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1
Salmani-Nodoushan, Mohammad Ali. "Morphological Make-up as the Predictor of English Word Accent." TESL Canada Journal 26, no. 2 (June 3, 2009): 13. http://dx.doi.org/10.18806/tesl.v26i2.412.
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For years, phoneticians have tried to simplify pronunciation for EFL/ESL learners. Some have identified four degrees of primary, secondary, tertiary, and weak stress, and others only three degrees: primary, secondary, and weak. Still others have concentrated on two stress levels: accented versus unaccented, or stressed versus unstressed (Bowen, 1975; Stageberg, 1964; Chomsky & Halle, 1968). None, however, has followed an orthography-based approach to English accent. Because orthography is the most static way of representing words in English, spelling- or orthography-based rules of accent/stress placement may come as a relief to ESL/EFL learners. In this article I present four spelling-based rules for stress placement to help EFL/ESL learners master pronunciation.
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LAWRENCE, JOSHUA F., LAUREN CAPOTOSTO, LEE BRANUM-MARTIN, CLAIRE WHITE, and CATHERINE E. SNOW. "Language proficiency, home-language status, and English vocabulary development: A longitudinal follow-up of the Word Generation program." Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 15, no. 3 (January 4, 2012): 437–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1366728911000393.
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This longitudinal quasi-experimental study examines the effects of Word Generation, a middle-school vocabulary intervention, on the learning, maintenance, and consolidation of academic vocabulary for students from English-speaking homes, proficient English speakers from language-minority homes, and limited English-proficiency students. Using individual growth modeling, we found that students receiving Word Generation improved more on target word knowledge during the instructional period than students in comparison schools did, on average. We found an interaction between instruction and home-language status such that English-proficient students from language-minority homes improved more than English-proficient students from English-speaking homes. Limited English-proficiency students, however, did not realize gains equivalent to those of more proficient students from language-minority homes during the instructional period. We administered follow-up assessments in the fall after the instructional period ended and in the spring of the following year to determine how well students maintained and consolidated target academic words. Students in the intervention group maintained their relative improvements at both follow-up assessments.
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van Vuuren, Sanne, and Lyuben Laskin. "Dutch learner English in close-up." International Journal of Learner Corpus Research 3, no. 1 (May 22, 2017): 1–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/ijlcr.3.1.01van.
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Abstract This study presents a longitudinal Bayesian analysis of pre-subject adverbial (PSA) use in a 571,174-word corpus of Dutch learner English. Overall, learners use more circumstance and linking adverbials, but fewer stance adverbials than both novice and expert native writers. Learners also use more ‘local anchors’, i.e. adverbials that serve a cohesive purpose by linking back to an antecedent in the directly preceding discourse. Interestingly, untimed essays are more native-like than timed essays in their use of each of the adverbial types considered. Although learners generally develop in the direction of native writing, the use of linking adverbials in learners’ literature essays develops in the opposite direction. L1 transfer may account for more frequent use of some categories of adverbials, particularly local anchors, but the widening gap between learners and native speakers (NSs) in the use of linking adverbials suggests that the potential role of textbook and curriculum design warrants further research.
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Baghdasaryan, Susanna. "Etymology and Word Decoding." Armenian Folia Anglistika 5, no. 1-2 (6) (October 15, 2009): 167–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.46991/afa/2009.5.1-2.167.
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The language vocabulary is a system which grows mostly due to word formation. The latter takes place with the help of own or borrowed parts of words (root and suffix), which, certainly, used to be independent words. They penetrated the English vocabulary and made up new words while preserving their previous meanings. Most of the Latin and Greek borrowings do not make up the active vocabulary. They usually refer to scientific terms.
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Kocourek, Rostislav. "The prefix post- in contemporary English terminology." Terminology 3, no. 1 (January 1, 1996): 85–110. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/term.3.1.05koc.
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The article is based on a corpus of English words and technical terms obtained from contemporary texts and major up-to-date dictionaries and encyclopedias. It gives a description of "post- " prefixation, its morphology (including derivational patterns of one-word terms and syntactic patterns of multiword terms) and semantics (including motivational ambiguity and definitions). French terms are used for comparison and contrast. Morphological and semantic properties of term-constituting lexemes are examined within the framework of an analysis of lexical productivity, which is defined by three criteria: number of existing derivatives, rules of derivation, and neological potential. The analysis also shows other aspects of derivational productivity: favourite word-class membership, semantic options, and terminologization.
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Hussein, Marwan M., and Safwan I. Thannoon. "Words and Meanings of Love in Arabic and English with Reference to Translation." Academic Journal of Nawroz University 8, no. 4 (December 26, 2019): 331. http://dx.doi.org/10.25007/ajnu.v8n4a478.
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The research is an attempt to shed light on words of love in both Arabic and English for the sake of showing the main differences and similarities between both languages and ways of thinking by the speakers of both cultures.
Each word carries a positive and/or negative sense which may be covered by the so-called word nuances. Arabic words are unique in their denotation with different connotations. Therefore, it is difficult to say that a word can stand for another one because Arabic words of love, as the study reveals, are to varying degrees highly emotional and meaningful. English words of love, on the other hand, are clear and forward, frequently associated with sex in modern English. For this reason, they are elaborated on separately as a threshold to discuss the main problems emerging in translating some of them particularly, from Arabic into English. It is found that there is no one-to-one correspondence, except for few of them, between the Arabic words and their English counterparts.
The research indicates that the translation of words of love is highly stylistically and contextually bound. Hence, translating such words requires a well-versed and competent translator.
Finally, the research comes up with some conclusions that have been arrived at during this work.
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Stubbe, Raymond, and Yumiko Cochrane. "Evaluating the Efficacy of Yes–No Checklist Tests to Assess Knowledge of Multi-Word Lexical Units." Vocabulary Learning and Instruction 8, no. 1 (2019): 62–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.7820/vli.v08.1.stubbe.cochrane.
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One of the many challenges facing Japanese university students studying English is the multi-word phrase. The English language contains a large number of such multiple-word items, which act as single words with a single meaning. This study is concerned with evaluating the efficacy of yes/no checklist tests to assess knowledge of multi-word units. Participants (n = 206) took a yes–no test of 30 real words and 15 pseudowords. The 30 real words were selected from the students’ textbook, based on the teacher’s intuition of the words and multi-words posing the greatest learning burden for the students. Twenty-one of the selected words were single-word items. The remaining nine were multi-words, such as “get up” and “take turns”. Forty-five minutes following completion of the yes–no test, an English to Japanese translation test of the same 30 real words was taken by the same participants to evaluate the efficacy of yes/no test. Results suggest that the yes–no vocabulary test format may be able to measure student knowledge of multi-word lexical units as (or more) effectively than single-word units.
