Journal articles on the topic 'Using Loran-C'

As new technologies contribute to the expanded functionality of Loran-C, and as concerns for limitations in GPS and its augmentations are raised, specific aspects of Loran-C have been developed and applied to ameliorate those limitations. Specifically, GPS availability is a concern, particularly in over-land applications. This paper discusses recent developments using very high-precision synchronisation of Loran-C transmissions, new data compression and Loran-C signal modulation techniques to augment GPS accuracy, availability and integrity over a very wide area at very low cost.

Abstract. This paper introduces a potential method for the remote sensing of sea surface salinity (SSS) using measured propagation delay of low-frequency Loran-C signals transmitted over an all-seawater path between the Sylt station in Germany and an integrated Loran-C/GPS receiver located in Harwich, UK. The overall delay variations in Loran-C surface waves along the path may be explained by changes in sea surface properties (especially the temperature and salinity), as well as atmospheric dynamics that determine the refractive index of the atmosphere. After removing the atmospheric and sea surface temperature (SST) effects, the residual delay revealed a temporal variation similar to that of SSS data obtained by the European Space Agency's Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS) satellite.

Eurofix is an integrated navigation system, which combines Differential GNSS and Loran-C. The Loran-C system is used to provide differential corrections for the GNSS pseudo-range measurements and integrity information by additionally modulating the transmitted signals. This modulation, however, is not allowed to degrade normal Loran-C operations. As data transmission is hindered by the aggressive Loran-C signal environment, special modulation patterns and Forward Error Correcting codes are designed to fulfil the requirements. Compared to other DGNSS services, Eurofix has a number of advantages: It covers a large area, its implementation in an already existing infrastructure is basically low-cost, it offers enhanced datalink availability in urban and mountainous environment, it has wide-area capabilities and, finally, it provides a free backup navigation system in case either Loran-C or GPS fails.The paper describes the Eurofix system, focusing on the Loran-C data channel. A modified RTCM type-9 message format is used with special Forward Error Correction. At Delft University a real-life test set-up has been built to evaluate the Eurofix performance for different scenarios. The results on datalink and DGNSS performance are presented. It is shown that metre-level DGNSS performance is achievable with low bit rate data channels, using Loran-C stations at up to 1000 km distance.

Abstract. This paper introduces a potential method for the remote sensing of sea surface salinity (SSS) using the measured propagation delay of low-frequency Loran-C signals transmitted over an all-seawater path between the Sylt station in Germany and an integrated Loran-C/GPS receiver located in Harwich, UK. The overall delay variations in Loran-C surface waves along the path may be explained by changes in sea surface properties (especially the temperature and salinity), as well as atmospheric properties that determine the refractive index of the atmosphere. After removing the atmospheric and sea surface temperature (SST) effects from the measured delay, the residual delay revealed a temporal variation similar to that of SSS data obtained by the European Space Agency's Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS) satellite.

AbstractQuality control (QC) is among the most important steps in any data processing. These steps are elaborated for high-vertical-resolution radiosonde datasets that were gathered and analyzed to study atmospheric winds. The database is composed of different radiosonde wind-finding systems (WFSs), including radio theodolite, Loran C, and GPS. Inspection of this database, particularly for wind, wind shear, and ascent height increments (dz), showed a nonnegligible amount of outliers in radio theodolite data as compared to the two other WFSs, thus denoting quality differences between the various systems. An effective statistical QC (SQC) is then developed to isolate and eliminate outliers from the more realistic observations. Improving the accuracy of the radio theodolite WFS is critical to the derivation of the vertical motion and the vertical gradients of the horizontal wind—that is, wind shear—mainly because of the direct dependence of these quantities on dz. Based on the climatological distribution of the quality-controlled dz, a new approach is suggested to estimate these wind quantities for radio theodolite data. The approach is validated with the high-quality modern WFSs (Loran C and GPS). Although initially of reduced quality, applying SQC and using the climatological mean dz of 12-s smoothed radio theodolite profiles shows very good improvement in the climatological wind analyses of radio theodolite WFSs. Notably, the climatologies of ascent rate, vertical motion, horizontal wind, and vertical shear now look comparable for the various WFSs. Thus, the SQC processing steps prove essential and may be extended to other variables and measurement systems.

