of Alcohol Use and Depression Among Puerto Ricans in the United States and in Puerto Rico." Journal of Ethnicity in Substance Abuse 2, no. 1 (2003): 1–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1300/j233v02n01_01.
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Thompson, Lanny. "The Imperial Republic: A Comparison of the Insular Territories under U.S. Dominion after 1898." Pacific Historical Review 71, no. 4 (2002): 535–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/phr.2002.71.4.535.
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The doctrine of incorporation, as elaborated in legal debates and legitimated by the U.S. Supreme Court, excluded the inhabitants of Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam from the body politic of the United States on the basis of their cultural differences from dominant European American culture. However, in spite of their shared legal status as unincorporated territories, the U.S. Congress established different governments that, although adaptations of continental territorial governments, were staffed largely with appointed imperial administrators. In contrast, Hawai'i, which had experienced a long period of European American settlement, received a government that followed the basic continental model of territorial government. Thus, the distinction between the incorporated and unincorporated territories corresponded to the limits of European American settlement. However, even among the unincorporated territories, cultural evaluations were important in determining the kinds of rule. The organic act for Puerto Rico provided for substantially more economic and judicial integration with the United States than did the organic act for the Phillippines. This followed from the assessment that Puerto Rico might be culturally assimilated while the Phillippines definitely could not. Moreover, religion was the criterion for determining different provincial governments within the Phillippines. In Guam, the interests of the naval station prevailed over all other considerations. There, U.S. government officials considered the local people to be hospitable and eager to accept U.S. sovereignty, while they largely ignored the local people's language, culture, and history. In Guam, a military government prevailed.
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Wintermantel, W. M., J. E. Polston, J. Escudero, and E. R. Paoli. "First Report of Tomato chlorosis virus in Puerto Rico." Plant Disease 85, no. 2 (2001): 228. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/pdis.2001.85.2.228b.
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Symptoms of interveinal chlorosis, necrotic flecking, thickening, and rolling of leaves were observed on leaves of field-grown tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) plants in Jauna Diaz, Puerto Rico. These symptoms are indicative of those produced by the whitefly-transmitted criniviruses, Tomato infectious chlorosis virus (TICV) and Tomato chlorosis virus (ToCV) (1). Samples collected from two symptomatic plants were examined by leaf dip and were found to contain long flexuous rods approximately 800 nm in length, characteristic of criniviruses. Symptomatic leaves were used for extraction of total nucleic acid and for whitefly transmission studies. The greenhouse whitefly, Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Westwood), is a highly efficient vector of TICV, but an inefficient vector of ToCV, whereas the banded wing whitefly, T. abutilonea (Haldeman), is an efficient vector of ToCV but does not transmit TICV (2). Whiteflies of both species were allowed to feed separately on symptomatic tomato leaves for 24 h and then transferred to healthy Physalis wrightii and Nicotiana benthamiana indicator plants. Symptoms characteristic of ToCV infection developed on 3 of 3 P. wrightii plants and 2 of 3 N. benthamiana plants following transmission by T. abutilonea. Only 1 of 3 P. wrightii plants developed such symptoms following transmission by T. vaporariorum, while no N. benthamiana plants developed symptoms, suggesting that the virus responsible for the tomato disease was ToCV. Dot blot hybridizations were performed on total nucleic acids extracted from 0.1 g of symptomatic leaves of field samples using probes specific for TICV or ToCV (2), as well as probes specific for four additional criniviruses. Symptomatic and asymptomatic leaves of plants in transmission tests, as well as comparable leaves from control plants, were also tested by dot blot. Although no criniviruses could be detected by dot blot in the original tomato tissue, these hybridizations identified ToCV in all symptomatic plants from the transmission experiments, confirming the presence of ToCV in Puerto Rico. No additional criniviruses were detected in any samples, and negative controls were virus-free. This is the first time a tomato crinivirus has been detected in the Caribbean, outside of the continental United States. The ability of ToCV to be transmitted by four different whitefly species increases the potential for this virus to spread throughout the Caribbean Basin. References: (1) G. C. Wisler et al. Plant Dis. 82:270, 1998. (2) G. C. Wisler et al. Phytopathology 88:402, 1998.