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de Bruijn, Ellen R. A., Ton Dijkstra, Dorothee J. Chwilla, and Herbert J. Schriefers. "Language context effects on interlingual homograph recognition: evidence from event-related potentials and response times in semantic priming." Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 4, no. 2 (August 2001): 155–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1366728901000256.
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Dutch–English bilinguals performed a generalized lexical decision task on triplets of items, responding with “yes” if all three items were correct Dutch and/or English words, and with “no” if one or more of the items was not a word in either language. Sometimes the second item in a triplet was an interlingual homograph whose English meaning was semantically related to the third item of the triplet (e.g., HOUSE – ANGEL – HEAVEN, where ANGEL means “sting” in Dutch). In such cases, the first item was either an exclusively English (HOUSE) or an exclusively Dutch (ZAAK) word. Semantic priming effects were found in on-line response times. Event-related potentials that were recorded simultaneously showed N400 priming effects thought to reflect semantic integration processes. The response time and N400 priming effects were not affected by the language of the first item in the triplets, providing evidence in support of a strong bottom-up role with respect to bilingual word recognition. The results are interpreted in terms of the Bilingual Interactive Activation model, a language nonselective access model assuming bottom-up priority.
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Reese, Debbie. "The Last Word: Join the Diversity Discussion." Children and Libraries 13, no. 3 (August 31, 2015): 40. http://dx.doi.org/10.5860/cal.13n3.40.
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The darling baby pictured here is Amelia, the youngest child in my family at Nambe Pueblo, a federally recognized tribal nation, located in northern New Mexico. Nana Kaa—and children like her—are the future. Nana Kaa is Amelia’s Tewa name. She is going to grow up knowing three languages: Tewa, Spanish, and English (Tewa is the language we speak at Nambe).
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Baram, Laila Othman, and Aram Kamil Noori. "Blend Words and Their Influence on the Lexicon and Future of English Language." Journal of University of Human Development 5, no. 3 (July 8, 2019): 43. http://dx.doi.org/10.21928/juhd.v5n3y2019.pp43-48.
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This research studies the widening range of forming and using blend (portmanteau) words in English language. It sheds light on the fact that most blend words are exocentric not only for second language learners but also to natives too, since they have not been listed in English dictionaries. Even if listed; still the continuous process of forming blend words will leave no room to catch up with listing all of them. English nowadays has become the most dominant language and at the same time it has been influenced by some factors as much as it has been influential. In terms of word formation processes especially blending, one can realize how rapidly and unexpectedly new words are coined for new purposes in accordance with daily life needs. In this era of speed; English native speakers, as their nature, do like to economize in their word choice especially in their word formation processes such as blending, acronyms, clipping and all types of abbreviations. In fact, the inevitability of life change as the result of daily life’s needs inventions influences English language in many ways. In addition, the policy of economizing and being selective reflects well on letter choice and word forming processes. In relation to this, the consequences of life change can be noted in studying blend forms in English. Some simple examples are: blunch, chexting, spork, feminar, brinner, brunch, fanzin, hubot, smog, etc. In a nut shell, the research states the inevitable and intriguing change of English words in the process of blending in which two or more words are cut and mixed together to form a new form, called a blend word. One basic point here is that a blend word is not simply one word; brinner as an example is formed from three other words (breakfast + lunch + dinner) to describe a situation in which you just have one meal instead of the three. Most of blend words have not so far been listed in English dictionaries. So this continuous process of forming new words does a great change to English vocabularies now and in the upcoming years.
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R . Karwa, Roshan, and M. B. Chandak. "Word Sense Disambiguation: Hybrid Approach with Annotation Up To Certain Level – A Review." International Journal of Engineering Trends and Technology 18, no. 7 (December 25, 2014): 328–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.14445/22315381/ijett-v18p267.
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Grant, Lynn E., and Paul Nation. "How many idioms are there in English?" ITL - International Journal of Applied Linguistics 151 (2006): 1–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.2143/itl.151.0.2015219.
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The word idiom and its derivatives idiomatic, idiomatically and idiomaticity are used with a wide range of meanings. Idiomatic English is used to refer to fluent language use that sounds like that of a native speaker. Items loosely classed as idioms include colloquial expressions, collocations, acceptable but unusual expressions, and opaque multi-word units. If linguists are pressed to define what an idiom is, they usually say that an idiom is a multi-word unit where the meaning of the whole unit is not clear from the meaning of its parts. The purpose of this paper is to report on a study where one particular use of the term idiom was very carefully defined and to show what the effects of the application of this careful definition were on coming up with a definitive list of idioms. It is argued that carefully distinguishing idioms from other multiword units makes sense for the teaching and leaming of multi-word units because different approaches are needed for the different types of multi-word units. Phrasal verbs were not included in the study.
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Davidson, Peter M. "Computerised Terminological Databases for Translators Who Use Word Processors." Meta 36, no. 2-3 (September 30, 2002): 424–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.7202/002489ar.
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Abstract This paper describes the construction of a Japanese-English computer-based dictionary of financial terms for native-English speaking translators of Japanese, writing their English translation directly on to a word processor. The Japanese terms selected for entry were culled from Japanese international finance publications (books and journals) published since 1985, and are thus assured of being in current use. Two major terminological data or glossary producing software programs were tested, for "user-friendliness", minimum memory and disk space requirements. Both programs were designed for European languages, and not for ideographic Asian ones, and consequently adaptations also had to be made to mode of entry to accomodate the requirements of the Japanese language. These are discussed in the paper, as are the system of romanisation it was decided to use, and the modifications it was seen fit to make to simplify and rationalise look-up procedures.
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Hong, Jhao-Nan, and James H. Yang. "Developing a Pronunciation Computer Program for the Acquisition of English Phonemes and Word Stress." Research in Language 15, no. 4 (December 30, 2017): 325–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/rela-2017-0019.
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This study devised a pronunciation computer program to examine whether mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) could facilitate college students’ acquisition of English phonemes and word stress. Thirty-eight participants enrolled in the remedial English class offered at the language center of a national technological university in central Taiwan. Before the class, they were asked to read a word list. In the following six weeks, they were taught to distinguish and articulate English phonemes and to predict word stress locations using the designed computer program. They were also instructed to review the learning materials using the smart-phone version of the devised program. After the teaching session, each participant was asked again to read the same word list and fill out an assessment questionnaire. The sound analyses show that their readings of English minimal pairs and word stress placement were more accurate than their performances before the instruction. Their responses to the questionnaire indicate that both the given instruction and the designed computer program were satisfactory. In the open-ended questions, some of them said that they have built up a better understanding of phonemes and word stress, and that they would try to predict polysyllabic word stress when reading English articles. The present findings can be further applied to research on MALL-based English pronunciation acquisition.