There are mainly two types of data modulation methods used for enhanced LOng-RAnge Navigation (eLORAN) systems: pulse position modulation (PPM) and supernumerary interpulse modulation (SIM). The typical application for PPM is tri-state PPM (3S-PPM), also known as Eurofix. The typical application for SIM is ninth pulse modulation. Both of these methods are phase modulation methods. Phase modulation coding, a very mature technology, is used at present. To achieve a better demodulation success rate of eLORAN digital modulation signals at longer distances, a method of using the transmitting station duplex mode to transmit a digital modulation pulse group after LORAN-C transmitting a pulse group is proposed to realize modulation pulse on–off modulation. In this method, a broadcasting experiment was performed on the BPL (The call sign of eLORAN time service system in China) broadcaster station. After monitoring, a good receiving demodulation effect was initially obtained.

Satellite-based navigation techniques have revolutionized modern-day surveying with unprecedented accuracies along with the traditional and terrestrial-based navigation techniques. However, the satellite-based techniques gain popularity due to their ease and availability. The position and attitude sensors mounted on satellites, aerial, and ground-based platforms as well as different types of equipment play a vital role in remote sensing providing navigation and data. The presented review in this paper describes the terrestrial (LORAN-C, Omega, Alpha, Chayka) and satellite-based systems with their major features and peculiar applications. The regional and global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) can provide the position of a static object or a moving object i.e., in Kinematic mode. The GNSS systems include the NAVigation Satellite Timing And Ranging Global Positioning System (NAVSTAR GPS), of the United States of America (USA); the Globalnaya navigatsionnaya sputnikovaya sistema (GLObal NAvigation Satellite System, GLONASS), of Russia; BEIDOU, of China; and GALILEO, of the European Union (EU). Among the initial satellite-based regional navigation systems included are the TRANSIT of the US and TSYKLON of what was then the USSR which became operational in the 1960s. Regional systems developed in the last decade include the Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS) and the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS). Currently, these global and regional satellite-based systems provide their services with accuracies of the order of 10–20 m using the trilateration method of surveying for civil use. The terrestrial and satellite-based augmented systems (SBAS) were further developed along with different surveying techniques to improve the accuracies up to centimeters or millimeter levels for precise applications.

The first Bell Aerospace BGM-3 Marine Gravity Meter System available for academic use was installed on R/V Robert D. Conrad in February, 1984. The BGM-3 system consists of a forced feedback accelerometer mounted on a gyrostabilized platform. Its sensor (requiring no cross‐coupling correction) is a significant improvement over existing beam and spring‐type sea gravimeters such as the GSS-2. A gravity survey over the Wallops Island test range together with the results of subsequent cruises allow evaluation of the precision, accuracy, and capabilities of the new system. Over the test range, the BGM-3 data were compared directly to data obtained by a GSS-2 meter onboard R/V Conrad. The rms discrepancy between free‐air gravity anomaly values at intersecting ship tracks of R/V Conrad was ±0.38 mGal for BGM-3 compared to ±1.60 mGal for the GSS-2. Moreover, BGM-3’s platform recovered from abrupt changes in ship’s heading more rapidly than did the platform of GSS-2. The principal factor limiting the accuracy of sea gravity data is navigation. Over the test range, where navigation was by Loran C and transit satellite, a two‐step filtering of the ship’s velocity and position was required to obtain an optimal Eötvös correction. A spectral analysis of 1 minute values of the Eötvös correction and the reduced free‐air gravity anomaly determined the filter characteristics. To minimize the coherence between the Eötvös and free‐air anomaly, it was necessary to prefilter the ship’s position and velocity. Using this procedure, reduced free‐air gravity anomalies with wavelengths as small as a few kilometers can be resolved.

