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1
Safa, Helen I. "Changing Forms of U.S. Hegemony in Puerto Rico: The Impact on the Family and Sexuality." Itinerario 25, no. 3-4 (November 2001): 90–111. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s016511530001500x.
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It has been over a hundred years since the U.S. took control of Puerto Rico. In that time, the way in which the U.S. perceived Puerto Rico has changed from a colony requiring Americanisation to, in the 1950s, its showcase of democracy in the Caribbean, to today, an island that still retains geopolitical importance for the U.S., but represents an increasing economic burden. The failure of Operation Bootstrap, as the Puerto Rican industrialization program was known, resulted in permanent large-scale unemployment, with a population dependent on federal transfers for a living, and a constant source of migration to the mainland, where over half of Puerto Ricans now live. I shall trace the outline of these three stages in U.S. hegemony over Puerto Rico, and argue that throughout the U.S. Congress was reluctant to fully incorporate Puerto Rico, because its population was deemed racially and socially inferior to that of the mainland. Though the removal of Spain from Puerto Rico, Cuba and the Philippines was considered part of the its ‘manifest destiny’, the United States never intended to incorporate these people so different from the U.S. as part of the American nation, as was done with its earlier acquisitions in Texas, Alaska or even Hawaii.
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Colón-Warren, Alice E., and Idsa Alegria-Ortega. "Shattering the Illusion of Development: The Changing Status of Women and Challenges for the Feminist Movement in Puerto Rico." Feminist Review 59, no. 1 (June 1998): 101–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/014177898339488.
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In this paper we examine the weaknesses of development strategies which have been applied in Puerto Rico. The process of industrialization by invitation, referred to as Operation Bootstrap, was instituted by the United States of America by the end of the 1940s. This involved tax incentives and subsidies for companies and was dependent on industrial peace and low wages in labor-intensive, low-wage industries, especially those of textile and clothing. Naturally, women's labor was encouraged as a result of the lower cost, as well as assumed dexterity, of the female in such areas. While these new activity areas for women also allowed other benefits in the form of legislation and increased social services, the inherent problems of rapid, labor-intensive industrialization also led to displacement and increased underemployment and impoverization of female headed families from the 1960s onwards. The paper explores some of the changes in gender relations which resulted from these policies and looks at the challenges which the feminist movement in Puerto Rico has made, particularly with regard to state processes to bring about beneficial changes in the economic, legal, political and social status of women in Puerto Rico.
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Díaz, José O. "Puerto Rico, the United States, and the 1993 Referendum on Political Status." Latin American Research Review 30, no. 1 (1995): 203–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0023879100017258.
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Guerrero, Paulina. "A Story told through Plena: Claiming Identity and Cultural Autonomy in the Street Festivals of San Juan, Puerto Rico." Island Studies Journal 8, no. 1 (2013): 165–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.24043/isj.282.
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Las Fiestas de la Calle de San Sebastián is a four day-long festival in San Juan, Puerto Rico. While the festival comprises music and dance that is a combination of various Caribbean and Latin American aesthetics, there is a small group of local musicians who insist on staying away from the larger throngs to specifically play a Puerto Rican music medium known as plena. By defining a distinct physical space that is separate from the rest of the festival, but also a part of the festival, they sing throughout the night speaking to contemporary issues of American imperialism, class warfare, and corrupt politicians. During the festival the complex power dynamics of Puerto Rico as a United States territory, lacking both independence as a sovereign nation and the same rights as a state, are manifested in festival performance. This performance tries to negotiate how the island remains autonomous while being attached to a more powerful mainland economy.
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Pepinsky, Thomas B. "Trade Competition and American Decolonization." World Politics 67, no. 3 (May 27, 2015): 387–422. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s004388711500012x.
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This article proposes a political economy approach to decolonization. Focusing on the industrial organization of agriculture, it argues that competition between colonial and metropolitan producers creates demands for decolonization from within the metropole when colonies have broad export profiles and when export industries are controlled by colonial, as opposed to metropolitan, interests. The author applies this framework to the United States in the early 1900s, showing that different structures of the colonial sugar industries in the Philippines, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico–diverse exports with dispersed local ownership versus monocrop economies dominated by large US firms–explain why protectionist continental-agriculture interests agitated so effectively for independence for the Philippines, but not for Hawaii or Puerto Rico. A comparative historical analysis of the three colonial economies and the Philippine independence debates complemented by a statistical analysis of roll call votes in the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act supports the argument. In providing a new perspective on economic relations in the late-colonial era, the argument highlights issues of trade and empire in US history that span the subfields of American political development, comparative politics, and international political economy.
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Robles, Johnathan. "When the Sky Fell: Hurricane Maria and the United States in Puerto Rico by Michael Deibert." Journal of Global South Studies 38, no. 2 (September 2021): 413–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/gss.2021.0040.
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Borges-Méndez, Ramón, and Cynthia Caron. "Decolonizing Resilience: The Case of Reconstructing the Coffee Region of Puerto Rico After Hurricanes Irma and Maria." Journal of Extreme Events 06, no. 01 (March 2019): 1940001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s2345737619400013.
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The term resilience has saliency in the scholarship and policy on post-disaster management and disaster-risk reduction. In this paper, we assess the use of resilience as a concept for post-disaster reconstruction in Puerto Rico and offer a critique of the standard definition. This critique focuses on the primacy of Puerto Rico’s colonial relations with the United States meshed with decades of political mismanagement of the island’s economic and natural resources by local authorities and political parties. For resilience to be a useful conceptual device, we argue for decolonizing resilience and show the relevance of such an argument through a case study of the island’s coffee-growing region. Decolonizing resilience exposes power inequities and the individuating nature of post-disaster reconstruction to illustrate how collective action and direct participation of local actors and communities carves out autonomous spaces of engagement. Decolonizing resilience necessitates a contextualized analysis of resilience, taking into account “the politics of resilience” embedded in the island’s colonial history and the policy bottlenecks it creates.
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Perez, Michael P. "Interethnic Antagonism In the Wake of Colonialism: U. S. Territorial and Ethnic Relations at the Margins." Ethnic Studies Review 23, no. 1 (January 1, 2000): 1–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/esr.2000.23.1.1.
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Since the proliferation of scholarship on racial and ethnic antagonism following the Civil Rights era, neo-Marxist, colonialism, and other power-conflict theories reached popularity and have been widely applied to explain racial and ethnic conflict throughout the world, particularly in the United States. However there is a lack of scholarship on racial and ethnic relations in the U.S. territories in general and the Pacific Islands in particular. Although a few works exist in terms of interethnic antagonism and anti-immigrant sentiment in Puerto Rico, Melanesia, and Hawaii, there is a lack of research on interethnic antagonism in Micronesia; therefore comparative analyses of race and ethnicity in the context of U.S. territorial relations would contribute to the general body of knowledge in ethnic studies. In light of Micronesia's complex colonial history and its contemporary political and economic context (i.e. immigration, labor exploitation, territorial relations, neocolonialism, indigenous sovereignty struggles, and garment, tourist, and construction industries), understanding of intergroup relations in Micronesia would also benefit from an analysis of interethnic antagonism.