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Vayntrub, Jacqueline. "‘To Take Up a Parable’: The History of Translating a Biblical Idiom." Vetus Testamentum 66, no. 4 (October 12, 2016): 627–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15685330-12341252.
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The following study examines the history of the translation of a Biblical Hebrew phrase in Greek, Aramaic, and Latin—a phrase which shaped the English idiom “to take up a parable, proverb, or song.” As early as Greek and Aramaic Bible translations, the phrase NŚʾ mɔšɔl was translated word-for-word in the target language, even though the verb used in the target language did not previously attest the specific sense of “speech performance.” This same translational strategy persists in modern translations of this idiom, preventing scholars from understanding the idiom as it was used by biblical authors. The study compares the Biblical Hebrew phrase to a similar Ugaritic phrase, showing how it should be understood to express the voicing of speech rather than the initiating of speech. The study concludes by offering an English translation which more closely reflects the metaphor for voice-activation employed by the Biblical Hebrew phrase.
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MORINI, Giovanna, and Rochelle S. NEWMAN. "Dónde está la ball? Examining the effect of code switching on bilingual children's word recognition." Journal of Child Language 46, no. 6 (August 13, 2019): 1238–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0305000919000400.
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AbstractHearing words in sentences facilitates word recognition in monolingual children. Many children grow up receiving input in multiple languages – including exposure to sentences that ‘mix’ the languages. We explored Spanish–English bilingual toddlers’ (n = 24) ability to identify familiar words in three conditions: (i) single word (ball!); (ii) same-language sentence (Where's the ball?); or (iii) mixed-language sentence (Dónde está la ball?). Children successfully identified words across conditions; however, the advantage linked to hearing words in sentences was present only in the same-language condition. This work hence suggests that language mixing plays an important role on bilingual children's ability to recognize spoken words.
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Diego-Lázaro, Beatriz de, Andrea Pittman, and María Adelaida Restrepo. "Is Oral Bilingualism an Advantage for Word Learning in Children With Hearing Loss?" Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 64, no. 3 (March 17, 2021): 965–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1044/2020_jslhr-20-00487.
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Purpose The purpose of this study was to examine whether oral bilingualism could be an advantage for children with hearing loss when learning new words. Method Twenty monolingual and 13 bilingual children with hearing loss were compared with each other and with 20 monolingual and 20 bilingual children with normal hearing on receptive vocabulary and on three word-learning tasks containing nonsense words in familiar (English and Spanish) and unfamiliar (Arabic) languages. We measured word learning on the day of the training and retention the next day using an auditory recognition task. Analyses of covariance were used to compare performance on the word learning tasks by language group (monolingual vs. bilingual) and hearing status (normal hearing vs. hearing loss), controlling for age and maternal education. Results No significant differences were observed between monolingual and bilingual children with and without hearing loss in any of the word-learning task. Children with hearing loss performed more poorly than their hearing peers in Spanish word retention and Arabic word learning and retention. Conclusions Children with hearing loss who grew up being exposed to Spanish did not show higher or lower word-learning abilities than monolingual children with hearing loss exposed to English only. Therefore, oral bilingualism was neither an advantage nor a disadvantage for word learning. Hearing loss negatively affected performance in monolingual and bilingual children when learning words in languages other than English (the dominant language). Monolingual and bilingual children with hearing loss are equally at risk for word-learning difficulties and vocabulary size matters for word learning.
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Bhajni, Sameer, Varsha Khandker, Sourabh Patil, and Upasana Makati. "White Print: The Dotted Word." Asian Case Research Journal 23, no. 02 (December 2019): 331–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0218927519500135.
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This case describes the efforts put in and challenges faced by a young female social entrepreneur, Upasana Makati, in an attempt to make a difference in the lives of people who are visually impaired or with poor vision in India. The idea of White Print was to provide interesting reading material for the visually impaired population, including Braille Tactile alphabet books in English and Hindi. Upasana had been handling all the functions on her own with occasional help from interns which has been working out well so far. However, going ahead, the business is bound to face issues related to revenue generation, scaling up, and impact. This can be a good case to introduce the concept of Social Entrepreneurship, Dual Bottom-line, and Hybrid organizations to students.
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Valera, Salvador. "English ‘-Ly’ Adverbs: from Subject Orientation to Conversion." Studia Anglica Posnaniensia 49, no. 1 (March 1, 2014): 77–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/stap-2014-0004.
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AbstractUnlike subject-orientation in English ‘-ly’ adverbs, subject-relatedness does not conflate two syntactic functions in one and the same form: subject-related ‘-ly’ adverbs are predicative elements in the clause and do not function as adverbials. Therefore, the morphological make-up of subject-related ‘-ly’ adverbs does not match the syntactic function and the categorial meaning usually associated with the adverbial suffix ‘-ly’. In subject-relatedness, the association of the predicative function with the ‘-ly’ suffix differs from that of the well-known set of ‘-ly’ adjectives where the suffix is the present-day form of Old English ‘-līc’. Subject-relatedness raises the question of how these ‘-ly’ adverbs should be classified and the implications of this classification on their place in the system of word-classes. Specifically, it raises the question of the place of this morphological, syntactic and semantic behaviour with respect to word-class membership. In this respect, the paper explores the interpretation of subject-related ‘-ly’ words in frameworks where adjectives and adverbs are considered one and the same word-class and also where they are considered separate ones. The interpretation of subject-related ‘-ly’ words as belonging to the categorial space between adjective and adverb is relevant especially in respect of the morphosyntactic processes described in the literature for similar cases: although the profile of subject-related ‘-ly’ words appears to meet the conditions of conversion, they do not become lexicalized, as in lexical conversion, and cannot be traced back to a syntactic process, as in syntactic conversion
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Giyatmi, Giyatmi, Endang Dwi Hastuti, Ratih Wijayava, and Sihindun Arumi. "The Analysis of English Word Formations Used on Brand Names Found in Indonesian Products." Register Journal 7, no. 2 (November 1, 2014): 179. http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v7i2.179-204.