Long-range (LoRa) technology is a low power wide area network (LPWAN) technology that is currently being used for development of Internet of things (IoT)-based solutions. Transit transport, mainly in medium-sized cities where transit vehicles do not have exclusive lanes, is a service that can be improved with a tracking service using technology such as LoRa. Although some proposals exist, there is not enough experimental information to validate the LoRa technology as adequate. This article: (a) evaluates the operation of LoRa technology in a transit vehicle tracking service in a medium-sized city, based on an Intelligent Transportation Systems architecture and IoT; and (b) investigates optimal LoRa technology configuration parameters for the service. Experiments were performed in a semi-controlled environment using LoRa devices and a gateway, by measuring the received packets and the receive signal strength indicator (RSSI) and modifying: (a) distance; (b) number of devices; and (c) the main LoRa transmission parameters. Obtained results show the ideal values of parameters vary considerably with distance and number of devices used. There were very few settings of the experiments in which the RSSI and packet levels were adequate while distance and number of devices were both changed.

The Internet of Things (IoT) architecture is quickly becoming popular even outside of its originating scenario of home automation. This paper reports the design, implementation, and performance of an IoT hardware and software architecture conceived for the continuous monitoring of livestock located in barns and during grazing. We have adopted the LoRa low power wide area network (LPWAN) technology to cover the diverse environments, and a suitable configuration of web services to perform data storage, analysis, and visualization. Since the LoRa LPWAN (LoRaWAN) medium access control (MAC) layer does not provide a listen-before-talk (LBT) mechanism, we propose a custom MAC layer with LBT-based carrier-sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA). The devised system has been implemented using off-the-shelf hardware, and its performance has also been estimated with the help of a C++ event-based simulator. The preliminary results of our HW implementation on the field confirm the stability of the conceived system and its reliability.

Low Power Wide Area Networks (LPWANs) are gaining attention in both academia and industry by offering the possibility of connecting a large number of nodes over extended distances. LoRa is one of the technologies used as a physical layer in such networks. This paper investigates the LoRa links over seawater in two typical scenarios: clear Line-of-Sight (LOS) and obstructed path in two different Industrial, Scientific and Medical (ISM) radio bands: 868 MHz and 434 MHz. We used three different LoRa devices in the experiments: the Own Developed LoRa Transceiver (ODT) and two commercial transceivers. Firstly we investigated transceivers’ Receive Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI) and Signal-to-Noise (SNR) measurement chain linearity and provided correction factors for RSSI to correlate it with actual signal levels received at transceivers’ inputs. Next, we carried out field experiments for three different LoRa Spreading Factors, S F ∈ [ 7 , 10 , 12 ] , within a bandwidth of B W = 125 kHz and Coding Rate C R = 4 / 6 . The experiments showed that LoRa links are fully feasible over seawater at distances at least 22 km long, using only low-cost off-the-shelf rubber duck antennas in LOS path condition in both ISM bands. In addition, we showed that LoRa links can be established over 28 km obstructed LOS oversea path in ISM 434 MHz band, but using costly, higher gain antennas. Furthermore, the laboratory experiments revealed that RSSI is linear in a wide range, up to - 50 dBm, whereas the SNR measurement chain goes into saturation for Received Signal Strength (RSS) values higher than - 100 dBm. These findings enabled accurate interpretation of the results obtained in field experiments.