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Eakin, Hallie, Tischa A. Muñoz-Erickson, and Maria Carmen Lemos. "Critical Lines of Action for Vulnerability and Resilience Research and Practice: Lessons from the 2017 Hurricane Season." Journal of Extreme Events 05, no. 02n03 (September 2018): 1850015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s234573761850015x.
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The unprecedented number of devastating disasters recently experienced in the United States is a clarion call to revisit how we understand our vulnerability in the face of global change, and what we are prepared to do about it. We focus on the case of Hurricane María’s impact in Puerto Rico to underscore five critical concerns in addressing vulnerability and adaptation planning: (i) vulnerability as a product of flows; (ii) how our beliefs about the capacities of ourselves and others affect local vulnerability; (iii) the role uncertainty, politics, and information access play in amplifying vulnerability and complicating adaptation; (iv) the need for a better distribution of risk and responsibility in adaptation; (v) and the challenge of seizing the opportunity of disasters for transformative change. These five issues of concern were particularly evident in the case of Puerto Rico where Hurricane María’s 155 mph winds exposed existing infrastructural vulnerabilities, institutional incapacities, and socio-economic disparities. We argue that addressing these issues requires fundamental shifts in how we prepare for environmental change and disasters in the 21st century. We discuss promising approaches that may assist researchers and practitioners in addressing some of the underlying drivers of vulnerability, stemming from cross-scalar dynamics, systemic interdependencies, and the politics and social relations associated with knowledge, decision-making and action. We argue that society needs to broach the difficult topic of the equity in the distribution of risk in society and the burden of adaptation. Addressing these challenges and response imperatives is a central task of this century; the time to act is now.
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Clinton, Amanda, Laura M. Crothers, Jered B. Kolbert, Tammy L. Hughes, James B. Schreiber, Ara J. Schmitt, John Lipinski, Greachmarie Rodríquez Vázquez, G. Ronald Bell, and Julaine E. Field. "A Cross-Cultural Investigation of Relational and Social Aggression in Female College Students from Puerto Rico and the United States." Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma 23, no. 2 (February 7, 2014): 99–115. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2014.872745.
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Figueroa, Yomaira C. "A Case for Relation: Mapping Afro-Latinx Caribbean and Equatoguinean Poetics." Small Axe: A Caribbean Journal of Criticism 24, no. 1 (March 1, 2020): 22–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/07990537-8190526.
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This essay contends that Caribbean conceptualizations of relation, understood through the theorizing and political organizing of women of color feminists, offer decolonial possibilities that enable radical remappings of the Afro-Atlantic. The essay argues that the political and intellectual contributions of theories of relationality and decolonial feminisms by women of color should be understood as theoretical and methodological tools for approaching some of the most peripheralized Afro-diasporic works. To that end, it examines the histories and the interconnected literary imaginaries that exist across the Afro-Latinx Caribbean (Puerto Rico, Cuba, the Dominican Republic), Equatorial Guinea (the only Spanish-speaking nation-state in Sub-Saharan Africa), and their diasporic cultural productions in the United States and Spain. The essay ultimately argues that women of color and decolonial feminist discourses and ethics help us understand literary and cultural productions as insurgent practices that are central to tracking and reformulating notions of decoloniality and Afro-diasporic studies.
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Carrion, Juan Manuel. "The United States and Puerto Rico: Decolonization Options and Prospects. By Roland I. Perusse. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1987. 177p. $24.50 cloth, $11.75 paper." American Political Science Review 83, no. 1 (March 1989): 360–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1956525.
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Pažoutová, Sylvie, Ranajit Bandyopadhyay, Debra E. Frederickson, Peter G. Mantle, and Richard A. Frederiksen. "Relations Among Sorghum Ergot Isolates from the Americas, Africa, India, and Australia." Plant Disease 84, no. 4 (April 2000): 437–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/pdis.2000.84.4.437.
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Sorghum ergot, initially restricted to Asia and Africa, was recently found in the Americas and Australia. Three species causing the disease have been reported: Claviceps sorghi in India, C. sorghicola in Japan, and C. africana in all ergot-positive countries. The objective of our study was to study the intraspecific variation in C. africana isolates in the Americas, Africa, India, and Australia. We confirmed C. africana, C. sorghi, and C. sorghicola as different species using differences in nucleotide sequences of internal transcribed spacer 1 and 5.8S rDNA regions. Sequences of this region obtained from the representative American, Indian, and Australian isolates of C. africana were identical. In addition, random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) banding patterns of sorghum ergot pathogen isolates from the United States, Mexico, Puerto Rico, Bolivia, Australia, and India were evaluated with nearly 100 primers. A total of 65 primers gave identical patterns for all isolates, which confirmed that all were C. africana. The identity of RAPD pattern and rDNA sequence of Indian isolates with those of C. africana confirmed that the species is now present in India. Only 20 primers gave small pattern differences and 7 of them were used for routine testing. All of the American isolates were identical and three isolates of the same type were also found in South Africa, suggesting Africa as the origin of the invasion clone in the Americas. Australian and Indian isolates were distinguishable by a single band difference; therefore, migration from the Asian region to Australia is suspected. Another distinct group was found in Africa. Cluster analysis of the informative bands revealed that the American and African group are on the same moderately (69%) supported clade. Isolates from Australia and India belonged to another clade.
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Melendez, Edwin. "Puerto Rican Migration and Occupational Selectivity, 1982–1981." International Migration Review 28, no. 1 (March 1994): 49–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/019791839402800103.
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This study examines whether or not the likelihood of Puerto Rican workers choosing to migrate to the United States depends on their occupations or skills. The study determined that the occupational composition among thosemigrating from the island to the United States generally corresponds to the occupational distribution in Puerto Rico. The exception is that, after controlling for labor market conditions in Puerto Rico and in the United States and for other characteristics of the migrants, farm workers, laborers, and craft and kindred workers are overrepresented in the flow of migrants. The two most important factors contributing to the occupational distribution of migrants are whether or not they already have job offers in the United States and whether they are currently employed in Puerto Rico. Among those returning to Puerto Rico, the study found no positive or negative occupational selectivity.
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Clark, Truman R. "Prohibition in Puerto Rico,1917–1933." Journal of Latin American Studies 27, no. 1 (February 1995): 77–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022216x00010178.
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AbstractWith the passage of the Jones Act (1917), the United States expanded Puerto Rican autonomy, made Puerto Ricans citizens of the USA, and gave the island prohibition of alcohol. The Puerto Rican people overwhelmingly ratified prohibition in a referendum in July 1917. Prohibition won because it was emotionally linked to patriotism and morality. Prohibition enforcement was almost impossible, compounded by the colonial status of the island. It was that status which brought an immediate end to prohibition in Puerto Rico with the demise of prohibition in the United States in 1933.
