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Journal articles on the topic 'Urea biosensor'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 1 February 2022

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1

Chou, Jung-Chuan, Cian-Yi Wu, Si-Hong Lin, Po-Yu Kuo, Chih-Hsien Lai, Yu-Hsun Nien, You-Xiang Wu, and Tsu-Yang Lai. "The Analysis of the Urea Biosensors Using Different Sensing Matrices via Wireless Measurement System & Microfluidic Measurement System." Sensors 19, no. 13 (July 8, 2019): 3004. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s19133004.

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Two types of urea biosensors were integrated with a wireless measurement system and microfluidic measurement system. The two biosensors used were (i) a magnetic beads (MBs)-urease/graphene oxide (GO)/titanium dioxide (TiO2)-based biosensor and (ii) an MBs-urease/GO/ nickel oxide (NiO)-based biosensor, respectively. The wireless measurement system work exhibited the feasibility for the remote detection of urea, but it will require refinement and modification to improve stability and precision. The microchannel fluidic system showed the measurement reliability. The sensing properties of urea biosensors at different flow rates were investigated. From the measurement results, the decay of average sensitivity may be attributed to the induced vortex-induced vibrations (VIV) at the high flow rate. In the aspect of wireless monitoring, the average sensitivity of the urea biosensor based on MBs-urease/GO/NiO was 4.780 mV/(mg/dl) and with the linearity of 0.938. In the aspect of measurement under dynamic conditions, the average sensitivity of the urea biosensor based on MBs-urease/GO/NiO were 5.582 mV/(mg/dl) and with the linearity of 0.959. Both measurements performed NiO was better than TiO2 according to the comparisons.

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2

Zusfahair, Zusfahair, Dian Riana Ningsih, Elok Dwi Putri Lestari, and Amin Fatoni. "Development of Urea Biosensor Based on Immobilized Urease in Chitosan Cryogel." Molekul 14, no. 1 (June 4, 2019): 64. http://dx.doi.org/10.20884/1.jm.2019.14.1.523.

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The development of biosensors using biological components has an important role in detecting the disease early because it has good selectivity and accuracy. In this study, a biosensor which made is a urea biosensor, based on immobilization urease in chitosan using adsorption techniques, to measure urea levels by colorimetric analysis with bromothymol blue (BTB) as an indicator. The purpose of this study was to find out how to measure urea levels using biosensors based on urease immobilization in chitosan and find out the biosensor performance including optimum enzymatic reaction time, linearity, the limit of detection, repetition, and determination of disrupting compounds. The study began with the making of an immobilization supporting matrix using chitosan which was made in the form of cryogel through an ionic gelation process which adsorbs the urease enzyme. Cryogel urease catalyzes the hydrolysis of urea into NH4+ and CO2-. The reaction product was added with the BTB indicator, and the color change formed was measured using a spectrophotometer. The results showed that the performance of urea biosensors was good enough for urea level detection systems by producing enzymatic reaction times at 15 minutes, linearity at 0.9951, detection limit at 0.018 mM, not affected by the addition of 0.05 mM ascorbic acid and 0.4 mM uric acid. This urea biosensor can be used up to 5 repetitions.

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3

Kuo, Po-Yu, and Zhe-Xin Dong. "A New Calibration Circuit Design to Reduce Drift Effect of RuO2 Urea Biosensors." Sensors 19, no. 20 (October 20, 2019): 4558. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s19204558.

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The goal of this study was to reduce the drift effect of RuO2 urea biosensors. A new calibration circuit (NCC) based on the voltage regulation technique with the advantage of having a simple structure was presented. To keep its simplicity, the proposed NCC was composed of a non-inverting amplifier and a voltage calibrating circuit. A ruthenium oxide (RuO2) urea biosensor was fabricated to test the calibrating characteristics of the drift rate of the proposed NCC. The experiment performed in this study was divided into two main stages. For the first stage, a sound RuO2 urea biosensor testing environment was set-up. The RuO2 urea sensing film was immersed in the urea solution for 12 h and the response voltage was measured using the voltage-time (V–T) measurement system and the proposed NCC. The results of the first stage showed that the RuO2 urea biosensor has an average sensitivity of 1.860 mV/(mg/dL) and has a linearity of 0.999 which means that the RuO2 urea biosensor had been well fabricated. The second stage of the experiment verified the proposed NCC’s functions, and the results indicated that the proposed NCC reduced the drift rate of RuO2 urea biosensor to 0.02 mV/hr (98.77% reduction).