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This research aims at describing how brand names with English inIndonesian products are created. To analyze the data found theresearchers applied English word formation in English morphology. Thisis a descriptive research. The data were brand names using English foundin Indonesian product which were taken from three supermarkets in Solonamely Hypermart Solo Grand Mall, Hypermart Gorro Assalam, andCarefur from February up to April 2010. The research found that thebrand names with English in Indonesian products can be created byapplying word formation such as compounding, blending, affixation,reduplication, onomatopoeia, abbreviation, acronym and clipping. Theprocess of compounding consists of pure compounding and modificationcompounding, The process of blending includes the first syllable of thefirst words and the first syllable of the second words, the first syllable ofthe first words and the second syllable from the front of the secondwords., the first words and the last syllables of the second words, the firstwords and two syllables from the front of the second words, twosyllables from the front of the first words and the second words, twosyllables from the front of the first words and the first syllable of thesecond words, the first words and the two last syllables from the back ofthe second words, and the first words and the first syllables of the second words. The affixation process covers prefixes pro-, -bio and suffixes –y, -er, -ness, -ish, and –s. The process of reduplication includes puremodification, modification with intensifier meaning and reduplicationwith sound change. The process of abbreviation found is pureabbreviation and acronym. The process of clipping includes the clippingof letter and syllables. Keywords: Brand names; English word formation
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Giyatmi, Giyatmi, Endang Dwi Hastuti, Ratih Wijayava, and Sihindun Arumi. "The Analysis of English Word Formations Used on Brand Names Found in Indonesian Products." Register Journal 7, no. 2 (November 1, 2014): 179. http://dx.doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v7i2.214.
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This research aims at describing how brand names with English inIndonesian products are created. To analyze the data found theresearchers applied English word formation in English morphology. Thisis a descriptive research. The data were brand names using English foundin Indonesian product which were taken from three supermarkets in Solonamely Hypermart Solo Grand Mall, Hypermart Gorro Assalam, andCarefur from February up to April 2010. The research found that thebrand names with English in Indonesian products can be created byapplying word formation such as compounding, blending, affixation,reduplication, onomatopoeia, abbreviation, acronym and clipping. Theprocess of compounding consists of pure compounding and modificationcompounding, The process of blending includes the first syllable of thefirst words and the first syllable of the second words, the first syllable ofthe first words and the second syllable from the front of the secondwords., the first words and the last syllables of the second words, the firstwords and two syllables from the front of the second words, twosyllables from the front of the first words and the second words, twosyllables from the front of the first words and the first syllable of thesecond words, the first words and the two last syllables from the back ofthe second words, and the first words and the first syllables of the second words. The affixation process covers prefixes pro-, -bio and suffixes –y, -er, -ness, -ish, and –s. The process of reduplication includes puremodification, modification with intensifier meaning and reduplicationwith sound change. The process of abbreviation found is pureabbreviation and acronym. The process of clipping includes the clippingof letter and syllables. Keywords: Brand names; English word formation
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Feist-Burkhardt, Susanne. "Comments on the spelling of ‘archaeopyle’, the germination aperture in dinoflagellate cysts." Journal of Micropalaeontology 26, no. 1 (April 1, 2007): 39–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/jm.26.1.39.
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Abstract. INTRODUCTIONDuring editorial work for the Journal of Micropalaeontology, a discussion arose between authors, reviewers and editors on the correct spelling of a technical term in palynology: ‘archeopyle’ or ‘archaeopyle’, the germination aperture in dinoflagellate cysts. One opinion was that there is only one correct spelling, namely ‘archeopyle’, with a single ‘e’ in the middle of the word, irrespective of the use of British English or American English. The other opinion was that spelling of the word should follow the language used in the rest of the text – allowing for ‘archeopyle’ with ‘e’ in American English and ‘archaeopyle’ with ‘ae’ in British English. This Notebook illustrates the reasons for this controversy and argues for the alternative spellings of the word according to American or British English spelling used.THE CAUSE OF THE ‘PROBLEM’ AND LINE OF ARGUMENTThe term ‘archeopyle’ was introduced in 1961 by William R. Evitt in one of his seminal papers on the morphology of fossil dinoflagellates, in which he recognized that many organic microfossils, then called ‘hystrichospheres’, showed a germination opening and were actually of dinoflagellate affinity. As derivation of the word he gave the following information: ‘... the presence of this opening (pyle – gate, orifice) in fossil (archeo – ancient) dinoflagellates ...’ (Evitt, 1961, p. 389). Since then, the term has become accepted and used widely by palaeontologists and biologists alike. Definitions and descriptions of the word itself and derivative terms can be looked up in the latest glossary of terminology by Williams et al. (2000). . . .
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Li, Chuchu, Yakov Kronrod, and Min Wang. "The influence of the native language on phonological preparation in spoken word production in a second language." Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 10, no. 1 (February 20, 2018): 109–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/lab.16027.li.
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Abstract Three experiments investigated the phonological preparation unit in planning English spoken words, comparing English monolinguals, native Chinese and Japanese-speakers who spoke English as their second language. All three groups named pictures in English, and the names could either share the same initial phoneme, mora, or syllable, or had no systematic commonality. A phoneme preparation effect was shown among English monolinguals but not among the two bilingual groups, suggesting that the phoneme is the phonological preparation unit for English monolinguals, but not for the two bilingual groups. All three groups showed mora and syllable preparation effects, but further analysis and a follow-up experiment suggested that Chinese-English bilinguals may treat morae as open syllables. English monolinguals showed similar phoneme and mora preparation effect sizes, possibly as a result of flexibility. Together, the selection of phonological preparation could be flexible, influenced by both the nature of the target language and speakers’ language experiences.
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Berg, Thomas. "The cohesiveness of English and German compounds." Mental Lexicon 7, no. 1 (June 8, 2012): 1–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/ml.7.1.01ber.
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This paper compares the cohesiveness of English and German compounds. Cohesiveness is understood as the extent to which two given elements are integrated into a larger structural unit. The null hypothesis according to which the compounds in the two languages are equicohesive is rejected on the strength of an extended quantitative analysis. The results of ten empirical tests are consistent with the hypothesis that English compounds are less cohesive than their German counterparts. As the degree of cohesion is inversely related to the position of a given unit in the linguistic hierarchy, English compounds are argued to be more phrase-like, whereas German compounds are more word-like. German imposes more rigorous constraints on compounding than English. Thus, the prototypical categories of English and German compounds differ in terms of their formal content. Since compounds are essentially words, two somewhat disparate definitions of word prevail in the two languages. Following up on an idea put forward by Klinge (2009), the cross-linguistic difference emanates from the varying importance of inflectional morphology in the two languages. Cohesiveness is supposedly a level-specific rather than a language-wide factor.
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Ramón García, Noelia. "Modifying nouns : an english-spanish corpus-based contrast of three word pairs." Journal of English Studies 4 (May 29, 2004): 171. http://dx.doi.org/10.18172/jes.94.
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The modification of nouns is a problematic area in contrasting English and Spanish. The different typologies to which these two languages belong determine essential differences, such as the unmarked position of adjectives, before nouns in English and after nouns in Spanish. The aim of this study is to set up a list of the most common characterizing resources for nouns in both languages, and establish their different distribution, so that trends in usage can be detected. A number of concordances of three word pairs have been selected from two large monolingual corpora, Cobuild and CREA (Corpus de Referencia del Español Actual). The data have been analysed to describe the type of modifiers that occur in both languages. This contrastive analysis provides useful data in areas such as translation, foreign language learning and teaching, or descriptive linguistics. The translation process between English and Spanish is the main focus of this paper.