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Alvarado Ortiz, Mariela, Tonatiuh Suárez Ramos, Carlos R. Torres Cintrón, Diego Zavala Zegarra, Guillermo Tortolero Luna, Karen J. Ortiz-Ortiz, and Maira A. Castaneda-Avila. "Racial/ethnic disparities for leukemias in Puerto Rico and the United States of America, 2015–2019." PLOS ONE 18, no. 5 (May 17, 2023): e0285547. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0285547.
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Background Leukemia is a cancer of the early-forming cells. Over the past decade, leukemia racial/ethnic disparities have been documented in the United States of America (USA). Although the Puerto Rican population in the USA represents the second-largest Hispanic population in the nation, most of the existing studies do not include Puerto Rico. We compared the incidence and mortality rates for leukemia and its subtypes in Puerto Rico and four racial/ethnic groups in the USA. Methods We used data from the Puerto Rico Central Cancer Registry and the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results Program (2015–2019). The racial/ethnic groups studied were non-Hispanic whites (NHW), non-Hispanic blacks (NHB), Hispanics (USH), and Asian/Pacific Islanders (NHAPI) living in the USA and the Puerto Rico population. We calculated the incidence and mortality rates. The relative risk of developing or dying due to leukemia was also calculated. Results Compared with Puerto Rico, NHW [standardized incidence rate (SIR) = 1.47; 95%CI = 1.40–1.53; standardized mortality rates (SMR) = 1.55; 95%CI = 1.45–1.65)] and NHB (SIR = 1.09; 95%CI = 1.04–1.15; SMR = 1.27; 95%CI = 1.19–1.35) had higher incidence and mortality rates; but lower than the NHAPI (SIR = 0.78; 95%CI = 0.74–0.82; SMR = 0.83; 95%CI = 0.77–0.89); and similar to USH. However, we found differences among leukemia subtypes. For example, NHAPI and USH had lower risk of developing chronic leukemias than Puerto Rico. We found a lower risk to develop acute lymphocytic leukemia in NHB than in Puerto Rico. Conclusions Our study provides a better understanding of leukemia’s racial/ethnic disparities and fills a knowledge gap by examining the incidence and mortality rates in Puerto Rico. Future studies are needed to better understand the factors influencing the differences found in the incidence and mortality of leukemia among different racial/ethnic groups.
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Matos-Moreno, Amilcar, Alexis Santos-Lozada, Mara Sheftel, and Ashton Verdery. "MIGRATION AS A PATHWAY TO KINLESSNESS AMONG OLDER ADULTS LEFT BEHIND." Innovation in Aging 7, Supplement_1 (December 1, 2023): 561. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/geroni/igad104.1839.
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Abstract Recent research examines the topic of kinless adults, people over the age of 50 who have neither a living spouse nor living children. Crossnational examinations find that the prevalence of kinlessness in these age groups ranges between 2% and 10% in most countries around the world and that kinless individuals tend to be disadvantaged on health and well-being dimensions. Prior work has not, however, examined migration in the context of kinlessness. Given high rates of migration in numerous sending contexts around the world, this study examines the prevalence of kinlessness in Puerto Rico, Mexico, Costa Rica, and the United States incorporating migration as a pathway to kinlessness and examining its association with well-being. Using surveys from the Health and Retirement family of studies from Puerto Rico, Mexico, Costa Rica, and the United States, we estimate the prevalence of kinlessness focusing on how these estimates change when treating adult family migrants as not available for the provision of social support. We also estimate the association between kinless typologies and health status. Puerto Rico exhibits the highest older adult kinlessness prevalence (Puerto Rico: 8.4%, Costa Rica:6.0%, Mexico:6.5%, United States:7.2%). The incorporation of migration as a pathway to kinlessness increases the prevalence in Puerto Rico (+3.8%) and Mexico (+5.2%) more so than for Costa Rica or United States. Kinlessness is associated with higher levels of depression among Puerto Rican older adults. This study reveals the importance of considering migration as a pathway to kinlessness in high outmigration countries and its impact on health.
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Santiago, Carlos E. "The Migratory Impact of Minimum Wage Legislation: Puerto Rico, 1970–1987." International Migration Review 27, no. 4 (December 1993): 772–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/019791839302700403.
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Minimum wage research has historically focused on labor mobility between covered and uncovered labor markets within a geographic area. This study examines the impact of minimum wage setting on labor migration. A multiple time series framework is applied to monthly data for Puerto Rico from 1970–1987. The results show that net emigration from Puerto Rico to the United States fell in response to significant changes in the manner in which minimum wage policy was conducted, particularly after 1974. The extent of commuter type labor migration between Puerto Rico and the United States is influenced by minimum wage policy, with potentially important consequences for human capital investment and long-term standards of living.
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Martinez-Torres, Keysha A., and Stephen Camarata. "Disability Eligibility Patterns in Head Start Programs: A Comparison of Puerto Rico and the United States." Inclusion 10, no. 2 (May 20, 2022): 134–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1352/2326-6988-10.2.134.
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Abstract Population-based research can identify eligibility patterns across e disabilities and cultures, and the Head Start ECLKC gathers relatively controlled data of students in the United States (U.S.) and Puerto Rico, providing an opportunity to directly compare cultures. We compared preschool diagnostic eligibility categories in the U.S. and Puerto Rico for speech/language impairment (SI), autism spectrum disorder (ASD), developmental delay (DD), and intellectual disability (ID) across three years (2016–2018). We observed higher reporting of ASD & SI in Puerto Rico as compared to the U.S., suggesting increased awareness and education towards these diagnoses. While there was higher identification for SI and ASD, there was lower identification for DD and ID in Puerto Rico, suggesting that cultural differences impact how these disabilities are defined and assessed.
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Leguízamo, Alejandro, Seung C. Lee, Elizabeth L. Jeglic, and Cynthia Calkins. "Utility of the Static-99 and Static-99R With Latino Sex Offenders." Sexual Abuse 29, no. 8 (December 16, 2015): 765–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1079063215618377.
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The predictive validity of the Static-99 measures with ethnic minorities in the United States has only recently been assessed with mixed results. We assessed the predictive validity of the Static-99 and Static-99R with a sample of Latino sex offenders ( N = 483) as well as with two subsamples (U.S.-born, including Puerto Rico, and non-U.S.-born). The overall sexual recidivism rate was very low (1.9%). Both the Static-99 measures were able to predict sexual recidivism for offenders born in the United States and Puerto Rico, but neither was effective in doing so for other Latino immigrants. Calibration analyses ( N = 303) of the Static-99R were consistent with the literature and provided support for the potential use of the measure with Latinos born in the United States and Puerto Rico. These findings and their implications are discussed as they pertain to the assessment of Latino sex offenders.
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Levison, Julie H. "Beyond quarantine: a history of leprosy in Puerto Rico, 1898-1930s." História, Ciências, Saúde-Manguinhos 10, suppl 1 (2003): 225–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s0104-59702003000400011.
