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Journal articles on the topic 'Universalisme moral'
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1
Policar, Alain. "Relativisme moral et universalisme éthique." Raison présente 95, no. 1 (1990): 77–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.3406/raipr.1990.2881.
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Ipperciel, Donald. "Communautés morales et universalisme : quelles sont les responsabilités morales des individus des pays riches envers les pays pauvres?" Articles 35, no. 2 (March 10, 2009): 369–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.7202/000434ar.
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RésuméDans un contexte de mondialisation, plusieurs penseurs ont cru nécessaire de repenser nos pratiques morales, tant chez les individus que chez les groupes. On défend alors l’idée d’une morale qui s’étendrait par-delà la nation, de même que l’illégitimité de toute division de l’espace moral en « communautés morales ». Selon l’auteur, une moralité transnationale n’implique cependant pas forcément la dissolution des espaces moraux que sont les nations. Afin d’explorer cette problématique, les pensées de Peter Singer, de Robert Goodin et de Thomas Pogge sur cette question seront analysées et confrontées l’une à l’autre. Une approche contextualiste sera privilégiée, qui conclura à un devoir cosmopolite de faire respecter les devoirs nationaux.
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Kurasawa, Fuyuki. "L’humanitaire, manifestation du cosmopolitisme ?" Sociologie et sociétés 44, no. 1 (September 10, 2012): 217–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.7202/1012149ar.
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Cet article explore les sources et conséquences d’une tension constitutive du discours humanitaire, soit celle entre la reconnaissance d’un égalitarisme socioculturel (qui ressort d’un cosmopolisme critique) et l’attachement à un universalisme moral individuel axé sur la personne souffrante (qui provient d’un libéralisme humaniste). Nous commençons par analyser les origines ethnocentriques du projet humanitaire, qui rendait l’appel à la charité et à la sympathie compatible avec une hiérarchisation des peuples à bases raciales ou ethnoculturelles. La seconde partie de l’article étudie un mécanisme-clé mais sous-estimé de l’humanitarisme, soit son régime de sentimentalisme visuel à travers lequel la personne souffrante est représentée comme victime méritant d’être sauvée à condition que son image évoque la pitié ou la sympathie dans la sphère publique. Enfin, nous expliquons comment le régime visuel de l’humanitaire accentue le paradoxe entre l’individualisme moral sentimental de l’humanitarisme libéral et le projet de justice mondiale prisé par le cosmopolitisme critique.
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Holmes, Pablo. "As objeções de Albrecht Wellmer à Ética do Discurso e a filosofia moral fundamentada em uma teoria do reconhecimento social." Trans/Form/Ação 31, no. 1 (2008): 177–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s0101-31732008000100010.
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Este artigo trata das críticas, elaboradas por Albrecht Wellmer, ao tipo de teoria moral baseada em princípios universalistas. Inicialmente, é abordada sua tentativa de uma reelaboração da própria idéia de universalismo moral, para depois esboçar a radicalidade de sua crítica a qualquer moral universalista. Nesse ponto, a Ética do Discurso de Jürgen Habermas, é que lhe serve de objeto. Por fim, também a partir de Wellmer, apontam-se possíveis alternativas a esse tipo de ética, sobretudo, a formulação de um ponto de vista moral fundamento numa teoria do reconhecimento social.
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Danner, Leno Francisco. "PENSAMENTO PÓS-METAFÍSICO, MODERNIDADE E UNIVERSALISMO: OU SOBRE O FIM DA MODERNIDADE COMO PROJETO NORMATIVO UNIVERSALISTA." Revista Dissertatio de Filosofia 43 (October 13, 2016): 41. http://dx.doi.org/10.15210/dissertatio.v43i0.9724.
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Procuro defender, por meio da reconstrução do núcleo normativo da compreensão habermasiana sobre pensamento pós-metafísico, que objetiva retomar o projeto moderno de fundamentação epistemológico-moral universalista, dando-lhe uma versão contemporânea, que, ao contrário do que propõe Habermas, não é possível sustentar uma forma pósmetafísica de fundamentação epistemológico-moral universalista, posto que isso gera um triplo problema: uma idealização normativa da modernidade europeia enquanto possibilitando, devido à sua cultura descentrada, o universalismo epistemológico-moral; a colocação das estruturas de consciência da cultura europeia moderna, idealizada, como paradigma crítico-ajuizador de todos os contextos histórico-culturais particulares; e a afirmação de que a cultura descentrada da Europa moderna é o ápice de um processo histórico-evolutivo do gênero humano, quando comparada às visões mítico-tradicionais. Defenderei, a partir disso, que a tarefa propositiva por excelência para quem retoma um ideal normativo de modernidade cultural europeia consiste não em sua defesa e prossecução como paradigma epistemológico-moral universalista, mas sim em sua auto-limitação desde dentro, como uma forma de radical crítica à própria modernidade, de modo a refrear sua tendência totalizante e assimilacionista.
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Danner, Leno Francisco. "MODERNIDADE, UNIVERSALISMO E ASSIMILAÇÃO: DIREITOS HUMANOS COMO CRÍTICA À MODERNIDADE." Revista Dissertatio de Filosofia 41 (July 1, 2015): 185. http://dx.doi.org/10.15210/dissertatio.v41i0.8507.
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Criticarei a teoria da modernidade de Habermas no que tange à afirmação da modernidade europeia como sustentáculo de um paradigma epistemológico-moral universalista e de um projeto integrativo em nível cosmopolita. Na teoria habermasiana, a cultura descentrada, gestada na modernidade europeia, pode embasar estruturas de consciência racionalizadas, não-egocêntricas e não-etnocêntricas, de abrangência universalista, afirmadoras da democracia e dos direitos humanos tanto como critérios epistemológicos ajuizadores dos contextos particulares quanto como garantidores de um projeto integrativo abrangente. Contrariamente a isso, defenderei que o universalismo epistemológico-moral moderno possui uma lógica assimilacionista, que deslegitima os contextos particulares como condição de sua sobrevivência enquanto visão de mundo pretensamente universalista, legitimando, assim, a própria modernidade europeia como critério supremo da crítica e da integração, na medida em que lhe dá um alcance para além de si mesma, abarcando também contextos não-modernos.