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Zuchen, Yu. "A communicative view of English teaching." Acta Neophilologica 32 (December 1, 1999): 95–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.4312/an.32.0.95-97.
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What does it mean to take a communicative view of language and teaching? This leads to an examination of language from different views.The structural view of language concentrates on the grammatical system, describing ways in which linguistic items can be combined. It explains the operations for producing different sentences and descibes the word-order rules. Linguistic knowledge, linguistic facts and operations make up a student's linguistic competence and enable him to produce new sentences to match the meanings that he wishes to express.
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Zuchen, Yu. "A communicative view of English teaching." Acta Neophilologica 32 (December 1, 1999): 95–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.4312/an.32.1.95-97.
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What does it mean to take a communicative view of language and teaching? This leads to an examination of language from different views.The structural view of language concentrates on the grammatical system, describing ways in which linguistic items can be combined. It explains the operations for producing different sentences and descibes the word-order rules. Linguistic knowledge, linguistic facts and operations make up a student's linguistic competence and enable him to produce new sentences to match the meanings that he wishes to express.
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Gamallo, Pablo. "Using the Outlier Detection Task to Evaluate Distributional Semantic Models." Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction 1, no. 1 (November 22, 2018): 211–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/make1010013.
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In this article, we define the outlier detection task and use it to compare neural-based word embeddings with transparent count-based distributional representations. Using the English Wikipedia as a text source to train the models, we observed that embeddings outperform count-based representations when their contexts are made up of bag-of-words. However, there are no sharp differences between the two models if the word contexts are defined as syntactic dependencies. In general, syntax-based models tend to perform better than those based on bag-of-words for this specific task. Similar experiments were carried out for Portuguese with similar results. The test datasets we have created for the outlier detection task in English and Portuguese are freely available.
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van Kesteren, Ron, Ton Dijkstra, and Koenraad de Smedt. "Markedness effects in Norwegian–English bilinguals: Task-dependent use of language-specific letters and bigrams." Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 65, no. 11 (November 2012): 2129–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2012.679946.
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This study investigates how bilinguals use sublexical language membership information to speed up their word recognition process in different task situations. Norwegian–English bilinguals performed a Norwegian–English language decision task, a mixed English lexical decision task, or a mixed Norwegian lexical decision task. The mixed lexical decision experiments included words from the nontarget language that required a “no” response. The language specificity of the Bokmål (a Norwegian written norm) and English (non)words was varied by including language-specific letters (“smør”, “hawk”) or bigrams (“dusj”, “veal”). Bilinguals were found to use both types of sublexical markedness to facilitate their decisions, language-specific letters leading to larger effects than language-specific bigrams. A cross-experimental comparison indicates that the use of sublexical language information was strategically dependent on the task at hand and that decisions were based on language membership information derived directly from sublexical (bigram) stimulus characteristics instead of indirectly via their lexical representations. Available models for bilingual word recognition fail to handle the observed marker effects, because all consider language membership as a lexical property only.
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PLLANA, GANI, and SADETE PLLANA. "Group word terms in the terminology of the theory of mechanics in Albanian and English." Journal of Education Culture and Society 4, no. 2 (January 10, 2020): 334–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.15503/jecs20132.334.339.
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As it is known, the terminology of any knowledge field as an independent system, as well as the terminology of mechanics consisting of nominating one-word and group word units (among which, particularly the latter phrase terms) make up nearly 70-80% of the overall terminological vocabulary. Looking at it from this point of view, all mono-syllabic (one word) terms (word terms) would also be accepted as a basic vocabulary in the terminology of mechanics. This can be justified more so by the fact that almost every word term serves as the foundation for the construction of numerous group word terms that mark concepts which have spread out into numerous branches. These having been introduced through a variety of many different interrelations, like gender / type, whole / part etc.
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Bode Ekundayo, Omowumi Steve. "The Implications of Orthographic Intraference for the Teaching and Description of ESL: The Educated Nigerian English Examples." GiST Education and Learning Research Journal, no. 10 (June 20, 2015): 128–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.26817/16925777.271.
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This paper examines orthographic intraference and its implications for teaching and describing English as a second language (ESL). Orthographic intraference is used here to denote instances of single word spelling, acronyms, mix up of homophones, homonyms and compound word spelling arising not from interference but from orthographic rules and features of the English language. The paper is based on the concept of intraference and examples were gathered from Nigerian English, the educated variety, from 2005 to 2013 with questionnaires and recording of spontaneous speeches and from secondary sources. The study established that orthographic intraference cases are widespread and common in Educated Nigerian English. Consequently, the paper proposes that teachers of ESL identify, teach and drill learners on them to make learners internalize the generally accepted standard forms.
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Brown, Earl Kjar. "The Effect of Forms’ Ratio of Conditioning on Word-Final /s/ Voicing in Mexican Spanish." Languages 5, no. 4 (November 16, 2020): 61. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/languages5040061.
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There is mounting evidence that words that occur proportionately more often in contexts that condition a phonetically-motivated sound change end up changing more rapidly than other words. Support has been found in at least modern-day Spanish, Medieval Spanish, bilingual English-Spanish, and modern-day English. This study tests whether there is support for this idea with regards to the variable voicing of word-final /s/ in Spanish. An analysis of 1431 tokens of word-final /s/ spoken by 15 female speakers of Mexican Spanish living in Salinas, California, USA is performed. The response variable is the percentage of the /s/ segment that is voiced, and the effect of a handful of predictor variables shown in the literature to condition /s/ voicing is investigated. The variable of interest is forms’ ratio of conditioning (FRC), or the proportion of times with which word types occur in the context that conditions voicing of word-final /s/. The results of a series of 40 beta regression models indicate that FRC significantly conditions the percentage of voicing of word-final /s/ in these data. Also, the effect of manipulating two aspects of FRC operationalization is analyzed. This study adds to the growing body of literature documenting the importance of cumulative contextual information in the mental representation of words.
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BRYSBAERT, MARC, EVELYNE LAGROU, and MICHAËL STEVENS. "Visual word recognition in a second language: A test of the lexical entrenchment hypothesis with lexical decision times." Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 20, no. 3 (April 8, 2016): 530–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1366728916000353.