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From biblical times to the modern period, leprosy has been a disease associated with stigma. This mark of disgrace, physically present in the sufferers' sores and disfigured limbs, and embodied in the identity of a 'leper', has cast leprosy into the shadows of society. This paper draws on primary sources, written in Spanish, to reconstruct the social history of leprosy in Puerto Rico when the United States annexed this island in 1898. The public health policies that developed over the period of 1898 to the 1930s were unique to Puerto Rico because of the interplay between political events, scientific developments and popular concerns. Puerto Rico was influenced by the United States' priorities for public health, and the leprosy control policies that developed were superimposed on vestiges of the colonial Spanish public health system. During the United States' initial occupation, extreme segregation sacrificed the individual rights and liberties of these patients for the benefit of society. The lives of these leprosy sufferers were irrevocably changed as a result.
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Charles, Guy-Uriel, and Luis Fuentes-Rohwer. "No Voice, No Exit, But Loyalty? Puerto Rico and Constitutional Obligation." Michigan Journal of Race & Law, no. 26.0 (2021): 133. http://dx.doi.org/10.36643/mjrl.26.sp.no.
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The Michigan Law Review is honored to have supported Professors Charles and Fuentes-Rohwer's Essay on the subjugated status of Puerto Rico as an "unincorporated territory." This Essay contextualizes Puerto Rico not as an anomalous colonial vestige but as fundamentally a part of the United States' ongoing commitment to racial economic domination. We are thrilled to highlight this work, which indicts our constitutional complacence with the second-class status of Puerto Rican citizens and demands a national commitment to self-determination for Puerto Rico.
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Duany, Jorge. "Mobile Livelihoods: The Sociocultural Practices of Circular Migrants between Puerto Rico and the United States." International Migration Review 36, no. 2 (June 2002): 355–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-7379.2002.tb00085.x.
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This article focuses on the bilateral flow of people between Puerto Rico and the United States - what has come to be known as circular, commuter, or revolving-door migration. It documents the migrants' livelihood practices based on a recent field study of population flows between Puerto Rico and the mainland. Specifically, the basic characteristics of multiple movers, one-time movers and nonmovers residing in Puerto Rico are compared. More broadly, the article assesses the implications of circular migration for Puerto Rican communities on and off the island. The author's basic argument is that the constant displacement of people - both to and from the island – blurs the territorial, linguistic, and juridical boundaries of the Puerto Rican nation. As people expand their means of subsistence across space, they develop multiple attachments to various localities. In the Puerto Rican situation, such mobile livelihoods are easier to establish than in other places because of the free movement of labor and capital between the island and the mainland. The author hypothesizes that circulation does not entail major losses in human capital for most Puerto Ricans, but rather often constitutes an occupational, educational, and linguistic asset.
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Zambrana-Echevarría, Cristina, Lorriane De Jesús-Kim, Rocio Márquez-Karry, Dimuth Siritunga, and David Jenkins. "Diversity of Papaya ringspot virus Isolates in Puerto Rico." HortScience 51, no. 4 (April 2016): 362–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.21273/hortsci.51.4.362.
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Papaya ringspot virus (PRSV) devastates papaya production worldwide. In Puerto Rico, papaya fields can be completely infected with PRSV within a year of planting. Information about the diversity of the Puerto Rican PRSV (PR-PRSV) population is relevant to establish a control strategy in the island. The coat protein gene (cp) of PRSV was sequenced from 62 isolates from different regions in Puerto Rico. The viral population of PRSV in Puerto Rico has 4% nucleotide and 5% amino acid diversity. Analysis of the coat protein (CP) amino acid sequence showed a variable amino terminal (N-terminal) region with a conserved aphid transmission motif and a variable EK repeat region. The core and carboxyl terminal (C-terminal) region were conserved. In the phylogenetic analysis, Puerto Rican isolates grouped independently of their geographical origin, with the exception of southern isolates that formed two separate subgroups and were the most divergent. Sequences of the cp from the Puerto Rican isolates, when compared with sequences from other countries, showed least genetic distance with isolates from the United States and Australia, followed by other American and Caribbean isolates. The U.S. and Australian isolates are sister taxa to the Puerto Rican isolates in the phylogenetic tree. This suggests that PRSV from Puerto Rico and the isolates from the United States and Australia have a common origin thought to be from a Mexican population.
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Tooley, Paul W., Nichole R. O'Neill, Erin D. Goley, and Marie M. Carras. "Assessment of Diversity in Claviceps africana and Other Claviceps Species by RAM and AFLP Analyses." Phytopathology® 90, no. 10 (October 2000): 1126–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/phyto.2000.90.10.1126.
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Genetic diversity among isolates of Claviceps africana, the sorghum ergot pathogen, and isolates of other Claviceps spp. causing ergot on sorghum or other hosts, was analyzed by random amplified microsatellite (RAM) and amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) analyses. Of the RAM primer sets tested, one revealed polymorphism in C. africana isolates, with Australian and Indian isolates possessing a unique fragment. AFLP analysis, in addition to clearly distinguishing Claviceps spp., revealed polymorphisms in C. africana. A group of isolates from the United States, Puerto Rico, and South Africa exhibited 95 to 100% similarity with one another. Several isolates from Isabela, Puerto Rico were 100% similar to an isolate from Texas, and another isolate from Puerto Rico was identical with one from Nebraska. Australian and Indian isolates showed greater than 90% similarity with isolates from the United States., Puerto Rico, and South Africa. A number of polymorphisms existed in the United States group, indicating that the recently introduced population contains multiple genotypes. Isolates of C. sorghicola, a newly described sorghum pathogen from Japan, were very distinct from other species via RAM and AFLP analyses, as were isolates from outgroups C. purpurea and C. fusiformis. Both RAM and AFLP analysis will be useful in determining future patterns of intercontinental migration of the sorghum ergot pathogen, with the AFLP method showing greater ability to characterize levels of intraspecific variation.
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Camacho-Mercado, Clara L., Raúl Figueroa, Heriberto Acosta, Steven E. Arnold, and Irving E. Vega. "Profiling of Alzheimer’s disease patients in Puerto Rico: A comparison of two distinct socioeconomic areas." SAGE Open Medicine 4 (January 1, 2016): 205031211562782. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2050312115627826.
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Objective: The Latino/Hispanic community in the United States is at higher risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease than other ethnic groups. Specifically, Caribbean Hispanics showed a more severe Alzheimer’s disease symptomatology than any other ethnic group. In a previous study, we demonstrated that the mortality rate associated with Alzheimer’s disease in Puerto Rico is higher than that reported in the United States. Moreover, the mortality rate associated with Alzheimer’s disease was higher among Puerto Rican living in Puerto Rico than those in the mainland United States. There is also a differential geographical distribution of mortality rate associated with Alzheimer’s disease in Puerto Rico, which may be associated with differential socioeconomic status and/or access to healthcare. However, there is no information regarding the clinical profile of Alzheimer’s disease patients in Puerto Rico. Methods: Here, we present the results of a retrospective study directed to profile Alzheimer’s disease patients clustered into two groups based on areas previously determined with low (Metro Region) and high (Northwest-Central Region) mortality rate associated with Alzheimer’s disease in Puerto Rico. Results: Significant difference in the age-at-diagnosis and years of education was found among patients within the two studied regions. Despite these differences, both regions showed comparable levels of initial and last Mini Mental State Examination scores and rate of cognitive decline. Significant difference was also observed in the occurance of co-morbidities associated with Alzheimer’s disease. Conclusions: The differential profile of Alzheimer’s disease patients correlated with differences in socioeconomic status between these two regions, suggesting that covariant associated with social status may contribute to increased risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease. Further studies should be conducted to determine the role of socioeconomic factors and healthy living practices as risk factors for Alzheimer’s disease.