Recently, environmental pollution resulting from industrial waste has been emerging in an endless stream. The industrial waste contains chemical materials, heavy metal ions, and other toxic materials. Once the industrial waste is discharged without standards, it might lead to water or environmental pollution. Hence, it has become more important to provide evidence-based water quality monitoring. The use of a multifunctional miniaturized water quality monitoring system (WQMS), that contains continuous monitoring, water quality monitoring, and wireless communication applications, simultaneously, is infrequent. Thus, electrodes integrated with polydimethylsiloxane flow channels were presented in this study to be a compound sensor, and the sensor can be adopted concurrently to measure temperature, pH, electrical conductivity, and copper ion concentration, whose sensitivities are determined as 0.0193 °C/mV, −0.0642 pH/mV, 1.1008 mS/V·cm (from 0 mS/cm to 2 mS/cm) and 1.1975 mS/V·cm (from 2 mS/cm to 5.07 mS/cm), and 0.0111 ppm/mV, respectively. A LoRa shield connected into the system could provide support as a node of long range wide area network (LoRaWAN) for wireless communication application. As mentioned above, the sensors, LoRa, and circuit have been integrated in this study to a continuous monitoring system, WQMS. The advantages of the multifunctional miniaturized WQMS are low cost, small size, easy maintenance, continuous sampling and long-term monitoring for many days. Every tested period is 180 min, and the measured rate is 5 times per 20 min. The feedback signals of the miniaturized WQMS and measured values of the instrument were obtained to compare the difference. In the measured results at three different place-to-place locations the errors of electrical conductivity are 0.051 mS/cm, 0.106 mS/cm, and 0.092 mS/cm, respectively. The errors of pH are 0.68, 0.87, and 0.56, respectively. The errors of temperature are 0.311 °C, 0.252 °C, and 0.304 °C, respectively. The errors of copper ion concentration are 0.051 ppm, 0.058 ppm, 0.050 ppm, respectively.

Background:Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory arthropathy that can present at any age. Data regarding differences in the clinical course and outcome in Late-Onset Rheumatoid Arthritis (LORA) comparing to Young-Onset RA (YORA) are conflicting. Some studies suggested that LORA may represent a more benign form of RA (1), while others have shown a poorer prognosis in these patients (2,3). Only a few publications have included patients with early disease (3).Objectives:To compare demographic and clinical features between LORA and YORA patients, and clinical activity at baseline and after 12 months of initial therapy, in patients with early disease.Methods:We conducted a prospective cohort study of 12 months of follow-up based on an early arthritis clinic. Consecutive patients with early RA – less than 12 months duration – fulfilling ACR/EULAR 2010 and/or ACR 1987 RA