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4

Kim, Jee Young, Gun Yong Sung, and Min Park. "Efficient Portable Urea Biosensor Based on Urease Immobilized Membrane for Monitoring of Physiological Fluids." Biomedicines 8, no. 12 (December 11, 2020): 596. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines8120596.

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Numerous studies have addressed the utilization of glutaraldehyde (GA) as a homobifunctional cross-linker. However, its applicability has been impeded due to several issues, including the tendency of GA molecules to undergo polymerization. Herein, a portable urea biosensor was developed for the real-time monitoring of the flow of physiological fluids; this was achieved by using disuccinimidyl cross-linker-based urease immobilization. Urease was immobilized on a porous polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) solid support using different disuccinimidyl cross-linkers, namely disuccinimidyl glutarate (DSG), disuccinimidyl suberate (DSS) and bis-N-succinimidyl-(pentaethylene glycol) ester (BS(PEG)5). A urease activity test revealed that DSS exhibited the highest urease immobilizing efficiency, whereas FT-IR analysis confirmed that urease was immobilized on the PTFE membrane via DSS cross-linking. The membrane was inserted in a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) fluidic chamber that generated an electrochemical signal in the presence of a flowing fluid containing urea. Urea samples were allowed to flow into the urea biosensor (1.0 mL/min) and the signal was measured using chronoamperometry. The sensitivity of the DSS urea biosensor was the highest of all the trialed biosensors and was found to be superior to the more commonly used GA cross-linker. To simulate real-time monitoring in a human patient, flowing urea-spiked human serum was measured and the effective urease immobilization of the DSS urea biosensor was confirmed. The repeatability and interference of the urea biosensor were suitable for monitoring urea concentrations typically found in human patients.

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5

Alegret, S., J. Bartrolí, C. Jiménez, E. Martínez-Fàbregas, D. Martorell, and F. Valdés-Perezgasga. "ISFET-based urea biosensor." Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical 16, no. 1-3 (October 1993): 453–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0925-4005(93)85227-2.

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6

Razumiene, Julija, Vidute Gureviciene, Ieva Sakinyte, Laurynas Rimsevicius, and Valdas Laurinavicius. "The Synergy of Thermally Reduced Graphene Oxide in Amperometric Urea Biosensor: Application for Medical Technologies." Sensors 20, no. 16 (August 11, 2020): 4496. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s20164496.

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Thermally reduced graphene oxide (TRGO) is a graphene-based nanomaterial that has been identified as promising for the development of amperometric biosensors. Urease, in combination with TRGO, allowed us to create a mediator-free amperometric biosensor with the intention of precise detection of urea in clinical trials. Beyond simplicity of the technology, the biosensor exhibited high sensitivity (2.3 ± 0.1 µA cm−2 mM−1), great operational and storage stabilities (up to seven months), and appropriate reproducibility (relative standard deviation (RSD) about 2%). The analytical recovery of the TRGO-based biosensor in urine of 101 ÷ 104% with RSD of 1.2 ÷ 1.7% and in blood of 92.7 ÷ 96.4%, RSD of 1.0 ÷ 2.5%, confirmed that the biosensor is acceptable and reliable. These properties allowed us to apply the biosensor in the monitoring of urea levels in samples of urine, blood, and spent dialysate collected during hemodialysis. Accuracy of the biosensor was validated by good correlation (R = 0.9898 and R = 0.9982) for dialysate and blood, utilizing approved methods. The advantages of the proposed biosensing technology could benefit the development of point-of-care and non-invasive medical instruments.

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7

Mulyasuryani, Ani, Anna Roosdiana, and Arie Srihardyastutie. "THE POTENTIOMETRIC UREA BIOSENSOR USING CHITOSAN MEMBRANE." Indonesian Journal of Chemistry 10, no. 2 (July 21, 2010): 162–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.22146/ijc.21454.