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Funkhouser, Edward, and Fernando A. Ramos. "The Choice of Migration Destination: Dominican and Cuban Immigrants to the Mainland United States and Puerto Rico." International Migration Review 27, no. 3 (September 1993): 537–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/019791839302700303.
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Puerto Rico provides an alternative destination for immigrants from the Spanish-speaking Caribbean because the culture is similar to that in the source country. In this study, we use the 1980 Census of Population to examine the importance of relative earnings and culture in the choice of destination. The main finding is the similar pattern of choice of location for immigrants from the Dominican Republic and Cuba. The more educated and more professional immigrants are found in either Puerto Rico or outside the enclave on the mainland. Within this group, those with less time remaining in the labor market and lower English ability are found in Puerto Rico. We find that not all differences in location decision are attributable to differences in reward structure by location.
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Krebs, John W., Tara W. Strine, Jean S. Smith, Charles E. Rupprecht, and James E. Childs. "Rabies surveillance in the United States during 1993." Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 205, no. 12 (December 15, 1994): 1695–709. http://dx.doi.org/10.2460/javma.1994.205.12.1695.
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Summary In 1993, 49 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico reported 9,495 cases of rabies in nonhuman animals and 3 cases in human beings to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Greater than 93% (8,889 cases) were wild animals, whereas 6.4% (606 cases) were domestic species. The total number of reported cases increased 9.9% over that of 1992 (8,645 cases), with most of the increase resulting from continued spread of rabies in raccoons (37.1% increase in reported cases over 1992). The 2 epizootics of rabies in raccoons (Northeastern/mid-Atlantic and Southeastern regions) approach convergence in North Carolina (106 cases of rabies in 1993, compared with 49 in 1992). Maine, Rhode Island, and Vetmont remained the only New England states without reported cases associated with the raccoon variant of the rabies virus. New York reported 2,747 cases of rabies, the largest number of cases ever reported during a single year by any state. Increases in reported cases of rabies in Texas and 8 other geographically dispersed states were attributed mainly to larger numbers of reported cases of rabies in bats. Texas reported 71 of the 74 cases in coyotes during 1993 (70 of 75 cases in 1992). Nationally, reported cases of rabies in dogs (130) and cattle (130) each decreased by 29% in 1993, whereas cats (291 cases in 1993, compared with 290 in 1992) continued to be the domestic animal most frequently reported rabid. Twenty-two states and Puerto Rico reported decreases in rabies in animals in 1993, compared with 20 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico in 1992. Hawaii was the only state that did not report a case of rabies in 1993.
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Landale, Nancy S., R. S. Oropesa, and Bridget K. Gorman. "Migration and Infant Death: Assimilation or Selective Migration among Puerto Ricans?" American Sociological Review 65, no. 6 (December 2000): 888–909. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/000312240006500605.
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Using pooled origin/destination data from the Puerto Rican Maternal and Infant Health Study, we examine the implications for infant mortality of migration from Puerto Rico to the United States. An analysis restricted to the U.S. mainland shows that children of migrants have lower risks of infant mortality than do children of mainland-born Puerto Rican women. A critical question is whether this pattern indicates that maternal exposure to U.S. culture undermines infant health or whether it is largely a result of the selective migration of healthier or more advantaged mothers to the United States. Our findings show that mother's duration of U.S. residence is positively related to infant mortality among the children of migrants, suggesting that a process of negative assimilation is occurring. However, inclusion of Puerto Rico in the analysis demonstrates the importance of selective migration in explaining the U.S. mainland pattern: Infant mortality is substantially lower among recent migrants to the mainland than it is among nonmigrant women in Puerto Rico. The roles of socioeconomic status, cultural orientation, health habits, and health care utilization in accounting for differences in infants’ survival chances by maternal migration status are assessed.
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Lapp, Michael. "The Rise and Fall of Puerto Rico as a Social Laboratory, 1945–1965." Social Science History 19, no. 2 (1995): 169–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0145553200017284.
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Before the 1940s Puerto Rico was an obscure possession for most American social scientists, as indeed it was for most United States citizens. Conquered in the Spanish-American War, Puerto Rico was overshadowed in the American consciousness by its more tumultuous neighbor Cuba. To be sure, by the 1930s, there were sparks of interest among foundation staffs, New Dealers, and radicals in the plight of the Puerto Rican poor. Yet on the whole the island continued to merit only cursory attention.
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Basáñez Barrio, Endika. "Una revisión histórico-política de la producción literaria puertorriqueña. Entrevista con Fernando Feliú Matilla / A historical and political review of Puertorriquean Literatura. Interview to Fernando Feliú Matilla." Kamchatka. Revista de análisis cultural., no. 9 (August 31, 2017): 207. http://dx.doi.org/10.7203/kam.9.10150.
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Resumen: A lo largo de la siguiente entrevista, el profesor, historiador, crítico e investigador la de la Universidad de Puerto Rico, el catedrático en literatura puertorriqueña don Fernando Feliú Matilla, nos permite establecer una visión histórica de la génesis artística llevada a cabo en la Isla a través de los diferentes contextos socio-políticos que han tenido lugar en la misma desde la aparición de una literatura puertorriqueña propia y distintiva hasta la anexión de Puerto Rico a los Estados Unidos de América como Estado Libre Asociado en 1952 y su impronta en la génesis isleña. Si bien la entrevista tiene como objeto principal la literatura boricua, también se debaten en la misma el falocentrismo cultural presente en la cultura puertorriqueña, las relaciones políticas entre San Juan y Washington D.C., la influencia de los textos diaspóricos en la producción isleña o la situación del panorama artístico actual en Puerto Rico.Palabras clave: Literatura hispanoamericana; Literatura puertorriqueña; Estados Unidos; emigración; política. Abstract: Throughtout the following interview, professor Fernando Feliú Matilla, who holds a chair in Puerto Rican Studies and Literature, offers his personal point of view after years of research about Puerto Rican literature written in the 20th century. The interview is developed from a historical perspective, which means that it starts right from the moment Puerto Rico was still a Spanish colony in the Americas, until the present day, being Puerto Rico a Free Associated State of the United States of America (also known as American Commonwealth of Puerto Rico). Besides the literature, professor Feliú Matilla also gives his opinion about the absence of female writers in Puerto Rican literature, the relationships between San Juan and Washington D.C., the cultural movements that Puerto Rican literature written nowadays is influenced by, and many other different topics such as Caribbean literature written in the United States and its connection with Puerto Rican art.Keywords: Hispanic Literature; Puerto Rican Literature; USA; immigration; politics.