classification criteria, were included and classified in LORA (disease onset ≥60 years) and YORA groups. Variables were collected from patients’ registries at first appointment after symptoms onset and after 12 months of treatment, according to a treat-to-target strategy. Independent t-test and chi-square test were performed to compare variables between groups.Results:We included 72 patients (40 (55.6%) YORA; 32 (44.4%) LORA), mean age at diagnosis 44.9±1.78 and 72.5± 1.34 years, respectively. In LORA group, the symptoms duration at first observation was shorter (17.0±2.26 vs. 23.8±2.45 weeks; p=0.046) and rheumatoid factor (RF)/ anti-citrullinated protein antibodies (ACPA) positivity was lower (28.1% vs 65.0%; p= 0.002; 31.3% vs 72.5%; p<0.001). At baseline, LORA had higher mean number of tender joints (9.76±1.29 vs 6.50±0.67; p=0.021), erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) (45.7±4.98 vs. 29.3±3.74; p=0.011), C-reactive protein (CRP) (4.63±0.91 vs 2.22±0.46; p=0.022) and disease activity using DAS28-3V (5.11±0.28 vs 4.42±0.19; p=0.046), CDAI (33.7±3.39 vs 23.6±2.18; p=0.015) and SDAI (37.4±3.43 vs 26.3±2.57; p=0.015). At the end of follow-up, there were no statistically significant differences between LORA and YORA groups regarding treatment, disease activity and patient-reported outcomes at 12 months (Table 1).Table 1.Clinical variables assessment at 12 months of follow-up.EORAYORAp-valueTreatment, % users Corticosteroids93.397.4p= 0.576 Methotrexate76.774.4p=0.825 Hydroxychloroquine43.346.2p= 0.815 Sulfasalazine10.015.4p=0.722 Leflunomide3.305.10p=1.000 TNF blockers3.305.10p=0.717DAS28-3V, mean (SD)1.99±0.152.22±0.15p=0.286SDAI, mean (SD)4.64±1.357.68±1.39p=0.128CDAI, mean (SD)4.15±1.176.56±1.32p=0.180Swollen joints, mean (SD)1.29±0.491.03±0.25p=0.613Tender joints, mean (SD)0.32±0.131.28±0.53p=0.084ESR, mean (SD)10.6±1.799.43±1.14p=0.585CRP, mean (SD)0.44±0.090.50±0.15p=0.730PtGA, mean (SD)21.8±5.9029.2±6.11p=0.387PhGA, mean (SD)10.6±3.2613.1±3.11p= 0.593Pain intensity (VAS), mean (SD)20.7±5.8232.7±6.30p=0.169HAQ, mean (SD)0.23±0.0890.54±0.13p=0.060Legend: DMARD- disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drug; TNF- tumoral necrosis factor; SDAI-simplified disease activity score; CDAI- clinical disease activity score; PtGA/ PhGA – patient’s/ physician’s global assessment of general health; VAS- visual analogic scale; HAQ- health assessment questionnaire.Conclusion:LORA patients presented with higher disease activity manifested by higher joint counts and laboratory inflammatory markers but lower RF and ACPA positivity proportion. Despite the more aggressive clinical presentation, the clinical and functional outcomes at 12 months were similar between LORA and YORA patients.References:[1]Deal et al. Arthritis Rheum 1985;28(9):987-94.[2]Arnold et al. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2014; 53:10751086.[3]Romão et al. Semin Arthritis Rheum 2020;0(4):735-743.Disclosure of Interests:None declared