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Danner, Leno Francisco, Fernando Danner, and Agemir Bavaresco. "A condição pós-universalista e o alcance da fundamentação." Revista Opinião Filosófica 8, no. 1 (August 14, 2017): 73–130. http://dx.doi.org/10.36592/opiniaofilosofica.v8i1.731.
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A partir da reconstrução do modelo normativo de modernidade cultural europeia idealizado por Habermas como base de sua teoria da modernidade, criticamos sua proposta de colocar esse modelo normativo de modernidade cultural europeia como paradigma epistemológico-moral universalista e como projeto integrativo cosmopolita, que serviria como guarda-chuva normativo dos contextos culturais particulares. A partir do desenvolvimento do conceito de condição pós-universalista, procuraremos defender que a modernidade cultural europeia não tem condições de sustentarse como paradigma da crítica, do enquadramento e da integração válido para todos os contextos, posto que não se pode separar esse modelo idealizado de modernidade em relação à colonização travestida de racionalização cultural e levada a efeito via globalização econômico-cultural. Nosso argumento consiste em que a racionalização cultural enquanto possibilitando o universalismo, cerne do modelo normativo de modernidade cultural europeia reconstruído por Habermas, leva à assimilação e à deslegitimação dos contextos culturais particulares, considerados por ele como incapazes de gerar uma postura universalista, legitimando de maneira direta a prossecução totalizante da modernidade para além de si mesma, como juiz, guia e projeto societal superiores, exatamente devido à sua cultura descentrada e às suas estruturas de consciência moral universalistas.
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Hilário, Alessandra Danielle Carneiro dos Santos, and Maria Luiza Pereira de Alencar Mayer Feitosa. "Direito ao Desenvolvimento e Direito à Cidade: Uma Proposta de Categorias de Direitos Humanos Universais como Pressupostos de Cidadania." Conpedi Law Review 1, no. 2 (May 31, 2016): 226. http://dx.doi.org/10.26668/2448-3931_conpedilawreview/2015.v1i2.3383.
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Este artigo aborda o Direito à Cidade (DaC), em uma dimensão conceitual e ampla, e sua relação dialética com a Declaração Universal dos Direitos Humanos de 1948 e as respectivas categorias de universalismo e relativismo cultural. O DaC é capitulado como uma das categorias do Direito Humano ao Desenvolvimento dentre os compartimentos de Direitos Humanos que descendem da Declaração Universal de Direitos Humanos. Atrelada a essa premissa, a discussão sobre as teorias de universalismo e relativismo cultural trazem à baila importantes questionamentos e considerações quanto à condição do DaC, visto que, em sua concepção atual e calcado por uma herança maléfica do neoliberalismo, tal direito demonstrou a necessidade de uma ação impositiva do Estado, dada a sua natureza de direito humano fundamental de terceira dimensão. Por meio do DaC, usufrui-se de direitos econômicos, sociais e culturais, demandando uma ação positiva do Estado como garantia de observância desse direito humano. Nesse viés, relevantes são as discussões sobre o conceito de direito, moral, liberalismo, efetividade de direitos humanos e teorias de universalismo e relativismo culturais em dialética com o DaC e sua complexidade. Parte-se do pressuposto de que a Declaração Universal dos Direitos do Homem e as demais Declarações das quais descendem têm caráter universalista (não obstante críticas), todavia, nessa seara, é imprescindível um exame mais acurado do conceito, previsão, garantia e efetividade de direitos humanos fundamentais, o que pode conduzir a uma aplicação mista das teorias universalista e relativista quando analisadas sob a ótica dos institutos referidos. O Direito Humano ao Desenvolvimento (DaD) pressupõe noções de sustentabilidade socioambiental e de democracia econômica, com participação qualificada dos sujeitos sociais (cidadania ampla), encaradas em perspectiva contínua e articulada, como norteadores do processo de desenvolvimento.
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Blakeley, Donald N. "Neo-Confucianism and Universalism." Dialogue and Universalism 8, no. 11 (1998): 169–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/du1998811/1216.
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I explore the features of universalist thinking in the work of Zhu X i (Chu Hsi: 1130-1200), examining the following: (1) the importance of li (principle) in Zhu Xi's cosmology and ethics; (2) the course of moral development of a Confucian sage and the spheres of expanding identity and responsibility; (3) the ideal of impartiality in achieving a composure of unity with the world; and (4) the ideal of differentiated (or graded) love as an expression of living in accord with li and xing (nature). I conclude with some critical observations regarding these major features of Zhu Xi's universalism, noting some hazards of such cross-cultural analysis, and acknowledging general problems facing the non-pluralistic perspective of his work.
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Widiantari, Sri. "PENALARAN MORAL SEBAGAI PEMODERASI PENGARUH TIPE NILAI PERSONAL PADA SIKAP AKUNTABILITAS LINGKUNGAN." Jurnal Ilmiah Akuntansi dan Bisnis 4, no. 2 (April 23, 2020): 221. http://dx.doi.org/10.38043/jiab.v4i2.2329.
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Penalaran moral sebagai pemoderasi pengaruh tipe nilai personal pada sikap akuntabilitas lingkungan. Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk memperoleh bukti empiris mengenai pengaruh tipe nilai personal (universalism, power, dan tradition) pada sikap akuntabilitas lingkungan dengan penalaran moral sebagai variabel pemoderasi. Kuesioner digunakan sebagai metode pengumpulan data. Teknik pengambilan sampel menggunakan nonprobability sampling. Sampel yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini berjumlah 118 mahasiswa program Magister Akuntansi, Universitas Udayana. Pengujian hipotesis dilakukan dengan regresi berganda dan regresi moderasian (MRA) dengan uji nilai selisih mutlak. Nilai universalism dan nilai tradition terbukti berpengaruh positif pada sikap akuntabilitas lingkungan, sedangkan nilai power terbukti berpengaruh negatif. Disisi lain, penalaran moral terbukti mampu memoderasi tipe nilai personal (universalism, power, dan tradition) pada sikap akuntabilitas lingkungan.Kata kunci: akuntabilitas lingkungan, universalism, power, tradition, penalaran moral.
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Lahiri, Imankalyan. "Moral Universalism, “International Relations” and Beyond." Jadavpur Journal of International Relations 13, no. 1 (June 2009): 78–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0973598409110006.