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Potentiometric urea biosensor development is based on urea hydrolysis by urease resulted CO2. The biosensor is used chitosan membrane and the H3O+ electrode as a transducer. The research was studied of effecting pH and membrane thickness to the biosensor performance. The best biosensor performance resulted at pH = 7.3 and 0.2 mm of membrane thickness. The biosensor has a Nerntian factor 28.47 mV/decade; the concentration range is 0.1 up to 6.00 ppm; and the limit of detection is 0.073 ppm. The response time of this biosensor is 280 seconds, efficiency 32 samples and accuracy 94% up to 99%. Keywords: biosensor, potentiometry, urea, chitosan membrane

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8

Colasanti, G., G. Arrigo, A. Santoro, S. Mandolfo, C. Tetta, R. Bucci, M. Spongano, E. Imbasciati, V. Rizza, and D. Cianciavicchia. "Biochemical Aspects and Clinical Perspectives of Continuous Urea Monitoring in Plasma Ultrafiltrate: Preliminary Results of a Multicenter Study." International Journal of Artificial Organs 18, no. 9 (September 1995): 544–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/039139889501800912.

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We tested a new biosensor for urea monitoring in the ultrafiltrate during PFD in a group of 5 hemodialyzed stable patients. The inspection of the UF-urea profile reflects the dynamical changes of the plasma urea concentration during diffusive dialysis and allows the fitting of the main mathematical models of urea kinetics. The biosensor efficiency was 98.4% on average (SD: 1.5%) at Uf fluxes varying from 45 to 55 ml/min (mean: 51 ml/min; SD: 3.2) and at Uf-urea concentrations varying from 23 to 165 mg/dl. The mean difference between Uf-urea determined by the laboratory method and Uf-urea assayed by the biosensor was -1.07 mg/dl and the 95% confidence interval ranged from -2.01 to 0.13 mg/dl. The mean difference between laboratory plasma urea and Uf-urea from the biosensor was on average -1.9 mg/dl and the estimated limits of agreement with a confidence of 95% were -3.16 and 0.64 mg/dl. Comparison between kinetic models and experimental profiles of plasma urea decrease, evaluations of recirculation and post-dialytic rebound, the role of Kt/V on-line during dialysis were the preliminary clinical applications of this biosensor.

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9

Kurniawan, Sendy, Dian Nur Fajariati, Helmi Auliyah Istiqomah, Oki Mandalia Antasari, and Ani Mulyasuryani. "PENENTUAN UREA DALAM SERUM DARAH DENGAN BIOSENSOR KONDUKTOMETRI Screen Printed Carbon Electrode (SPCE) – NATA DE COCO." Molekul 10, no. 2 (November 1, 2015): 97. http://dx.doi.org/10.20884/1.jm.2015.10.2.10.

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Urea merupakan hasil samping degradasi protein pada serum normal berkisar 10,7 sampai 42,8 mg/dL. Biosensor konduktometri untuk penentuan urea dalam serum darah didasarkan pada reaksi hidrolisis urea oleh urease menghasilkan amonia (NH3) dan karbon dioksida (CO2) yang terionisasi dalam air. Pada penelitian ini, kondisi optimum dari massa urease, ketebalan membran nata de coco, dan pH larutan urea dipelajari untuk menentukan kinerja biosensor ketika biosensor diaplikasikan untuk sampel serum darah. Biosensor ini dibuat dari SPCE (Screen Printed Carbon Electrode) yang dilapisi nata de coco teramobil urease. Pengamatan kinerja biosensor dilakukan pada pH (6; 7; 8; 9), massa urease (0,1; 0,5 ; 1,0; dan 1,5 µg), dan ketebalan membran (5; 10; 15 µm) pada kisaran konsentrasi urea yang 0 hingga 5 ppm dalam buffer fosfat 0,01 M pH 8 dan luas SPCE 5 mm2. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa kinerja optimum dihasilkan pada massa enzim 1 µg; ketebalan membran 5 µm; dan pH larutan 8, dengan kepekaan 14,8 µS/ppm, batas deteksi 0,035 ppm, dan kisaran konsentrasi urea 0,035 ppm hingga 0,4 ppm. Biosensor ini memiliki akurasi 73 – 87% saat diaplikasikan dalam sampel serum darah.