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The word frequency effect is stronger in second language (L2) processing than in first language (L1) processing. According to the lexical entrenchment hypothesis, this difference is not due to a qualitative difference in word processing between L1 and L2, but can be explained by differences in exposure to the target language: People with less exposure to a language show a steeper frequency curve for that language. Exposure differences can be measured with a vocabulary test. The present study tested whether the lexical entrenchment hypothesis provides an adequate explanation for differences in lexical decision times. To this end, we compared the performance of 56 Dutch–English bilinguals to that of 1011 English L1 speakers on 420 English six-letter words. In line with previous research, the differences in the word frequency effect between word processing in L1 and in L2 became vanishingly small once vocabulary size was entered as a predictor. Only in a diffusion model analysis did we find some evidence that the information build-up may be slower in L1 than in L2, independent of vocabulary size. We further report effects of cognates, age-of-acquisition, and neighborhood size that can also be explained in terms of differences in exposure.
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Gilquin, Gaëtanelle. "At the interface of contact linguistics and second language acquisition research." English World-Wide 36, no. 1 (February 10, 2015): 91–124. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/eww.36.1.05gil.
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This paper examines the possible interface between contact linguistics and second language acquisition research by comparing the institutionalized second-language varieties of English known as “New Englishes” and the foreign varieties of English called “Learner Englishes”. On the basis of corpus data representing several populations of various origins, it investigates four linguistic phenomena, ranging from syntax (embedded inversion) to lexis (phrasal verbs with up), through phraseology (word clusters) and pragmatics (discourse markers), with a view to identifying similarities and differences between the two types of varieties at several levels of the language. The paper also explores avenues for going beyond a descriptive account towards a more explanatory one, in an attempt to build the foundations of a theoretical rapprochement between contact linguistics and second language acquisition research.
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Mesthrie, Rajend. "English circling the globe." English Today 24, no. 1 (February 22, 2008): 28–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0266078408000072.
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ABSTRACTStarts with an excerpt from Braj B. Kachru, The sacred cows of English (ET16, 1988). The ‘Sacred Cows’ article has been a seminal piece for many reasons. It introduced the world to Braj's famous ‘Three Circles of English’ model. At roughly the same time, in the late 1980s, three pioneers in the field which was then known as ‘English as a World Language’ or ‘New Englishes’ came up independently with the idea of representing the spread of English in terms of concentric circles. Tom McArthur's ‘wheel model’ appeared in ET July 1987. Manfred Görlach, then editor of the journal English World Wide came up with a similar model, with some minor changes in a conference paper of 1988. It was only fitting that the co-editor of the third journal in the field, World Englishes, should have his own say. And it is in fact Braj's model that has come be the most widely accepted as the model with the best ‘fit’ for English as she has been spreading.
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Marín, María José, and Camino Rea Rizzo. "Assessing EPAP lexical features: A corpus-based study." Quaderns de Filologia - Estudis Lingüístics 22, no. 22 (January 7, 2018): 165. http://dx.doi.org/10.7203/qf.22.11307.
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The features of specialised languages have been extensively described by scholars in the literature. Amongst them, Enrique Alcaraz’s work stands out as an exhaustive and comprehensive description of EPAP at all linguistic levels: lexical, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic. This research aims to provide a bottom-up assessment of his description on a lexical level through the implementation of corpus-based techniques on two specialised corpora of legal and telecommunications English. The results support Alcaraz’s portrayal as regards term usage, the relevance of sub-technical vocabulary, the peculiarities of Latin single and multi word terms in legal English and the significant presence and usage of abbreviations in telecommunications English.
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Hamiedi, M.A., Instructor Ya'arub Mahmood. "Contextualisation of Academic Terminology Collocations." ALUSTATH JOURNAL FOR HUMAN AND SOCIAL SCIENCES 223, no. 1 (December 1, 2017): 65–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.36473/ujhss.v223i1.314.
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This paper investigates the significant role of ' context' in the clarification and explication of words in English. It also sheds light on the linguistic environment within which the word operates, i- e- the collocates that occur in concomitance with this word .The research aims at exploring the formulation of words and vocables within the due context. This exploration, however, is conducted through the use of academic terminology in the framework of well-maintained context under certain semantic restrictions. Moreover, this work is an attempt to come up with answers to such questions as : What is meant by 'context'? How important is 'contextualization' for the clarification of words ? Do 'context' and 'collocationality' both contribute to the full understanding of words ?
The objective of the study is to investigate, explore and probe into the unraveling role of 'context' and 'contextualisation'. The study is a two– fold investigation aimed at getting acquainted with on- campus terms as well as the framework within which such terms operate and perform their communicative function . The study concludes that "context" is inevitable for the conscious awareness desperately required by learners of English to fully grasp the sense intended. This, above all , saves the learner both the effort and time that may be consumed in the quest for the meaning of a word out of context.
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Farina, Donna M. T. Cr, Marjeta Vrbinc, and Alenka Vrbinc. "Problems in Online Dictionary Use for Advanced Slovenian Learners of English." International Journal of Lexicography 32, no. 4 (June 29, 2019): 458–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ijl/ecz017.
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Abstract This article reports on findings from interviews with students from the University of Ljubljana. The study is based on fourteen questions about participants’ habits of dictionary use, their look-up abilities, and their perceptions of the utility and quality of definitions and illustrative examples. Students were given nine contexts containing a clearly-marked common word used in an infrequent sense; they had to locate the relevant sense in the online Merriam–Webster Learner’s Dictionary (MWLD). A think-aloud method enabled the researchers to follow the students’ look-up process and record their problems as well as their suggestions on how to improve the content and presentation of information in the dictionary. Recommendations are provided on: the improvement of drop-down menus; the inclusion of the form(s) of a target word; illustrative examples; the use of italics, boldface, and colors as well as what types of information should be displayed or available if needed.
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Popova, Elena P. "SEMANTIC SHIFT AS A SOURCE OF LEGAL TERMINOLOGY DEVELOPMENT (BASED ON ENGLISH)." Theoretical and Applied Linguistics, no. 2 (2019): 150–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.22250/24107190_2019_5_2_150_159.
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The article considers the issues of semantic derivation, its role and place in English legal terms forming at different stages of legal vocabulary development. Semantic derivation (in various sources also referred to as semantic shift and semantic transfer), along with word-building, is one of the internal sources of a language word-stock development and enlargement. A short insight into the theory of terminology at the beginning of the paper enables to determine the status of a term, its relative features, semantic requirements for a term, and to review the most common ways of term formation. Further, the place and role of legal vocabulary are viewed in relation to general literary language, and the issue of English legal terms variance is brought up. Dynamics in the semantic structure of a word is well traced in diachronic and synchronic studies of semantically reinterpreted items from the point of view of their connection with extra linguistic realities. In the experiment, the focus has been made upon the linguistic material of the Old English, Middle English and Early Modern English periods in relation to the periods of Anglo-Saxon law...