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Pogge, Thomas W. "Moral Universalism and Global Economic Justice." Politics, Philosophy & Economics 1, no. 1 (February 2002): 29–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1470594x02001001002.
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Parens, Joshua. "Multiculturalism and the Problem of Particularism." American Political Science Review 88, no. 1 (March 1994): 169–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2944889.
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When Kant first used the term “culture,” he referred to the human capacity to will universal moral laws. Multiculturalists object to the denial of “difference” implicit in Kantian as well as all other Enlightenment forms of universalism. Their objection stems from their more particularistic understanding of culture, which for the most part everyone shares today. Plato is frequently said to be the fount of (universal) natural law theory; yet a medieval Muslim philosopher, Alfarabi, presents a Plato who denies moral universalism but acknowledges the possibility of some form of universalism, at least in the realm of knowledge. Alfarabi's Plato thereby provides a corrective for both extreme contemporary particularism and extreme Kantian universalism.
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Monti, Ezequiel. "Universalismo y Particularismo: desde la Moral al Derecho." Discusiones 16, no. 1 (February 23, 2021): 223–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.52292/j.dsc.2015.2424.
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En ‘Razones y normas’ Redondo se propuso trasladar la discusión entre universalismo y particularismo del ámbito de la filosofía moral al de la teoría del derecho. En este trabajo, analizo críticamente tanto el modo en que Redondo articula la discusión en el ámbito moral como su intento de trasladarla al ámbito jurídico. Defiendo tres tesis fundamentales. Primero, la caracterización de Redondo del universalismo y el particularismo morales es insatisfactoria, en tanto no distingue adecuadamente entre normas (que constituyen razones para la acción) y proposiciones que describen relaciones nomológicas entre hechos naturales y razones morales, lo que la lleva a englobar bajo un rótulo común discusiones muy distintas entre sí. Segundo, contra lo que sugiere Redondo, universalismo y particularismo no están comprometidos con modelos incompatibles de razonamiento práctico. Tercero, tras examinar diferentes modos de caracterizar el particularismo jurídico, concluyo que ninguno satisface la condición de ser plausible y estar vinculado con la discusión en filosofía moral.
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Crocker, David A. "Insiders and Outsiders in International Development." Ethics & International Affairs 5 (March 1991): 149–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-7093.1991.tb00236.x.
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International development ethics is moral reflection on the ends and means of societal and global change. Who should engage in this activity and how should it be done? Should only citizens of a given nation reflect on, and morally evaluate, that country's development goals and strategies? Or do foreigners have a contribution to make as well? Crocker answers these questions by first briefly discussing and critiquing the context within which these questions are frequently debated, namely the ethnocentrism/anti-ethnocentrism and particularism/universalism controversies. He explains the distinction between social insiders and outsiders arguing that in development ethics there are advantages and disadvantages to being both. He urges development ethicists to cultivate a mixture of insider/outsider perspectives, beginning and ending in their own groups, but learning from and benefitting others in the process. Crocker concludes that international and regional progress are closely interrelated. Universalists and ethnocentrists must converge to “think and act globally, regionally, nationally, and locally.”
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Pölzler, Thomas. "The Relativistic Car: Applying Metaethics to the Debate about Self-Driving Vehicles." Ethical Theory and Moral Practice 24, no. 3 (May 22, 2021): 833–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10677-021-10190-8.
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AbstractAlmost all participants in the debate about the ethics of accidents with self-driving cars have so far assumed moral universalism. However, universalism may be philosophically more controversial than is commonly thought, and may lead to undesirable results in terms of non-moral consequences and feasibility. There thus seems to be a need to also start considering what I refer to as the “relativistic car” — a car that is programmed under the assumption that what is morally right, wrong, good, bad, etc. is determined by the moral beliefs of one’s society or culture. My investigation of this idea involves six steps. First, I explain why and how the moral universalism/relativism debate is relevant to the issue of self-driving cars. Second, I argue that there are good reasons to consider accident algorithms that assume relativism. Third, I outline how a relativistic car would be programmed to behave. Fourth, I address what advantages such a car would have, both in terms of its non-moral consequences and feasibility. Fifth, I address the relativistic car’s disadvantages. Finally, I qualify and conclude my considerations.
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Eriksen, Thomas Hylland. "Global citizenship and the challenge from cultural relativism." Issues in Ethnology and Anthropology 12, no. 4 (December 23, 2017): 1141. http://dx.doi.org/10.21301/eap.v12i4.7.
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Do human beings live in a shared world or in several? The traditional answer from social and cultural anthropology has been that although the physical world is uniform, the world as it is perceived by humans is fundamentally and irreducibly diverse, since human worlds are culturally constructed and cultures are unique and particular in character.As a result of this perspective, there has always been a tense relationship between anthropology and universalist claims, as in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948. This chapter charts the dialogue and tension between the cultural relativism of classic anthropology and human rights universalism, but the main focus is on the consequences of globalisation for anthropological thinking about diversity and human universals. It is argued that as a direct result of the increased interconnectedness of human societies, classic cultural relativism has become both epistemologically obsolete and normatively objectionable. Although the moral worlds inhabited by humans are still diverse, they are now connected in ways which have implications for the ethics of anthropological research. By discussing a handful of examples, the analytical and moral dilemmas are exposed, and the contrast with mid-20th century anthropology, when the world was still widely seen as ‘an archipelago of cultures’, is made abundantly clear.
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Alegría Fuentes, Daniela. "Imparcialidad y particularismo moral." Tópicos, Revista de Filosofía, no. 56 (December 13, 2018): 365–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.21555/top.v0i56.961.
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Este artículo busca mostrar que el particularismo moral es una alternativa viable a las éticas dominantes desde la modernidad hasta nuestros días (i.e., ética kantiana y utilitarista); teorías que durante las últimas décadas han sido criticadas, especialmente, por la exigencia del requisito de imparcialidad moral. El agente en estas éticas delibera imparcialmente debido al universalismo de sus principios morales. Sugeriré que el particularismo moral, en tanto excluye la imparcialidad como un factor relevante en las deliberaciones de los agentes, presenta razones para ser una ética plausible.
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Wreen, Michael. "What Is Moral Relativism?" Philosophy 93, no. 3 (February 27, 2018): 337–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0031819117000614.