Inspired by the mobile phone market boost, several low cost credit card-sized computers have made the scene, able to support educational applications with artificial intelligence features, intended for students of various levels. This paper describes the learning experience and highlights the technologies used to improve the function of DIY robots. The paper also reports on the students’ perceptions of this experience. The students participating in this problem based learning activity, despite having a weak programming background and a confined time schedule, tried to find efficient ways to improve the DIY robotic vehicle construction and better interact with it. Scenario cases under investigation, mainly via smart phones or tablets, involved from touch button to gesture and voice recognition methods exploiting modern AI techniques. The robotic platform used generic hardware, namely arduino and raspberry pi units, and incorporated basic automatic control functionality. Several programming environments, from MIT app inventor to C and python, were used. Apart from cloud based methods to tackle the voice recognition issues, locally running software alternatives were assessed to provide better autonomy. Typically, scenarios were performed through Wi-Fi interfaces, while the whole functionality was extended by using LoRa interfaces, to improve the robot’s controlling distance. Through experimentation, students were able to apply cutting edge technologies, to construct, integrate, evaluate and improve interaction with custom robotic vehicle solutions. The whole activity involved technologies similar to the ones making the scene in the modern agriculture era that students need to be familiar with, as future professionals.

Bloat nematode, Ditylenchus dipsaci (Kühn) Filipjev (also known as stem and bulb nematode), is a key pest of garlic (Allium sativum) globally (1) as heavy infestations can lead to complete crop loss. Although not a major crop in Ohio, garlic is grown in diversified vegetable production systems. In July 2013, diseased garlic bulbs were received from a grower in Lorain County, OH, from a field with wide symptom distribution. Bulbs were discolored, exhibited splitting, and had basal plate damage including reduced roots. Nematodes were extracted for examination by placing bulb slices in water. Recovered nematodes had morphological characteristics of D. dipsaci, including a short stylet with prominent knobs, a distinct median esophageal bulb, a basal bulb slightly overlapping the intestine, a conical and pointed tail, and males with distinct bursa (1). To confirm the identity of the nematode, further morphological and molecular studies were performed. Nematode images were captured on a DM IRB inverted microscope (Leica Microsystems, Wetzlar, Germany) using a Retiga 2000 camera (Q Imaging, Surrey, Canada). Images were analyzed using Image J (NIH). For females (n = 16), means and ranges were: L = 1,080.1 (972.2 to 1,229.5) μm, a = 36.6 (33.5 to 41.9), b = 6.2 (5.3 to 6.8), c = 11.1 (9.1 to 12.8), and stylet 10.1 (8.9 to 11.2) μm. For males (n = 6), L = 1,589.2 (1,494 to 1,702.7) μm, a = 43.0 (40.7 to 46.0), b = 6.9 (6.4 to 7.3), c = 11.7 (9.2 to 13), with stylet 10.8 (10 to 12.2) μm and spicules 25.2 (23.8 to 26.8) μm. The measurements were highly similar to those of D. dipsaci (1). DNA was extracted from 50 to 100 nematodes using a PowerSoil DNA Isolation Kit (Mo-Bio Laboratories, Inc., Carlsbad, CA) as well as from individual females, and partial ITS sequences were amplified using primer set TW81/AB28 (3). The partial ITS sequences shared 99 to 100% sequence identity with GenBank accessions of D. dipsaci from garlic (DQ452956, JX123258). Expansion segments D2-D3 were sequenced following amplification of DNA from individual females using primer set D2A/D3B (4) and shared 99% sequence identity with D. dipsaci from garlic (FJ707362, JX123259). In this case, the grower noted bloat nematode symptoms following the introduction of new planting material into the field. Therefore, the availability of bloat nematode-free planting material or treated bulbs (2) is essential for preventing introduction of this pathogen. Once established, management options are limited as this nematode is difficult to eliminate. With this first report of D. dipsaci on garlic in Ohio, we have identified a new pest that can greatly reduce garlic yields in this state. References: (1) W. Nickle, ed. Ditylenchus. In: Manual of Agricultural Nematology, 1991. (2) P. Roberts et al. J. Nematol. 27:448, 1995. (3) S. Subbotin et al. Phytopathology 95:1308, 2005. (4) G. Tenente et al. Nematropica 34:1, 2004.