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Kim, Minji. "Puerto Rico’s Attempts to Address a Public Health Crisis Struck Down by the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit." American Journal of Law & Medicine 48, no. 4 (December 2022): 481–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/amj.2023.10.
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AbstractThis RCD discusses a recent decision by the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit that struck down Puerto Rico’s Act 90-2019, which aimed to regulate pay structures for Medicare Advantage insurers in Puerto Rico. The court found that the provision in Act 90, known as the “Mandated Price Provision,” is preempted by federal law. However, the author argues that the court’s decision did not adequately consider the congressional intent of the Medicare Advantage Act in weighing the public health crisis in Puerto Rico. The RCD provides background on the Medicare Advantage program and Act 90 and explains how Act 90 aimed to eliminate insurers’ practice of paying providers at rates below the CMS’s minimum reimbursement rates under the traditional Medicare program. The article concludes that the court’s decision inadequately considered the larger purpose of the Medicare Advantage Act and the relevant public health crisis in Puerto Rico.
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Zambrana, Rocío. "Introduction." Critical Times 4, no. 1 (April 1, 2021): 125–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/26410478-8855275.
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Abstract The essays translated in this cluster explore the work of debt, blame, and responsibility in the continuation of and resistance to colonial life in contemporary Puerto Rico. In the colony of Puerto Rico, debt represents the continuation of the colonial condition—Puerto Rico's status as an unincorporated territory of the United States. Ariadna Michelle Godreau-Aubert, Vanesa Contreras Capó, Anayra Santory Jorge, and Eva Prados Rodríguez show furthermore how debt actualizes a racial and gender order that exceeds colonialism as a juridical-political predicament. Their essays track forms of resistance to the work of debt.
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Chernykh, Marina. "Alternative Options for Puerto Rico’s Political Status: Comparative Analysis and Perspectives." Russia and America in the 21st Century, no. 6 (2023): 0. http://dx.doi.org/10.18254/s207054760029611-9.
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The problem surrounding Puerto Rico’s political status had existed in the United States for decades. During this time, congressmen proposed 12 bills. Most of them remained at the first stage of consideration, indicating their priorities regarding Puerto Rico. The current 118th Congress is considering a bill that would provide three alternatives to the island's political status. The article analyzes this bill, highlights the fundamental features of alternative options and determines the prospects for their adoption. The article also proves that granting statehood to Puerto Rico is the most logical end to a long-term problematic situation.
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Nwangwu-Ike, Ndidi, Chan Jin, Zanetta Gant, Shacara Johnson, and Alexandra B. Balaji. "An Examination of Geographic Differences in Social Determinants of Health Among Women with Diagnosed HIV in the United States and Puerto Rico, 2017." Open AIDS Journal 15, no. 1 (February 16, 2021): 10–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1874613602115010010.
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Objective: To examine differences, at the census tract level, in the distribution of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) diagnoses and social determinants of health (SDH) among women with diagnosed HIV in 2017 in the United States and Puerto Rico. Background: In the United States, HIV continues to disproportionately affect women, especially minority women and women in the South. Methods: Data reported in the National HIV Surveillance System (NHSS) of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention were used to determine census tract-level HIV diagnosis rates and percentages among adult women (aged ≥18 years) in 2017. Data from the American Community Survey were combined with NHSS data to examine regional differences in federal poverty status, education level, income level, employment status, and health insurance coverage among adult women with diagnosed HIV infection in the United States and Puerto Rico. Results: In the United States and Puerto Rico, among 6,054 women who received an HIV diagnosis in 2017, the highest rates of HIV diagnoses generally were among those who lived in census tracts where the median household income was less than $40,000; at least 19% lived below the federal poverty level, at least 18% had less than a high school diploma, and at least 16% were without health insurance. Conclusion: This study is the first of its kind and gives insight into how subpopulations of women are affected differently by the likelihood of an HIV diagnosis. The findings show that rates of HIV diagnosis were highest among women who lived in census tracts having the lowest income and least health coverage.
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Esparza, René. "“Qué Bonita Mi Tierra”." Radical History Review 2021, no. 140 (May 1, 2021): 107–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/01636545-8841706.
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Abstract Employing an anticolonial and anticapitalist approach to HIV/AIDS, the activists of the Latina/o Caucus of ACT UP/NY pushed beyond a biomedical framework of “drugs into bodies” that tended to dominate the larger organization. As US queer racialized/colonial subjects, Latinx AIDS activists enacted a queer and feminist decolonial activism that looked past the continental United States to the global South. In Puerto Rico, Latinx AIDS activists helped establish the first chapter of ACT UP in a Spanish-speaking country. Together, the Latina/o Caucus and ACT UP/Puerto Rico spearheaded a campaign against the colonial policies of the United States, the corporate greed of island-based pharmaceutical firms, and the heteropatriarchal investments of church and commonwealth officials—conditions that exacerbated the disproportionate rates of HIV/AIDS among Puerto Rican island and diasporic communities. Through these efforts, Latinx AIDS activists transformed the domestic and global fight against AIDS into a queer, feminist, and decolonial endeavor.
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Amador, Emma. "Caring for Labor History." Labor 17, no. 4 (December 1, 2020): 65–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/15476715-8643496.
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This essay charts how the author’s interest in labor history and the history of care work were inspired by her own family history of migrations from Puerto Rico to the United States. It considers how her grandmother’s stories about being a child needle worker in Puerto Rico and a migrant domestic worker in New York led her to think critically about the connections and overlap between the home and workplace in the lives of Puerto Rican women. As a student, investigating her personal history led her to discover a rich tradition of Puerto Rican feminist labor history that raised questions about reproductive politics and caring labor that remain pressing in our contemporary moment.
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Backiel, Linda. "The People of Vieques, Puerto Rico vs. the United States Navy." Monthly Review 54, no. 9 (February 1, 2003): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.14452/mr-054-09-2003-02_1.
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Govindasamy, Ramu, Venkata S. Puduri, and James E. Simon. "Willingness to Buy New Ethnic Produce Items: A Study of Latino Consumers from Mexico and Puerto Rico in the Eastern United States." HortTechnology 21, no. 2 (April 2011): 202–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.21273/horttech.21.2.202.
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The purpose of this study was to predict Latinos', consumers from Mexico and Puerto Rico, willingness to buy ethnic produce recently introduced or new to market. Specifically, we analyzed and compared socioeconomic characteristics of 542 Mexican and Puerto Rican consumers and expressed value judgments on their willingness to buy ethnic produce that has been recently introduced or new to market. This study was based on a primary data set collected from interviewing 542 Latino consumers (Mexico and Puerto Rico origin). A bilingual questionnaire was prepared in Spanish and English for Mexicans and Puerto Ricans in 16 states (Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Vermont, and Virginia) and Washington, DC. Attributes that contributed toward willingness to buy new ethnic produce include respondent's expenditure on total produce and ethnic produce, perceptions such as the importance of store availability, language, willingness to buy locally grown, organic, genetically modified, and country of origin labeled produce items. This information will assist market intermediaries and farmers better understand Latino consumers' (Mexico and Puerto Rico group) perceptions and factors that drive willingness to buy ethnic produce that is recently introduced or new to market.