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AbstractThe main aim of this paper is to advance, clarify, and defend a definition of relativism. On the definition, relativism does not contrast with absolutism, is not the same as pluralism, contrasts with universalism and nihilism, and is compatible with both moral objectivity and moral subjectivity. Advantages of the definition are noted, but the bulk of the paper is devoted to detailed discussions of the concepts that figure in the definition or are entailed by it. Such concepts include those of a moral code, of conflict between moral codes, and of a convention.
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Ravat, Jérôme. "Relativismes, universalisme et réalisme en morale. Approches naturalistes." Tracés, no. 12 (May 31, 2007): 77–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.4000/traces.197.
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Alves, Elder Patrick Maia. "Diversidade cultural, patrimônio cultural material e cultura popular: a Unesco e a construção de um universalismo global." Sociedade e Estado 25, no. 3 (December 2010): 539–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s0102-69922010000300007.
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Este artigo procura situar o advento e a operacionalização de uma formação discursiva responsável pela emergência de um novo universalismo global. Tal universalismo traz como imperativo ético-moral a defesa e a promoção de valores como a diversidade cultural. Para compreender as implicações políticas e culturais desse universalismo, este trabalho elege como eixo empírico a atuação da Organização das Nações Unidas Para Educação, a Ciência e a Cultura (UNESCO), destacando as ações dessa organização na coordenação e dinamização de um trânsito simbólico e discursivo transnacional envolvendo governos, organizações não-governamentais e grupos políticos.
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Schwartz, Shalom H. "Universalism Values and the Inclusiveness of Our Moral Universe." Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 38, no. 6 (November 2007): 711–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022022107308992.
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Venturi, Gustavo. "O universalismo ético: Kohlberg e Habermas." Lua Nova: Revista de Cultura e Política, no. 36 (1995): 67–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s0102-64451995000200005.
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Examina-se a concepção de universalismo ético a que Lawrence Kohlberg chegou em suas pesquisas sobre o desenvolvimento do pensamento moral, sobretudo a idéia de que esse desenvolvimento, em todos os seres humanos, culmina em uma moralidade "pós-convencional" concebida em termos de princípios de justiça. Discutem-se algumas das tentativas que foram feitas de submeter essa concepção à verificação empírica e a apreciação crítica que dela fez Jürgen Habermas.
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Pereda, Carlos. "Osvaldo Guariglia, Moralidad. Ética universalista y sujeto moral." Crítica (México D. F. En línea) 28, no. 84 (January 8, 1996): 85–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.22201/iifs.18704905e.1996.1048.
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Walker, Margaret Urban. "Morality in Practice: A Response to Claudia Card and Lorraine Code." Hypatia 17, no. 1 (2002): 174–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1527-2001.2002.tb00686.x.
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I briefly reprise a few themes of my book Moral Understandings in order to address some questions about responsibility and justification. I argue for a thoroughly situated and naturalized view of moral justification that warns us not to take moral universalism too easily at face value. I also argue for the significance of reports of experience, among other kinds of empirical evidence, in testing the habitability of moral forms of life.
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Krettenauer, Tobias, and Wolfgang Edelstein. "From Substages to Moral Types and Beyond: An Analysis of Core Criteria for Morally Autonomous Judgements." International Journal of Behavioral Development 23, no. 4 (December 1999): 899–920. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/016502599383595.
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Based on Kohlberg’s typological distinction between heteronomous versus autonomous moral types (Type A vs. B), the study proposes a refined strategy for the assessment of autonomous morality that aims at overcoming methodological ‘aws of Kohlberg’s typological approach. Theoretically, two conceptually crucial criteria of autonomous morality were distinguished: (1) prescriptiveness; and (2) universality of moral reasoning. Empirically, measures of prescriptiveness and universality of moral reasoning were examined to determine whether or not they yield important empirical findings that were associated with the concept of moral types. In a study of 348 German adolescents from grades 9 and 12, both prescriptive and universalised moral reasoning were assessed by two standard probe questions of the Moral Judgment Interview. Both aspects of moral reasoning predicted readiness to take moral responsibility in the context of sociopolitical action. In addition, both measures were moderately correlated with moral stage, largely independent of SES, and unrelated to gender. There was significant longitudinal change towards prescriptive and universalised moral reasoning over a three-year interval. The findings demonstrate that the construct validity of Kohlberg’s approach to the assessment of autonomous morality can be significantly improved by using measures of the prescriptiveness and universality of moral reasoning.
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Ivic, Sanja. "Dynamic nature of human rights: Rawls's critique of moral universalism." Trans/Form/Ação 33, no. 2 (2010): 223–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s0101-31732010000200013.
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Human rights do not represent an absolute truth. Otherwise, they would represent ideology, which is contradictory to the basic idea of human rights itself. Consequently, there is a need for redefinition of the main presuppositions of modern conception of human rights represented in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. This paper argues that Rawls's conception of human rights is significant for the refiguration of human rights. It represents the path towards postmodern idea of human rights and the recognition of difference.
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González de la Vega, René. "Universalismo generalista y particularismo moderado. Réplica a mis críticos." Discusiones 16, no. 1 (February 23, 2021): 115–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.52292/j.dsc.2015.2421.
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El texto responde a las críticas realizadas por Fernando Lizárraga, Julio Montero y Graciela Vidiella en esta misma revista al artículo “Legalismo moral y tolerancia. Crónica de una muerte anunciada”.
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Danner, Leno Francisco, Agemir Bavaresco, and Fernando Danner. "Universalismo entre religiões e modernidade: a fundamentação do universalismo epistemológico-moral por meio da cooperação entre razão e religião." HORIZONTE - Revista de Estudos de Teologia e Ciências da Religião 17, no. 52 (May 13, 2019): 436–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.5752/p.2175-5841.2019v17n52p436-461.