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10

Pijanowska, Dorota G., and Władysław Torbicz. "pH-ISFET based urea biosensor." Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical 44, no. 1-3 (October 1997): 370–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0925-4005(97)00194-9.

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11

Tyagi, Manisha, Monika Tomar, and Vinay Gupta. "NiO nanoparticle-based urea biosensor." Biosensors and Bioelectronics 41 (March 2013): 110–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2012.07.062.

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12

Yang, Zhengpeng, and Chunjing Zhang. "Single-enzyme nanoparticles based urea biosensor." Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical 188 (November 2013): 313–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2013.07.004.

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13

Krysteva, M., and M. Al Hallak. "Determination of Urea with Optical Biosensor." Biotechnology & Biotechnological Equipment 16, no. 1 (January 2002): 161–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13102818.2002.10819174.

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14

Adeloju, S. B., S. J. Shaw, and G. G. Wallace. "Polypyrrole-based potentiometric biosensor for urea." Analytica Chimica Acta 281, no. 3 (September 1993): 621–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0003-2670(93)85023-d.

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15

Valiūnienė, Aušra, Gabija Kavaliauskaitė, Povilas Virbickas, and Arūnas Ramanavičius. "Prussian blue based impedimetric urea biosensor." Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry 895 (August 2021): 115473. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jelechem.2021.115473.

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16

Della Ciana, L., and G. Caputo. "Robust, reliable biosensor for continuous monitoring of urea during dialysis." Clinical Chemistry 42, no. 7 (July 1, 1996): 1079–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/clinchem/42.7.1079.

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Abstract We developed a new urea sensor for the on-line monitoring of hemodialysis adequacy. The biosensor consisted of an immobilized urease cartridge placed between magnetoinductive conductivity cells. The biosensor output was taken as the conductivity difference between these cells. The device was placed on the ultrafiltrate line of a paired filtration dialysis system. The amount of urease present in the cartridge was sufficient for the complete conversion to ammonium carbonate of urea up to 35 mmol/L. Agreement was good between the urea concentration by the biosensor method and an automated analyzer for seven patients: range 8.07-30.3 mmol/L (22.6-84.8 mg/dL blood urea nitrogen, BUN); intercept 0.20 +/- 0.1 mmol/L (0.55 +/- 0.4 mg/dL BUN); slope 1.01 +/- 0.01; r 0.997; S(y/x) 0.40 mmol/L (1.11 mg/dL BUN). The device proposed meets the requirements of accuracy, cost, ruggedness, and ease of use (no calibration required) for a biosensor to be used for continuous monitoring of hemodialysis.

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17

Erfkamp, Jan, Margarita Guenther, and Gerald Gerlach. "Enzyme-Functionalized Piezoresistive Hydrogel Biosensors for the Detection of Urea." Sensors 19, no. 13 (June 27, 2019): 2858. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s19132858.

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Urea is used in a wide variety of industrial applications such as the production of fertilizers. Furthermore, urea as a metabolic product is an important indicator in biomedical diagnostics. For these applications, reliable urea sensors are essential. In this work, we present a novel hydrogel-based biosensor for the detection of urea. The hydrolysis of urea by the enzyme urease leads to an alkaline pH change, which is detected with a pH-sensitive poly(acrylic acid-co-dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate) hydrogel. For this purpose, the enzyme is physically entrapped during polymerization. This enzyme-hydrogel system shows a large sensitivity in the range from 1 mmol/L up to 20 mmol/L urea with a high long-term stability over at least eight weeks. Furthermore, this urea-sensitive hydrogel is highly selective to urea in comparison to similar species like thiourea or N-methylurea. For sensory applications, the swelling pressure of this hydrogel system is transformed via a piezoresistive pressure sensor into a measurable output voltage. In this way, the basic principle of hydrogel-based piezoresistive urea biosensors was demonstrated.

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18

Braga, José Renato Garcia, Alexandre Carlos Brandão Ramos, Alvaro Antonio Alencar de Queiroz, Demétrio Artur Werner Soares, and Marília de Campos Bataglini. "Neural Networks for an Analysis of the Hemometabolites Biosensor Response." International Journal of E-Health and Medical Communications 4, no. 4 (October 2013): 84–101. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/ijehmc.2013100106.