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Francis, Richard L. "With Everything in Order." Mathematics Teacher 81, no. 2 (February 1988): 132–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.5951/mt.81.2.0132.
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Though the letters that make up a word are always in some select order, rarely it seems do they appear in alphabetical order. Words such as best, know. empty, or almost do have this feature, however, and can be described fittingly as “climbing” words. It might be noted that the only climbing whole-number name in the English language is the word forty. Even though the word forty would be climbing, the numeral 40 would not be. Rather simply, a counting number is considered “climbing” when the digits in its decimal representation are in ascending order. Accordingly, 348 is a climbing number. The student will have little difficulty in finding many more, somewhat of a departure from the more challenging task of finding climbing words
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Colantoni, Laura, Ruth Martínez, Natalia Mazzaro, Ana T. Pérez-Leroux, and Natalia Rinaldi. "A Phonetic Account of Spanish-English Bilinguals’ Divergence with Agreement." Languages 5, no. 4 (November 11, 2020): 58. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/languages5040058.
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Does bilingual language influence in the domain of phonetics impact the morphosyntactic domain? Spanish gender is encoded by word-final, unstressed vowels (/a e o/), which may diphthongize in word-boundary vowel sequences. English neutralizes unstressed final vowels and separates across-word vocalic sequences. The realization of gender vowels as schwa, due to cross-linguistic influence, may remain undetected if not directly analyzed. To explore the potential over-reporting of gender accuracy, we conducted parallel phonetic and morphosyntactic analyses of read and semi-spontaneous speech produced by 11 Monolingual speakers and 13 Early and 13 Late Spanish-English bilinguals. F1 and F2 values were extracted at five points for all word-final unstressed vowels and vowel sequences. All determiner phrases (DPs) from narratives were coded for morphological and contextual parameters. Early bilinguals exhibited clear patterns of vowel centralization and higher rates of hiatuses than the other groups. However, the morphological analysis yielded very few errors. A follow-up integrated analysis revealed that /a and o/ were realized as centralized vowels, particularly with [+Animate] nouns. We propose that bilinguals’ schwa-like realizations can be over-interpreted as target Spanish vowels. Such variable vowel realization may be a factor in the vulnerability to attrition in gender marking in Spanish as a heritage language.
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Orena, Adriel John, Krista Byers-Heinlein, and Linda Polka. "Reliability of the Language Environment Analysis Recording System in Analyzing French–English Bilingual Speech." Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 62, no. 7 (July 15, 2019): 2491–500. http://dx.doi.org/10.1044/2019_jslhr-l-18-0342.
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Purpose This study examined the utility of the Language ENvironment Analysis (LENA) recording system for investigating the language input to bilingual infants. Method Twenty-one French–English bilingual families with a 10-month-old infant participated in this study. Using the LENA recording system, each family contributed 3 full days of recordings within a 1-month period. A portion of these recordings (945 minutes) were manually transcribed, and the word counts from these transcriptions were compared against the LENA-generated adult word counts. Results Data analyses reveal that the LENA algorithms were reliable in counting words in both Canadian English and Canadian French, even when both languages are present in the same recording. While the LENA system tended to underestimate the amount of speech in the recordings, there was a strong correlation between the LENA-generated and human-transcribed adult word counts for each language. Importantly, this relationship holds when accounting for different-gendered and different-accented speech. Conclusions The LENA recording system is a reliable tool for estimating word counts, even for bilingual input. Special considerations and limitations for using the LENA recording system in a bilingual population are discussed. These results open up possibilities for investigating caregiver talk to bilingual infants in more detail.
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Segalowitz, Sidney J., Norman S. Segalowitz, and Anthony G. Wood. "Assessing the development of automaticity in second language word recognition." Applied Psycholinguistics 19, no. 1 (January 1998): 53–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0142716400010572.
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AbstractThis study investigated the development of automaticity in second language word recognition. In an earlier study (Segalowitz & Segalowitz, 1993) we demonstrated that a reduction in the coefficient of variation of lexical decision reaction time (CVRT) - the standard deviation of reaction time divided by mean reaction time (RT) - reflects a restructuring of underlying cognitive processing mechanisms in the direction of increased automaticity and not a simple speed-up of those mechanisms. In the current study, English speakers studying French performed multiple lexical decision tasks. Differences in CVRTwere compared cross-sectionally and longitudinally. As in the earlier study, crosssectional analyses showed that CVRTcorrelated positively with RT for initially fast, but not initially slow, responders. CVRTalso correlated positively with RT in longitudinal analyses. These results confirm that, with extended learning experience, the cognitive components underlying word recognition are restructured (automatized) and not simply speeded-up.
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Fakhraddin Huseynova, Sevinj. "Idioms related to the body parts and their equivalents in Azerbaijani." SCIENTIFIC WORK 60, no. 11 (November 6, 2020): 42–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.36719/2663-4619/60/42-45.
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This article deals with the everyday English idioms with Azerbaijani equivalents in use. However, mostly body idioms are mentioned in this article. The lexicology gives us significant information about idioms. What is an idiom? Why do you need to learn it? The answers to these questions can be found in this article. The idiom contains a special place in word combinations. English is rich with idioms and idiomatic expressions. Idioms can be found in all styles: writing, speaking, fiction, and so on. Even newspapers are rich with idiomatic expressions. The words that make up the idioms lose their real meaning, thus creating a new meaning in the combination. Most words that make up the idioms are of a literal meaning. In the modern English, metaphorical meanings of the words are used more than their true meanings. Idioms are used in almost all styles of literary language. These issues are covered in this article. This topic is distinguished by its actuality. Recently this topic is becoming more actual. Key words: idioms, true meaning, metaphorical meaning,idiomatic expressions
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Putri, Maharani Widya, Erwin Oktoma, and Roni Nursyamsu. "FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE IN ENGLISH STAND-UP COMEDY." English Review: Journal of English Education 5, no. 1 (December 1, 2016): 115. http://dx.doi.org/10.25134/erjee.v5i1.396.