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O artigo tem por objetivo desenvolver uma crítica à noção de modernidade ou racionalismo moderno apresentada em teorias da modernidade contemporâneas, marcada pela ideia de uma autonomia e de uma autossuficiência da razão no que tange à fundamentação de uma noção vinculante de universalismo epistemológico-moral, criticando-se a percepção, própria a essas teorias, de que o racionalismo profano e secularizado, concebido como uma perspectiva imparcial, neutra, formal e impessoal em termos axiológico-metodológicos, seja suficiente para garanti-lo, sem necessidade da religião e da metafísica. Com isso, seu segundo objetivo consiste em argumentar em favor de um universalismo político-religioso que aponta para a incapacidade dessa noção purista e independente de razão em gerar e sustentar, sem o próprio trabalho de fundamentação e de aplicação metafísico-religioso, um conteúdo universal de direitos humanos. O trabalho escora-se em revisão bibliográfica de teorias da modernidade contemporâneas, a partir de uma crítica a seu pressuposto central, a autonomia, a autorreferencialidade e a autossuficiência da razão relativamente à religião e à metafísica, propondo, como conclusão, a necessária correlação de razão e religião-metafísica como o caminho e conteúdo do universalismo epistemológico-moral.
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Windsor, Duane. "The Development of International Business Norms." Business Ethics Quarterly 14, no. 4 (October 2004): 729–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/beq200414444.
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Abstract:International business norms do not exist. Content and development of such norms is a significant research question for business ethics scholarship. Any norms must address difficult practical and moral problems facing multinational enterprises. The author’s thesis is as follows. A key circumstance is that international relations remain a Hobbesian state of nature. The theoretical solution of a global sovereignty for norm formulation and enforcement is unlikely. The business ethics literature proposes other insightful but theoretical and conflicting solutions to abstract wealth-responsibility and universalism-relativism controversies. Theoretical convergence seems unlikely. Evolution of multiple international policy regimes fragmented by policy arena is more probable. Regimes will typically be neither morals by agreement nor a morality of the marketplace. Regime development can occur in various other ways. Moral leadership, by firms, stakeholders, nongovernmental organizations or governments, can be a vital force. Formal ethical theories can inform and guide such leadership initiatives. This process perspective is applied to several recent case examples cited here as supporting evidence: anti-corruption, labor, environmental, human rights, and fiduciary responsibility initiatives.
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Reuter, Hans-Richard. "Menschenrechte zwischen Universalismus und Relativismus." Zeitschrift für Evangelische Ethik 40, no. 1 (February 1, 1996): 135–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.14315/zee-1996-0117.
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AbstractThe universal applicability of human rights outside the circle of European culture is not only a subject of political controversy, but a challenge to political and moral theory, too. The contribution argues with three types of relativistic criticism of human rihgts' universality: ethical particularism, political realism, and cultural contextualism. Defending the intercultural validity of the human rights' concept, the author pleads for a threefold distincion: between the right and the good, between basic and derivative rights, between penultimate reasons of human rights and ultimate foundations to them.
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Gowans, Christopher W. "VIRTUE AND NATURE." Social Philosophy and Policy 25, no. 1 (December 20, 2007): 28–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0265052508080023.
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The Neo-Aristotelian ethical naturalism of Philippa Foot and Rosalind Hursthouse purports to establish a naturalistic criterion for the virtues. Specifically, by developing a parallel between the natural ends of nonhuman animals and the natural ends of human beings, they argue that character traits are justified as virtues by the extent to which they promote and do not inhibit natural ends such as self-preservation, reproduction, and the well-being of one’s social group. I argue that the approach of Foot and Hursthouse cannot provide a basis for moral universalism, the widely-accepted idea that each human being has moral worth and thus deserves significant moral consideration. Foot and Hursthouse both depict a virtuous agent as implicitly acting in accord with moral universalism. However, with respect to charity, a virtue they both emphasize, their naturalistic criterion (especially in the more elaborate form developed by Hursthouse) at best provides a warrant for a restricted form of charity that extends only to a limited number of persons. There is nothing in the natural ends of human beings, as Foot and Hursthouse understand these, that gives us a reason for having any concern for the well-being of human beings as such.
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Comanducci, Paolo. "La irrelevancia moral de la diversidad cultural." Doxa. Cuadernos de Filosofía del Derecho, no. 30 (November 15, 2007): 89. http://dx.doi.org/10.14198/doxa2007.30.12.
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El autor analiza el ensayo de E. Garzón Valdés, «Cinco confusiones conceptuales acerca de la relevancia moral de la diversidad cultural» (1997), y pone de relieve la postura liberal, universalista, cosmopolita e ilustrada de Garzón, y sus críticas a los comunitaristas-liberales. Al final el autor se pregunta sobre las razones del escaso interés de Garzón por la cuestión de la fundación de la moral, y avanza al respecto una provocadora respuesta.
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Lakoff, Sanford. "Autonomy and Liberal Democracy." Review of Politics 52, no. 3 (1990): 378–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s003467050001696x.
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Continuing philosophic doubt concerning the moral foundations of human rights threatens to undermine the growing belief in liberal democracy. This doubt has its roots in the reaction against the Enlightenment and is evident even in John Rawls's retreat from the apparent universalism of his theory of justice. There are good grounds, however, for regarding the traditional Western belief in moral and political autonomy as a sound basis for human rights and liberal democracy.
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Dimova-Cookson, Maria. "Internalism and Externalism in Ethics Applied to the Liberal-Communitarian Debate." British Journal of Politics and International Relations 7, no. 1 (February 2005): 18–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-856x.2005.00164.x.
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This article addresses the question of whether we can explain moral action in terms of an attraction to a moral ideal. It defends T. H. Green's internalist ethics against John Skorupski's externalist claim that moral ideals are optional whereas moral duties are not. A parallel is drawn between the Internalism and Externalism debate in ethics and the liberal-communitarian debate in political theory. My defence of Internalism offers new arguments in support of communitarian approaches to the nature of moral action. Green's internalist ethics provides the communitarian discourse with the universalist moral dimension it traditionally lacks.
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De Zan, Julio. "Universalismo y particularismo en la Ética de Kant." Tópicos. Revista de Filosofía de Santa Fe, no. 13 (June 23, 2018): 63–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.14409/topicos.v0i13.7460.