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In this work, the concentration dependent response of amperometric biosensor array for the biomarkers glucose, cholesterol and urease was explored, using artificial neural nets (ANN). The aim was to explore an array of amperometric biosensors for the discrimination of the biomarkers glucose, cholesterol and urea in blood. Seven out of eight platinum electrodes on the array were modified with four different enzymes; glucose oxidase, cholesterol, urease and peroxidase. The dynamic biosensor response curves from the eight sensors were used for ANN analysis. The ANN were applied to an analysis of the biosensor response to multi-biomarkers mixtures the ANN was able to detect the conditions with an accuracy up to 90%. The results obtained by using ANN to interpret the electrical signal of the developed biosensor arrays leads to the conclusion that: i) after training the ANN, the evaluation of recorded data are on-line, ii) microelectrode sites which are highly correlated to the information about the concentrations within the recorded signals was identified, iii) the recognition of blood biomarkers is improved by using the ANN.

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19

Sumana, G., Maumita Das, Saurabh Srivastava, and B. D. Malhotra. "A novel urea biosensor based on zirconia." Thin Solid Films 519, no. 3 (November 2010): 1187–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tsf.2010.08.067.

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20

Fapyane, Deby, Dmitriy Berillo, Jean-Louis Marty, and Niels Peter Revsbech. "Urea Biosensor Based on a CO2 Microsensor." ACS Omega 5, no. 42 (October 19, 2020): 27582–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.0c04146.

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21

Trivedi, U. B., D. Lakshminarayana, I. L. Kothari, N. G. Patel, H. N. Kapse, K. K. Makhija, P. B. Patel, and C. J. Panchal. "Potentiometric biosensor for urea determination in milk." Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical 140, no. 1 (June 2009): 260–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2009.04.022.

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22

Chou, Jung-Chuan, Cian-Yi Wu, Po-Yu Kuo, Chih-Hsien Lai, Yu-Hsun Nien, You-Xiang Wu, Si-Hong Lin, and Yi-Hung Liao. "The Flexible Urea Biosensor Using Magnetic Nanoparticles." IEEE Transactions on Nanotechnology 18 (2019): 484–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/tnano.2019.2895137.

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23

Kovács, Barna, Géza Nagy, Roland Dombi, and Klára Tóth. "Optical biosensor for urea with improved response time." Biosensors and Bioelectronics 18, no. 2-3 (March 2003): 111–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0956-5663(02)00164-1.

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24

Wang, Jun-Qi, Jung-Chuan Chou, Tai-Ping Sun, Shen-Kan Hsiung, and Guang-Bin Hsiung. "pH-based potentiometrical flow injection biosensor for urea." Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical 91, no. 1-3 (June 2003): 5–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0925-4005(03)00160-6.

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25

Naik, Pranali P., Geetesh Kumar Mishra, Bengt Danielsson, and Sunil Bhand. "Android integrated urea biosensor for public health awareness." Sensing and Bio-Sensing Research 3 (March 2015): 12–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sbsr.2014.11.001.

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26

Qin, Wei, Zhujun Zhang, and Youyuan Peng. "Plant tissue-based chemiluminescence flow biosensor for urea." Analytica Chimica Acta 407, no. 1-2 (February 2000): 81–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0003-2670(99)00805-3.

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27

Senda, Mitsugi, and Yukitaka Yamamoto. "Urea biosensor based on amperometric ammonium ion electrode." Electroanalysis 5, no. 9-10 (October 1993): 775–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/elan.1140050910.

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28

Jia, Wenzhao, Liang Su, and Yu Lei. "Pt nanoflower/polyaniline composite nanofibers based urea biosensor." Biosensors and Bioelectronics 30, no. 1 (December 2011): 158–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2011.09.006.

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29

Adeloju, Samuel B., Shannon J. Shaw, and Gordon G. Wallace. "Polypyrrole-based amperometric flow injection biosensor for urea." Analytica Chimica Acta 323, no. 1-3 (April 1996): 107–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0003-2670(95)00562-5.