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Duany, Jorge. "A Transnational Colonial Migration: Puerto Rico’s Farm Labor Program." New West Indian Guide / Nieuwe West-Indische Gids 84, no. 3-4 (January 1, 2010): 225–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/13822373-90002441.
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In this article, the author defines Puerto Rico as a nation, an imagined community with its own territory, history, language, and culture. Nevertheless, the Island lacks a sovereign state, an independent government that represents the population of that territory. This unsovereign state has long sponsored population displacements from Puerto Rico to the United States. Since the beginning of the twentieth century, colonial officials embraced migration as a safety valve for the Island’s overpopulation. During the 1950s and 1960s, the Commonwealth government spurred the "Great Migration" to the U.S. mainland. The Farm Labor Program, overseen by the Migration Division of Puerto Rico’s Department of Labor, illustrates the complicated negotiations required by a transnational colonial state.
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Valdez, Juan R. "The battleground of metaphors: language debates and symbolic violence in Puerto Rico (1930–1960)." Journal of Historical Sociolinguistics 2, no. 1 (April 1, 2016): 1–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/jhsl-2016-0001.
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AbstractIn Puerto Rico, the defense of Spanish and discussions of bilingualism have been conditioned by the island’s local politics and its relationships with the United States. Previous research has looked at how identity politics and specific political players produced arguments in favor or against various language proposals. Yet, questions regarding the complex ideological nature of the language debate in Puerto Rico remain to be examined with greater focalization and critical scrutiny. To this end and employing an interdisciplinary approach to issues of language and linguistic representation, I explore the ideological complexity of bilingualism in Puerto Rico during several decades from the perspective of the politics of language and by taking into account the phenomenon of symbolic violence. I argue that particular metaphors of language exemplify the link between symbolic and material violence in the context of this society’s struggles for political self-determination.
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Soto-Santiago, Sandra L. "“You have to learn the language of where you are”: language policies, ideologies, and the educational experiences of Puerto Rican transnational youth." International Journal of the Sociology of Language 2024, no. 286 (March 1, 2024): 87–112. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/ijsl-2023-0023.
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Abstract Transnational movement to and from the United States is a social phenomenon that impacts all aspects of life in Puerto Rico. This includes language and education for minors who move back and forth between both locations. The present investigation focuses on the educational experiences of first-generation Puerto Rican transnational students in the public education system in Puerto Rico. The data presented are part of a larger ethnographic study conducted in two public schools in western Puerto Rico with transnational students and the analysis encompasses the language policies established for this student population and resources available to them as they adjusted to a new educational setting. Although translingual practices were the most effective source of support observed for participants in the study this option was not always available. Due to the lack of an efficient support system for transnational students in schools this responsibility was relayed to teachers and their decisions were primarily informed by their own language ideologies and their life experiences.
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McIntyre, Anahi, Nadeem Bilani, and Amy Tiersten. "Origin associated with heterogeneity amongst Hispanic patients with breast cancer in the United States." Journal of Clinical Oncology 42, no. 16_suppl (June 1, 2024): e23077-e23077. http://dx.doi.org/10.1200/jco.2024.42.16_suppl.e23077.
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e23077 Background: There are over 50 million self-identifying Hispanics in the United States. This, however, represents a heterogenous population variably affected by an array of determinants of health, including race and insurance status. We used a national registry to investigate for significant differences in outcomes of Hispanic patients with breast cancer in the United States by country of origin. Methods: We identified a cohort of Hispanic patients in the United States with breast cancer for which origin was documented using the 2004-2019 National Cancer Database (NCDB) dataset. The NCDB delineates the following specific origins: Puerto Rico, Mexico, Cuba, South or Central America (excluding Brazil), or the Dominican Republic. We performed multivariate logistic regression modeling to identify whether origin was a significant predictor of advanced cancer staging at diagnosis (AJCC stage III or IV), adjusting for age, race, receptor subtype, histology, grade, insurance status, and facility type. Consequently, we used Cox Regression survival modeling to investigate whether overall survival (OS) differed by Hispanic origin after adjusting for stage at diagnosis and other confounders of survival: age, race, stage at diagnosis, receptor subtype, and systemic therapy received. Results: Of the identified n = 60,438 Hispanic patients with breast cancer in the United States: n = 26,800 (44.3%) had Mexican, n = 9,792 (16.2%) had Puerto Rican, n = 5,283 (8.8%) had Cuban, n = 14,381 (23.8%) had South/Central American, and n = 4,172 (6.9%) had Dominican Republic origins. After adjusting for the aforementioned covariates, we found that origin was a significant predictor of staging at diagnosis (p < 0.001). Patients originally from Mexico were more likely to be diagnosed at advanced stages compared to patients from Puerto Rico (OR 1.31; 95% CI, 1.18-1.46; p < 0.001). We also identified that origin was a significant predictor of overall survival in this cohort even when controlling for various confounders, including stage at diagnosis. Compared to patients from Puerto Rico, patients from Central/South America (HR 0.78, 95% CI 0.70-0.88, p < 0.001) and patients from the Dominican Republic (HR 0.77, 95% CI 0.65-0.92, p = 0.003) exhibited significantly improved overall survival. There was no statistically-significant survival difference between patients from Mexico and patients from Puerto Rico. Conclusions: This real-world analysis showed that, for Hispanic individuals living in the US with breast cancer, origin is significantly associated with outcomes even after accounting for other known determinants of health. We suggest that region of origin should be studied further as a potential determinant of outcomes in patients with cancer.
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Landale, Nancy S., and Nimfa B. Ogena. "Migration and Union Dissolution among Puerto Rican Women." International Migration Review 29, no. 3 (September 1995): 671–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/019791839502900303.
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This study examines the relationship between migration and union dissolution among Puerto Ricans, a Latino subgroup characterized by recurrent migration between Puerto Rico and the U.S. mainland. Based on pooled life-history data from comparable surveys undertaken in Puerto Rico and the United States, we find that: 1) Puerto Rican women who have lived on the U.S. mainland have markedly higher rates of union disruption than those with no U.S. experience; and 2) even net of a wide variety of possible explanatory factors, the relatively high rates of union instability among first and second generation U.S. residents and return migrants are strongly related to recent and lifetime migration experience. The results suggest that the weak social ties of migrants provide limited social support for their unions and few barriers to union disruption.
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Krebs, John W., Tara W. Strine, Jean S. Smith, Charles E. Rupprecht, and James E. Childs. "Rabies surveillance in the United States during 1994." Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 207, no. 12 (December 15, 1995): 1562–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.2460/javma.1995.207.12.1562.