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Este artículo plantea (1) el problema de la fundamentación de la ética en la situación del pluralismo de la sociedad moderna y contemporánea. Se analizan luego (2) dos tipos de respuesta a este problema: el comunitarismo como la ética identitaria de un nosotros, y el contractualismo como la ética de los intereses de los socios, los cuales se presentan como teorías rivales frente al universalismo de la moralidad kantiana. Se muestra sin embargo (3) cómo el propio Kant había trabajado ya en distintos planos de la integración humana con los dos modelos del contrato social y de la comunidad ética, y los había articulado en su sistema. El principio universal de la moralidad (4) se ubica en cambio en el meta nivel de la gramática profunda del ethos de las comunidades y de los contratos (Metaphysik der Sitten). Se observa finalmente (5) que los textos éticos fundamentales de Kant no han tratado de manera explícita el problema hermenéutico del juicio moral en los contextos de acción. Se analizan no obstante algunos pasajes de la Grundlegung y la Segunda Parte de la Crítica de la Razón Práctica, en los que hay indicaciones precisas sobre este problema. Se sostiene que la observada laguna se puede sortear mediante la ampliación de los alcances de la doctrina del juicio reflexivo del gusto estético de la primera parte de la Tercera Crítica,, la cual parece relevante, no para la fundación del principio de la moralidad, pero sí para su aplicación, es decir: para la vida moral.
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Krakowiak, Józef Leszek. "Post-Kantian Elements in the Intersubjectively Constituted Subject of Universalism as a Metaphilosophy." Dialogue and Universalism 30, no. 2 (2020): 93–135. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/du202030220.
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This comparative essay about two kinds of interpersonal-centric humanism is dedicated to the memory of professor Janusz Kuczyński and his conception of dialogical universalism as a metaphilosophy, and shows Immanuel Kant’s thought as a ceaseless source of inspiration for all anti-conservatives and universalists. Kant’s philosophy gave man an unforgettable sense of freedom, because it not only posed the imperative of building a pan-human community of all rational beings, but also revealed the above-natural sense of the human species’ imposition of purposefulness upon itself, and the realisation of this purposefulness in the form of a republican federation of free states dedicated to co-creating eternal peace. Kantian ethics did not reach beyond the obligations people had towards one another, hence it was functionally anthropological and uninfluenced by religion, which re-situated philosophy with regard to scientific cognition and religious experience, giving rise to a metaphysics of anthropological responsibility for the condition of the spiritual freedom this ethic propounded. Kant revealed the existence of a metaphysical difference in the sphere of being—between the determinism of nature and the moral kingdom of freedom—without direct reference to the transcendental source of these two essentially different worlds. Kant was the first to set morality rooted in the autonomy and unanimous will of all rational beings—or true humanity—against legal and religious legalism. Kant laid weight on the processual character of man’s self-education to social life through the sense of commitment to self-improvement for the benefit of the solidary co-existence of all rational beings that he developed in himself as a rational being. Thus created freedom is founded on the selflesness of goodness and represents a new quality of being that only manifests itself and evolves in community, interpersonalcentrically. It is a universalistic approach capable of gradually neutralising the human inclination towards radical evil.My attempt to compare these two interpersonalcentric humanism conceptions aims to add some substance to this very delicate element in Kuczyński’s universalism as a metaphilosophy construct.
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Danner, Leno Francisco. "THE POLITICS OF MULTICULTURALISM AS REPARATION FOR WESTERN COLONIALISM: A CRITICAL APPROACH ON MODERNITY’S NORMATIVE PARADIGM." Síntese: Revista de Filosofia 46, no. 144 (May 2, 2019): 149. http://dx.doi.org/10.20911/21769389v46n144p149/2019.
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This study starts from a criticism against the naturalization and depoliticization of the normative paradigm of modernity. Such criticism was made by some contemporary philosophical-sociological theories that associated modernity directly with universalism and conceived it as the final stage of human evolution (in terms of epistemological-moral consciousness, culture and material organization), as opposed to traditionalism. The article argues that modernity is not a universalistic epistemological-moral paradigm or a material and societal organization from which multiculturalism can be embraced, promoted and guided, particularly in the international context. Consequently, I reject the direct association, proposed by such philosophical-sociological theories, of universalism, cosmopolitanism and globalization with the epistemological, cultural and economic modernization. In other words, universalism does not mean modernization, as it does not justify the totalizing pursuit of modernity as a paradigm and a material-institutional form of life for all contexts and as a condition for their stability. I therefore propose a reformulation of the paradigm of modernity with the concept of Western colonialism reparation, which must start from the recognition of the historical-sociological blindness concerning the intrinsic link between the normativity of modernity and the Realpolitik of modern colonialism. Such blindness implies the statement that modernity is inherently self-reflexive, justifying it as the basic paradigm for the context of modernity as well as for the sphere of international politics. This would reinforce its permanence as a universalistic paradigm and cosmopolitan ethical-political project. Based on that separation, modernity can always function as the starting point and as the point of arrival to universalism, transforming modernization into universalism itself.
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Rodrigues, Alexandre Brandão. "A dupla face do princípio da solidadariedade na perspectiva filosófica: relativista e universalista." Barbarói, no. 47 (May 10, 2016): 209. http://dx.doi.org/10.17058/barbaroi.v0i47.9573.
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O presente artigo trata do princípio da solidariedade na sua perspectiva filosófica e axiológica como dever moral da Humanidade. Identifica as origens do princípio da solidariedade na Filosofia Clássica: a sua face relativista, no relativismo cultural, bandeira do pós-modernismo, e na democracia deliberativa de Jürgen Habermas; e a sua face universalista, que tem como base a filosofia de Immanuel Kant e de Hans Jonas. Conclui-se que tanto o caráter relativista quanto o universalista compõem o conceito do princípio da solidariedade e não podem estar dissociados. É necessário que o Homem se atenha a sua responsabilidade como ser consciente e possuidor do poder da técnica, o que gera o dever moral e jurídico da solidariedade com o seu semelhante (presente e futuro), bem como com a Natureza.
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Kuznietsova, K. I. "CZECH REPUBLIC FOREIGN POLICY: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS." Actual Problems of International Relations, no. 139 (2019): 49–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.17721/apmv.2019.139.0.49-57.