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30

Owen, Valerie M. "Sweden — Miniature thermal biosensor determines urea and lactate." Biosensors and Bioelectronics 10, no. 5 (January 1995): i—ii. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0956-5663(95)96897-8.

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31

Sheppard, Norman F., David J. Mears, and Anthony Guiseppi-Elie. "Model of an immobilized enzyme conductimetric urea biosensor." Biosensors and Bioelectronics 11, no. 10 (January 1996): 967–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0956-5663(96)87656-1.

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32

Kim, Kyunghee, Jeongeun Lee, Bo Moon, Ye Seo, Chan Park, Min Park, and Gun Sung. "Fabrication of a Urea Biosensor for Real-Time Dynamic Fluid Measurement." Sensors 18, no. 8 (August 9, 2018): 2607. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s18082607.

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In this study, a portable urea sensor that monitors the urea concentration in flow conditions was fabricated. We propose an electrochemical sensor that continually measures the urea concentration of samples flowing through it at a constant flow rate in real time. For the electrochemical sensing, a porous silk fibroin membrane with immobilized urease was mounted in a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) sensor housing. The fabricated urea sensor elicited linear current–concentration characteristics in the clinically significant concentration range (0.1–20 mM) based on peritoneal dialysis. The sensor maintained the linear current–concentration characteristics during operation in flow conditions.

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33

Khan, Mashooq, Youngkyoo Kim, Joon Hyung Lee, Inn-Kyu Kang, and Soo-Young Park. "Real-time liquid crystal-based biosensor for urea detection." Anal. Methods 6, no. 15 (2014): 5753–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c4ay00866a.

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A transmission electron microscopy (TEM) grid filled with 4-cyano-4′-pentylbiphenyl (5CB) on an octadecyltrichloro silane-coated glass substrate in aqueous media was developed to construct a urea biosensor by coating poly(acrylicacid-b-4-cyanobiphenyl-4-oxyundecylacrylate) (PAA-b-LCP) at the aqueous/5CB interface and immobilizing urease covalently to the PAA chains.

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34

Soundharraj, Prabha, Durgalakshmi Dhinasekaran, Ajay Rakkesh Rajendran, Aruna Prakasarao, and Singaravelu Ganesan. "N-Doped zinc oxide as an effective fluorescence sensor for urea detection." New Journal of Chemistry 45, no. 13 (2021): 6080–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/d1nj00372k.

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35

Park, Kim, Kim, Pyun, and Sung. "Parylene-Coated Polytetrafluoroethylene-Membrane-Based Portable Urea Sensor for Real-Time Monitoring of Urea in Peritoneal Dialysate." Sensors 19, no. 20 (October 20, 2019): 4560. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s19204560.

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A portable urea sensor for use in fast flow conditions was fabricated using porous polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) membranes coated with amine-functionalized parylene, parylene-A, by vapor deposition. The urea-hydrolyzing enzyme urease was immobilized on the parylene-A-coated PTFE membranes using glutaraldehyde. The urease-immobilized membranes were assembled in a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) fluidic chamber, and a screen-printed carbon three-electrode system was used for electrochemical measurements. The success of urease immobilization was confirmed using scanning electron microscopy, and fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. The optimum concentration of urease for immobilization on the parylene-A-coated PTFE membranes was determined to be 48 mg/mL, and the optimum number of membranes in the PDMS chamber was found to be eight. Using these optimized conditions, we fabricated the urea biosensor and monitored urea samples under various flow rates ranging from 0.5 to 10 mL/min in the flow condition using chronoamperometry. To test the applicability of the sensor for physiological samples, we used it for monitoring urea concentration in the waste peritoneal dialysate of a patient with chronic renal failure, at a flow rate of 0.5 mL/min. This developed urea biosensor is considered applicable for (portable) applications, such as artificial kidney systems and portable dialysis systems.

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36

Chen, Li-Li, Hui-Fang Cui, Shuang-Fei Fan, Zong-Yi Li, Shuang-Yin Han, Xin Ma, Shu-Wen Luo, Xiaojie Song, and Qi-Yan Lv. "Detection of Helicobacter pylori in dental plaque using a DNA biosensor for noninvasive diagnosis." RSC Advances 8, no. 38 (2018): 21075–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c8ra03134g.