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This descriptive qualitative research was about the analysis of figurative language in English stand-up comedy. The purposes of this study were to identify the types of figurative language and to describe the functions of figurative language found in the selected video of stand-up comedy show. The data source was taken from one of selected videos of Russell Peters stand-up comedy show. Russell Peters’s speech contained about figurative language in the video is observed. The data were collected through content analysis technique by collecting the verbal language used by Russell Peters. The first research questions was analyzed by McArthur (1992) theory and supported by Crystal (1994) theory to find out the types of figurative language found in English stand-up comedy. To answer the second research questions about the functions of figurative language found in English stand-up comedy was analyzed by Chunqi (2014) theory and suppoted by Kokemuller (2001) theory and Turner (2016) theory. After analyzing data, it was found that Irony was the most dominant figurative language used by Russell Peters in “Russell Peters Comedy Now! Uncensored” with 29.94%. It was happened because the kind of topics used by Russell Peters in that show were about ethnics (canadian, white people, black people, brown people and asian), society case (beating child) and culture (accent and life style of various ethnics in the world, habitual of various ethnics in the world). Irony and Hyperbole were needed dominantly in the performance, to entertain the audiences in the stand-up comedy show. The function of eleven types of figurative language which were used by Russell were concluded. The functions were to amuse people in comedic situations, to expand meaning, to explain abstract emotions, to make sentence interesting represented and give creative additions. Keywords: Figurative Language, Stand-Up Comedy, English Stand-Up Comedy
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Goulart, Larissa. "The Academic Vocabulary List (AVL) coverage in the Brazilian academic written English corpus." BELT - Brazilian English Language Teaching Journal 9, no. 1 (September 19, 2018): 146. http://dx.doi.org/10.15448/2178-3640.2018.1.31989.
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This paper is divided in two parts, in the first one we address the different definitions of academic vocabulary, the role of academic vocabulary in English for Academic Purposes (EAP) teaching, and present some of the academic word lists compiled up to the present day. The second part of this paper is dedicated to one of the applications of these word lists: to determine the vocabulary profile of a corpus. Hence, the investigation conducted relies on the Academic Vocabulary List (AVL) to determine the use of academic vocabulary in a corpus of Brazilian students. It also addresses the issue of the different coverage provided by the AVL and the Academic Word List (AWL). The results indicate that the AVL is more representative of academic vocabulary in the corpus used as a reference.
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Sherko, Esmeralda. "Compound Pronouns in English and Albanian." European Journal of Language and Literature 2, no. 1 (August 30, 2015): 36. http://dx.doi.org/10.26417/ejls.v2i1.p36-41.
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This study concentrates on compound pronouns in English and Albanian. Compounding is considered as one of the most prolific word formation techniques in both languages. The study is made up of three basic parts: compounding is analysed theoretically; compound pronouns collected by the Dictionary of Contemporary Albanian Language and Oxford Student’s Dictionary are analysed; conclusions are drawn as of their similarities and differences. Albanian language provides interesting results as it includes a specific category of pronouns under a different heading than compounding and that is agglutinated pronouns. Compound pronouns are analysed quantitatively and qualitatively in both languages. Quantitative analysis deals with their positioning in relation to all compound words per each dictionary. Qualitative analysis deals with the elements constituting the compound pronouns. The study also pinpoints the differences and similarities between compound pronouns when translated from English into Albanian and vice versa. The study is illustrated with abundant examples in both languages. Statistic results of the study show that Albanian compound (agglutinated) pronouns outnumber the English compound pronouns→ 81: 18; also constituent structures of Alb. vs Eng. pronouns are →9:2. Translation of pronouns from one language into the other: one English pronoun – different Albanian pronouns and vice versa.
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Popović, Maja, and Hermann Ney. "Towards Automatic Error Analysis of Machine Translation Output." Computational Linguistics 37, no. 4 (December 2011): 657–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/coli_a_00072.
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Evaluation and error analysis of machine translation output are important but difficult tasks. In this article, we propose a framework for automatic error analysis and classification based on the identification of actual erroneous words using the algorithms for computation of Word Error Rate (WER) and Position-independent word Error Rate (PER), which is just a very first step towards development of automatic evaluation measures that provide more specific information of certain translation problems. The proposed approach enables the use of various types of linguistic knowledge in order to classify translation errors in many different ways. This work focuses on one possible set-up, namely, on five error categories: inflectional errors, errors due to wrong word order, missing words, extra words, and incorrect lexical choices. For each of the categories, we analyze the contribution of various POS classes. We compared the results of automatic error analysis with the results of human error analysis in order to investigate two possible applications: estimating the contribution of each error type in a given translation output in order to identify the main sources of errors for a given translation system, and comparing different translation outputs using the introduced error categories in order to obtain more information about advantages and disadvantages of different systems and possibilites for improvements, as well as about advantages and disadvantages of applied methods for improvements. We used Arabic–English Newswire and Broadcast News and Chinese–English Newswire outputs created in the framework of the GALE project, several Spanish and English European Parliament outputs generated during the TC-Star project, and three German–English outputs generated in the framework of the fourth Machine Translation Workshop. We show that our results correlate very well with the results of a human error analysis, and that all our metrics except the extra words reflect well the differences between different versions of the same translation system as well as the differences between different translation systems.
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Zelinsky-Wibbelt, Cornelia. "Identifying term candidates through adjective–noun constructions in English." Terminology 18, no. 2 (September 7, 2012): 226–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/term.18.2.04zel.
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This paper evaluates the possibilities of recognizing term candidates through their formal and semantic characteristics. From a cognitive-linguistic stance, the semantic motivation of the word-formation patterns of collocations and compounds in domain-specific texts is assumed to promote their termhood. The semantic motivation to integrate into a multi-word unit is assumed to originate in the generally agreed on generic reference of the modifying constituent. This hypothesis is investigated empirically in a corpus-linguistic experiment. Term candidates instantiating different derivational patterns of adjective–noun constructions have been manually sorted by experts into approved and non-approved terms. Our subsequent linguistic categorization into the morpho-semantic constructions instantiated by the term candidates could be verified quantitatively in terms of relative frequencies. These frequencies clearly divide the term candidates into instances of term-promoting and term-impeding constructions. Obviously, the experts have approved the terms of those constructions which come up with a high relative frequency in the corpus.
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Lehmann, Christian. "Roots, stems and word classes." Parts of Speech: Descriptive tools, theoretical constructs 32, no. 3 (September 3, 2008): 546–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/sl.32.3.04leh.
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The assignment of a linguistic sign to a word class is an operation that must be seen as part of the overall transformation of extralinguistic substance into linguistic form. In this, it is comparable to such processes as the transitivization of a verbal base, which further specifies a relatively rough categorization. Languages differ both in the extent to which they structure the material by purely grammatical criteria and in the level at which they do this. The root and the stem are the lowest levels at which a linguistic sign can be categorized in terms of language-specific structure. Further categorization is then achieved at the level of the syntagm. An empirical investigation comparing the categorization of roots and stems in a sample of six languages (English, German, Latin, Spanish, Yucatec Maya, Mandarin Chinese) turns up far-reaching differences. These differences in the amount of categorization that languages apply to linguistic signs at the most basic levels throw into doubt any thesis claiming universal categoriality or acategoriality for roots. Such a static view must be replaced by a dynamic one which asks for the role of categorization in linguistic activity. At the same time, these differences raise the issue of the amount of structure — or of grammar — that is necessary for a human language.1