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In the 1990s the Czech foreign policy objectives were to secure its proper place in international relations after the end of the Cold War, which included the entry of a number of international intergovernmental organizations (IMF, World Bank Group organizations, OECD, EBRD, NATO, EU, etc.) and the development of friendly relations with neighboring states and partners. In this sense, there is no reason to identify the foreign policy of the Czech Republic during this period only as a course aimed at "returning to Europe". In the early 1990's, most Czech political actors shared the idea of "return to the West" and "liberal democracy", the differences in their vision of the models of the geopolitical orientation of the Czech Republic make it possible to distinguish between the interaction of the three main foreign policy ideologies in the process of adopting foreign policy decisions: atlanticism, continentalism, and autonomy. Different interpretations of the essence of "liberal democracy" led to the emergence in the Czech politics of two ideological trends that had a significant impact on the vision of the foreign policy priorities of the Czech Republic: economic universalism (aimed at eliminating institutional barriers to the free flow of goods, services, money), and moral universalism (oriented towards the spread of democracy and the protection of human rights, which is a priority in foreign policy). Followers of economic universalism (primarily V. Klaus) actively advocated the development of economic ties with Russia and China, while the followers of the ideology of moral universalism (V. Havel and his followers) actively opposed it. The article also investigates the influence of foreign policy prejudices on the formation of the foreign policy of the Czech Republic, among which the most influential are anti-Russian and anti-German.
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Brussino, Silvia L. "Ética de las virtudes y medicina (II)." Tópicos. Revista de Filosofía de Santa Fe, no. 8-9 (June 10, 2018): 43–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.14409/topicos.v0i8-9.7405.
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El presente trabajo se propone establecer la actualidad de una ética de las virtudes de estilo aristotélico en el ámbito de la ética clínica. La relación establecida por Maclntyre entre las prácticas y los “patrones de excelencia” que rigen internamente su ejercicio, juntamente con el enfoque de Pellegrino y Thomasma de la medicina como “comunidad moral” en la que las habilidades técnico-científicas y la disposición moral del agente configuran una unidad indisoluble en el acto médico, son la base del análisis sobre la especificidad de la práctica médica y los consecuentes requerimientos morales de quienes la ejercen. La crisis de la medicina occidental que en los últimos treinta años provocó importantes puntos de fractura con la tradición hipocrática, ofrece una posibilidad de salida reinterpretando sus propios fines. De ello se sigue la necesidad de retomar líneas de la tradición que el ideal de la medicina científica, las reglas del mercado y la burocratización de la atención sanitaria parecieran haber obturado. En esta encrucijada es donde el énfasis puesto por la ética de las virtudes en el ethos profesional, anclado en el compromiso con las personas concretas cuyo beneficio da sentido a la actividad y a las instituciones médicas, resulta imprescindible para balancear las falencias de una ética fundada en principios, sin que ello implique renunciar a los efectivos logros del universalismo moral. AbstractThis work is meant to set up the present importance of the ethic of virtues, which follows the Aristotelian style in the field of clinical ethics. The relationship established by Maclntyre between the practices and the “patterns of excellence” which internally guides these practices, together with the view of Pellegrino and Thomasma about medicine as a “moral community” in which the technical-scientific skills and the agent’s moral dispositions shape an indissoluble link in the medical act, are the basis for the analysis on the specificity of the medical practice and the moral requirements of the practitioners. The crisis of western medicine that in the last thirty years has given rise to important break points with the hippocratic tradition, offers a possible resolution by the re-interpretation of its proper ends. Therefore, it is a need to return to traditional ways that seem to have lost vigour for the dominance of the ideal of a scientific medicine, for the market rules and bureaucratized health care. In this intersection, the emphasis on a virtue ethic on the professional ethos, grounded on the engagement with the patient whose benefit gives meaning to the activity and medical institutions, is indispensable for the balance of the failures of a principle-based ethic without renouncing to the effective achievement of moral universalism.
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Troitskiy, Konstantin E. "Zygmunt Bauman: from the Criticism of Universalism to the Unlimited Moral Responsibility." Ethical Thought 19, no. 1 (2019): 5–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.21146/2074-4870-2019-19-1-5-19.
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Langlois, Anthony J. "Human rights: the globalisation and fragmentation of moral discourse." Review of International Studies 28, no. 3 (July 2002): 479–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0260210502004795.
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The language of human rights, along with much else in international relations, presently exhibits the features of globalisation and fragmentation. Globalisation in that human rights is used throughout the world at many levels to discuss moral approval and condemnation. Fragmentation in that human rights means different things to different people, and may well be used in contradictory ways by agents of social change. Yet most advocates of human rights wish to retain the adjective ‘universal’ along with a sense of the moral objectivity of human rights. This article suggests that a better way to ensure human rights universalism is to think of the concept as a tool, not an objectively existing moral standard or entity.
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SZTOMPKA, PIOTR. "On the decaying moral space. Is there a way out?" European Review 10, no. 1 (February 2002): 63–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1062798702000066.
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The concept of moral space is presented here, in the arguments of classical authors who treated the decay of moral space as an inevitable cost of modernity. Three areas are identified where the decay of moral space is manifested in our period of ‘late modernity’. They are: violent crime, distrust and cynicism, and the vanishing of social capital. Paradoxically, however, opportunities to overcome the current moral void are discovered in the very traits of modernity: reflexiveness and globalization. They allow the process of moral healing through the reconstitution of primordial communities, ethnic, national, religious, in an open, tolerant and ecumenical manner, as well as the constitution of new communities of universalist and global reach.
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Zwitter, Andrej J. "From Needs to Rights—A Socio-Legal Account of Bridging Moral and Legal Universalism via Ethical Pluralism." Politics and Governance 1, no. 1 (May 30, 2013): 74–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.17645/pag.v1i1.86.
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The question of the universality of human rights has much in common with the question of the universality of ethics. In the form of a multidisciplinary reflexive survey, the aim of this article is to show how human rights discourses derive from more basic principles related to basic needs. These needs are the universal grammar for moral principles, which will be distinguished from ethical norms. Ethical norms, I will argue, are rules that develop in social groups to put into effect moral principles through communicative action and therefore develop as culturally specific norms, which guide behaviour within these social groups. This will explain why ethical norms contain some universal principles, but are largely culturally specific. In order to shed some light on the universality debate, I will show how moral principles translate into ethical norms and might manifest through communicative action in human rights law. For this purpose the article develops a socio-legal account on social norm-creation that bridges moral universality and legal universality via ethical pluralism, which in effect explains why despite the universality of moral principles, the outcomes of ethical rationales can vary extremely.