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37

Wan Khalid, Wan Elina Faradilla, Yook Heng Lee, and Mohamad Nasir Mat Arip. "Surface Modification of Cellulose Nanomaterial for Urea Biosensor Application." Sains Malaysiana 47, no. 5 (May 31, 2018): 941–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.17576/jsm-2018-4705-09.

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38

Lai, Cheng-Yuan, Peter Foot, John Brown, and Peter Spearman. "A Urea Potentiometric Biosensor Based on a Thiophene Copolymer." Biosensors 7, no. 4 (March 3, 2017): 13. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/bios7010013.

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ZAMPONI, S., B. LOCICERO, M. MASCINI, L. DELLACIANA, and S. SACCO. "Urea solid-state biosensor suitable for continuous dialysis control." Talanta 43, no. 8 (August 1996): 1373–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0039-9140(96)01880-2.

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Jenkins, Daniel M., and Michael J. Delwiche. "Manometric biosensor for on-line measurement of milk urea." Biosensors and Bioelectronics 17, no. 6-7 (June 2002): 557–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0956-5663(02)00018-0.

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Chen, Hongmei, and Enju Wang. "Optical Urea Biosensor Based On Ammonium Ion Selective Membrane." Analytical Letters 33, no. 6 (January 2000): 997–1011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00032710008543104.

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Xie, Xiangfang, Ahmad A. Suleiman, and George G. Guilbault. "A Urea Fiber Optic Biosensor Based on Absorption Measurement." Analytical Letters 23, no. 12 (December 1990): 2143–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00032719008052556.

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Komaba, Shinichi, Michiko Seyama, Toshiyuki Momma, and Tetsuya Osaka. "Potentiometric biosensor for urea based on electropolymerized electroinactive polypyrrole." Electrochimica Acta 42, no. 3 (January 1997): 383–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0013-4686(96)00226-5.

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Marchenko, Svitlana V., Oleksandr O. Soldatkin, Lesia A. Kolomiets, Olexander I. Kornelyuk, and Alexei P. Soldatkin. "Cyclodextrins Application in Urease-Based Biosensor for Urea Determination." Sensor Letters 16, no. 4 (April 1, 2018): 298–303. http://dx.doi.org/10.1166/sl.2018.3955.

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Prissanaroon-Ouajai, Walaiporn, Anuvat Sirivat, Paul J. Pigram, and Narelle Brack. "Potentiometric Urea Biosensor Based on a Urease-Immobilized Polypyrrole." Macromolecular Symposia 354, no. 1 (August 2015): 334–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/masy.201400087.

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Valiūnienė, Aušra, Povilas Virbickas, Giedrė Medvikytė, and Arūnas Ramanavičius. "Urea Biosensor Based on Electrochromic Properties of Prussian Blue." Electroanalysis 32, no. 3 (November 5, 2019): 503–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/elan.201900556.

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Chung-We Pan, Jung-Chuan Chou, Tai-Ping Sun, and Shen-Kan Hsiung. "Solid-state urea biosensor based on the differential method." IEEE Sensors Journal 6, no. 2 (April 2006): 269–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/jsen.2006.870160.

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Berto, Marcello, Chiara Diacci, Lorenz Theuer, Michele Di Lauro, Daniel T. Simon, Magnus Berggren, Fabio Biscarini, Valerio Beni, and Carlo A. Bortolotti. "Label free urea biosensor based on organic electrochemical transistors." Flexible and Printed Electronics 3, no. 2 (June 2018): 024001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/2058-8585/aac8a8.

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Martorell, D., E. Martínez-Fábregas, J. Bartrolí, S. Alegret, and C. Tran-Minh. "urea potentiometric biosensor based on all-solid-state technology." Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical 16, no. 1-3 (October 1993): 448–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0925-4005(93)85226-z.

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Goh, K. B., Hua Li, and K. Y. Lam. "Modeling the urea-actuated osmotic pressure response of urease-loaded hydrogel for osmotic urea biosensor." Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical 268 (September 2018): 465–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2018.04.137.

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