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Summary In 1994, 48 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico reported 8,224 cases of rabies in nonhuman animals and 6 cases in human beings to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Nearly 93% (7,632 cases) were wild animals, whereas 7% (592 cases) were domestic species. The total number of reported cases decreased 13.4% from that of 1993 (9,498 cases), with most of the decline resulting from 19.2% fewer cases of rabies in raccoons. Two previously described epizootics of rabies involving the raccoon variant of the rabies virus have converged in North Carolina, and the resulting region is now continuous from Alabama and Florida in the South to Maine in the North. Epizootics of rabies in foxes in west central Texas and in dogs and coyotes in southern Texas continue to expand, with this state reporting 144 rabid foxes, 53 rabid dogs, and 77 of the 85 cases in coyotes during 1994. Maine and New Hampshire reported cases of rabies in foxes (6 and 9, respectively) for the first time in 10 years. Nationally, reported cases of rabies in dogs (153) increased by 17.7%, whereas cases in cattle (111) and cats (267) decreased by 14.6 and 8.3%, respectively. Cats continued to be the domestic animal most frequently reported rabid. Twenty-eight states and the District of Columbia reported decreases in rabies in animals in 1994, compared with 22 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico in 1993. Hawaii and Nebraska were the only states that did not report cases of rabies in 1994.
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Ortiz, Vilma. "Changes in the Characteristics of Puerto Rican Migrants from 1955 to 1980." International Migration Review 20, no. 3 (September 1986): 612–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/019791838602000304.
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This article tests the assumption that recent cohorts of migrants from Puerto Rico to the United States are a more select portion of the population, i.e., more educated and professional, than earlier cohorts. In this analysis, the demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of three cohorts of Puerto Rican migrants over the last 30 years are compared utilizing data from the 1960, 1970, and 1980 censuses.
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Arbino, Daniel. "“The Gifts of the Hurricane:” Reimagining Post-María Puerto Rico through Comics." eTropic: electronic journal of studies in the Tropics 20, no. 2 (September 10, 2021): 156–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.25120/etropic.20.2.2021.3815.
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Although the media framed Hurricanes Irma and María and their aftermath as a tragedy, and indeed it was, a small literary canon has emerged that explores the storms as an opportunity to rethink Puerto Rico’s future. The aftermath of the hurricanes impacted cultural production two-fold; by forcing writers to engage with climate change, while also rethinking the colonial relationship that Puerto Rico has with the United States. Looking specifically at selections from English- and Spanish-language comic anthologies Ricanstruction (2018), Puerto Rico Strong (2018) and Nublado: Escombros de María (2018) as well as single-author graphic novels like María and Temporada (2019), I explore how authors used Hurricane María as a catalyst to reimagine and recreate a more autonomous future for the island through decolonial imaginaries, a notion laid out by Emma Pérez. Despite their different approaches to Puerto Rico’s future, the comics’ commonality lies in counter-narratives that espouse community values, indigeneity, innovation, and reclamation of nature as a means to confront hardship. Together they produce alternative modalities for transcending the vulnerabilities of debilitating disasters brought on by climate change. They offer a return to pre-colonial values combined with new technologies to empower the island to break from the United States and withstand future storms.
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Preble, Kristen, and Bradford Benggio. "MANAGING THE RESOURCE CONSULTATION PROCESS: A CASE STUDY FROM THE JIREH GROUNDING RESPONSE." International Oil Spill Conference Proceedings 2014, no. 1 (May 1, 2014): 686–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.7901/2169-3358-2014.1.686.
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ABSTRACT The grounding of the 202-foot freight vessel JIREH, which occurred on June 21, 2012 on the Mona Island Natural Reserve in Puerto Rico, triggered a three month long response in what is arguably the most environmentally sensitive location in Puerto Rico and much of the Caribbean. Prior to, during, and after the response, the Federal On-Scene Coordinator worked closely with United States Government and Commonwealth of Puerto Rico agencies to ensure all natural and historic resource consultation mandates required under Federal law were initiated properly. This paper explores how the Endangered Species Act, Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act, and National Historic Preservation Act consultation requirements were applied before the JIREH response through development of the Puerto Rico and U.S. Virgin Islands Area Contingency Plan, during the response through multiple informal Emergency Consultations, and post-response through Formal Consultations. This examination will serve to highlight, through the lens of the JIREH response, the complexities of pre-planning for resource consultations, the challenges experienced by the Federal On-Scene Coordinator during an event, and provide recommendations to ensure resource consultation requirements are applied consistently and transparently in the future.
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Yuan, Fei, Jose Javier Lopez, Sabrina Arnold, Anna Brand, Jonas Klein, Maureen Schmidt, Erin Moseman, and Madeline Michels-Boyce. "Forestation in Puerto Rico, 1970s to Present." Journal of Geography and Geology 9, no. 3 (August 3, 2017): 30. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/jgg.v9n3p30.
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It is important to monitor the trend of forestland changes, as forests are vital sources and sinks of carbon on the earth. One of the most densely populated jurisdictions of the United States, Puerto Rico, has experienced significant transformations in the past century. This study examines forestation in the main island of Puerto Rico during the past four decades using feature extraction and change detection analysis in multitemporal Landsat satellite imagery. The results of the study show that forest cover in Puerto Rico had almost tripled from 15.7% to 45.7% between 1972 and 2014. Moreover, the forestation trend and pace in abandoned coffee plantations and pastures continued after 1990, driven by continuous socioeconomic transformation. Natural forestation and conservation efforts from the government and nongovernment organizations have also contributed to the forest growth on the island. The information gained and lessons learned during the process may be applied to other densely populated tropical insular territories.
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Torres-Garcia, Legna M., David Thompson, Kara Doran, Mark Buckley, Priscila Vargas-Babilonia, Meg L. Palmsten, and Curt Storlazzi. "NATIONAL ASSESSMENT OF HURRICANE-INDUCED COASTAL EROSION HAZARDS IN PUERTO RICO." Coastal Engineering Proceedings, no. 37 (September 1, 2023): 182. http://dx.doi.org/10.9753/icce.v37.management.182.
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Storms are one of the main causes of coastal erosion, causing substantial property and infrastructure losses in coastal communities. Coastal erosion is particularly damaging in underrepresented communities that are unable to meet building and zoning regulations due to limited resources [Lam, 2014]. The United States Geological Survey (USGS) has developed a probabilistic assessment of hurricane-induced coastal erosion for sandy coastlines along the eastern United States and the Gulf of Mexico. However, the current USGS product incorporates an empirical equation with inputs of beach slope and deep-water wave height and period [Stockdon, 2006] to predict the wave runup. Though this is appropriate for open coast sandy beaches, it is not valid for the rocky and reef lined coasts of Puerto Rico due to their complex bathymetries, steep slopes, and large bottom roughness. To expand this tool to Puerto Rico, the USGS has created 1-dimensional XBeach [Roelvink, 2009] models around the island.