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Danner, Leno Francisco. "A CRISE DAS FUNDAMENTAÇÕES UNIVERSALISTAS: RELIGIÕES UNIVERSALISTAS E RACIO-NALISMO OCIDENTAL EM QUESTÃO." Problemata 7, no. 1 (July 11, 2016): 31. http://dx.doi.org/10.7443/problemata.v7i1.24585.
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<p><em>Definirei a crise das religiões institucionalizadas enquanto uma crise das fundamentações universalistas, que afeta com mais força o projeto emancipatório do racionalismo ocidental. O que está em crise, atualmente, é o tipo de fundamentação universalista que pode ser percebido, a seu modo, nas religiões institucionalizadas de cunho missionário e messiânico e no modelo epistemológico-moral e civilizacional desenvolvido desde a modernidade europeia. Com isso, defendo que a crise das religiões universalistas não é tão grave, na medida em que pode ser resolvida por meio de abertura institucional a procedimentos participativos, relaxamento dos controles sexuais e de gênero, bem como moderação da postura missionária; já a crise do racionalismo ocidental, que é muito grave, implica em uma recusa da pretensão universalista própria à cultura moderna, tanto no que diz respeito à fundamentação epistemológico-moral universalista quanto no que tange à colocação da modernidade como horizonte normativo possibilitador da crítica e da elaboração de um projeto ético-político cosmopolita, posto que o racionalismo ocidental em seu intento universalista já não pode mais ser percebido independentemente seja da colonização cultural desenvolvida desde a Europa (como modelo civilizacional e em termos de valores epistemológico-morais universalistas), seja da globalização econômica capitalista. Nesse sentido, o único caminho que resta ao racionalismo ocidental é o de uma crítica interna, recusando qualquer aspiração teórico-prática à universalidade.</em></p><p><em><br /></em></p><p><em>[doi:HTTP://dx.doi.org/10.7443/problemata.v7i1.24585]</em></p>
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Nogueira, Roberto Henrique Pôrto, and Nayder Rommel de Araújo Godói. "OBJEÇÃO DE CONSCIÊNCIA E A RECUSA DO MÉDICO PARA A REALIZAÇÃO DO TRATAMENTO DE REPRODUÇÃO HUMANA ASSISTIDA." Revista de Biodireito e Direito dos Animais 5, no. 1 (October 21, 2019): 56. http://dx.doi.org/10.26668/indexlawjournals/2525-9695/2019.v5i1.5442.
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Buscam-se critérios para o exercício legítimo de objeção de consciência na atividade médica, para a negativa de realização do procedimento de reprodução humana assistida. A proposta ganha relevância porque tal previsão da Resolução CFM 2.168/17 não pode servir de véu para o cometimento de práticas discriminatórias, eis que alude, especialmente, a relacionamentos homoafetivos e pessoas solteiras. Os achados do trabalho teórico-dogmático sugerem, sob panorama da Constituição da República como ‘código moral mínimo’ e do marco teórico das concepções do liberalismo político (filosofia moral do Universalismo Reiterativo - Rainer Forst), parâmetros para o exercício da objeção de consciência nos casos tratados.
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Dondelinger, Joseph M. "Ethnopolitics and the New World Disorder." Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies 6, no. 1 (1994): 87–108. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/jis199461/25.
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National and ethnic resurgence has dampened post-Cold War optimism. Predictions of the end of history and democratic universalism confront ideas of a coming clash of civiiizations and a new Cold War between secular and religious nationalisms. At this critical juncture in history, America suffers from leadership fatigue, lacks a coherent vision, and faces significant domestic weaknesses including ethnic, cultural, intellectual, and moral Balkanization. America's global leadership requires a viable and enviable model capable of effectively translating power into legitimate authority. Such a model, in turn, presupposes a moral-spiritual renewal and democratic institutions and practices.
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Dondelinger, Joseph M. "Ethnopolitics and the New World Disorder." Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies 6, no. 1 (1994): 87–108. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/jis199461/25.
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National and ethnic resurgence has dampened post-Cold War optimism. Predictions of the end of history and democratic universalism confront ideas of a coming clash of civiiizations and a new Cold War between secular and religious nationalisms. At this critical juncture in history, America suffers from leadership fatigue, lacks a coherent vision, and faces significant domestic weaknesses including ethnic, cultural, intellectual, and moral Balkanization. America's global leadership requires a viable and enviable model capable of effectively translating power into legitimate authority. Such a model, in turn, presupposes a moral-spiritual renewal and democratic institutions and practices.
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Kersting, Wolfgang. "EM DEFESA DE UM UNIVERSALISMO SÓBRIO." Veritas (Porto Alegre) 46, no. 4 (July 26, 2019): 621. http://dx.doi.org/10.15448/1984-6746.2001.4.35036.
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Em 1989, a era do realismo político chegou ao fim. &s condições foram modificadas de forma a substituir O modelo hobbesiano de paz pela intimidação que prevalecia até então, por um modelo consideravelmente mais desafiador, o modelo kantiano da paz pelo direito. Se, todavia, o paradigma de Huntington dadas civilizações em conflito estivesse correto, teríamos de esquecer Kant e lembrarmo-nos de Hobbes. A racionalidade pé-no-chão, a desconfiança sadia, a luta pela acumulação do poder e todos os demais instrumentos da caixa realista de ferramentas da prudência política são muito adequados para facilitar a autoafirmação política numa época de culturas violentamente conflitantes. No entanto, um tal desamparo não é bem fundamentado. Considerando-se que, desde seu início, o liberalismo é uma teoria do pluralismo religioso e ético, e que é bem -testada no trato de problemas do multiculturalismo, é ao menos possível argumentar-se em favor de um universalismo liberal fraco que forneça fundamentos normativos para uma ordem global baseada na convivência pacífica. Naturalmente, modéstia conceitual e moral é crucial. Se a doutrina dos direitos humanos deseja defender sua alegação universal em face da diversidade cultural (que se define como sendo interpretações diferentes do que seja uma vida humana boa, verdadeira e perfeita). ela terá de se restringir às condições pré-culturais e meramente naturais do ser humano e da coexistência humana. Essas limitações dão fundamento a sua força normativa. Nem políticas nacionais, nem concepções culturais do que seja a vida próspera e a importância existencial podem ser aceitas se contradizem os imperativos e as condições fundamentais do funcionamento puramente biológico do ser humano.