The nematophagous – fungi Paecilomyces sp. is curently developed as a biocontrol agent against plant parasitic nematodes (Khan et al., 2003; Yang et al., 2007). Biological control agents can infiltrate certain nematode sites and destroy them by producing some enzymes including chitinase (Khadijeh et al., 2017). The purpose of this study was to purify, determine the chitinase activity from Paecilomyces sp. P1. With Lugol reagent, chitinase of this strain was characterized by diffusion on agar plate. Chitinase specific activity was determined by measuring the release of reducing saccharides from colloidal chitin by the N-acetyl-glucosamine-dinitrosalicylate method at 540 nm. By using the saturated (NH4)2SO4 precipitation at 65% concentration, DEAE A-50 ion exchange chromatography and SDS - PAGE concentration 12.5%, chitinase molecules weigh nearly 50kDa, having a specific activity of 133,3 U/mg, 2,1-fold higher than that of supernatant. Furthermore, method of testing with the nematode Meloidogyne sp., the ability to kill nematodes of Paecilomyces sp. P1 reached 58% efficiency in 96h. These results were a scientific basis for the application of Paecilomyces sp. P1 in the production of nematode insecticides.
 Keywords
 Paecilomyces sp. P1; chitinase; purify, biocontrol, Meloidogyne sp
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At a time when almost every human transgression, illness, profession and other personal aspect of life has been chronicled in autobiographical writing (Rak)—in 1998 Zinsser called ours “the age of memoir” (3)—writing about fat is one of the most recent subjects to be addressed in this way. This article surveys a range of contemporary autobiographical texts that are titled with, or revolve around, that powerful and most evocative word, “fat”. Following a number of cultural studies of fat in society (Critser; Gilman, Fat Boys; Fat: A Cultural History; Stearns), this discussion views fat in socio-cultural terms, following Lupton in understanding fat as both “a cultural artefact: a bodily substance or body shape that is given meaning by complex and shifting systems of ideas, practices, emotions, material objects and interpersonal relationships” (i). Using a case study approach (Gerring; Verschuren), this examination focuses on a range of texts from autobiographical cookbooks and memoirs to novel-length graphic works in order to develop a preliminary taxonomy of these works. In this way, a small sample of work, each of which (described below) explores an aspect (or aspects) of the form is, following Merriam, useful as it allows a richer picture of an under-examined phenomenon to be constructed, and offers “a means of investigating complex social units consisting of multiple variables of potential importance in understanding the phenomenon” (Merriam 50). Although the sample size does not offer generalisable results, the case study method is especially suitable in this context, where the aim is to open up discussion of this form of writing for future research for, as Merriam states, “much can be learned from […] an encounter with the case through the researcher’s narrative description” and “what we learn in a particular case can be transferred to similar situations” (51). Pro-Fat Autobiographical WritingAlongside the many hundreds of reduced, low- and no-fat cookbooks and weight loss guides currently in print that offer recipes, meal plans, ingredient replacements and strategies to reduce fat in the diet, there are a handful that promote the consumption of fats, and these all have an autobiographical component. The publication of Jennifer McLagan’s Fat: An Appreciation of a Misunderstood Ingredient, with Recipes in 2008 by Ten Speed Press—publisher of Mollie Katzen’s groundbreaking and influential vegetarian Moosewood Cookbook in 1974 and an imprint now known for its quality cookbooks (Thelin)—unequivocably addressed that line in the sand often drawn between fat and all things healthy. The four chapter titles of this cookbook— “Butter,” subtitled “Worth It,” “Pork Fat: The King,” “Poultry Fat: Versatile and Good For You,” and, “Beef and Lamb Fats: Overlooked But Tasty”—neatly summarise McLagan’s organising argument: that animal fats not only add an unreplaceable and delicious flavour to foods but are fundamental to our health. Fat polarised readers and critics; it was positively reviewed in prominent publications (Morris; Bhide) and won influential food writing awards, including 2009 James Beard Awards for Single Subject Cookbook and Cookbook of the Year but, due to its rejection of low-fat diets and the research underpinning them, was soon also vehemently criticised, to the point where the book was often described in the media as “controversial” (see Smith). McLagan’s text, while including historical, scientific and gastronomic data and detail, is also an outspokenly personal treatise, chronicling her sensual and emotional responses to this ingredient. “I love fat,” she begins, continuing, “Whether it’s a slice of foie gras terrine, its layer of yellow fat melting at the edges […] hot bacon fat […] wilting a plate of pungent greens into submission […] or a piece of crunchy pork crackling […] I love the way it feels in my mouth, and I love its many tastes” (1). Her text is, indeed, memoir as gastronomy / gastronomy as memoir, and this cookbook, therefore, an example of the “memoir with recipes” subgenre (Brien et al.). It appears to be this aspect – her highly personal and, therein, persuasive (Weitin) plea for the value of fats – that galvanised critics and readers.Molly Chester and Sandy Schrecengost’s Back to Butter: A Traditional Foods Cookbook – Nourishing Recipes Inspired by Our Ancestors begins with its authors’ memoirs (illness, undertaking culinary school training, buying and running a farm) to lend weight to their argument to utilise fats widely in cookery. Its first chapter, “Fats and Oils,” features the familiar butter, which it describes as “the friendly fat” (22), then moves to the more reviled pork lard “Grandma’s superfood” (22) and, nowadays quite rarely described as an ingredient, beef tallow. Grit Magazine’s Lard: The Lost Art of Cooking with Your Grandmother’s Secret Ingredient utilises the rhetoric that fat, and in this case, lard, is a traditional and therefore foundational ingredient in good cookery. This text draws on its publisher’s, Grit Magazine (published since 1882 in various formats), long history of including auto/biographical “inspirational stories” (Teller) to lend persuasive power to its argument. One of the most polarising of fats in health and current media discourse is butter, as was seen recently in debate over what was seen as its excessive use in the MasterChef Australia television series (see, Heart Foundation; Phillipov). It is perhaps not surprising, then, that butter is the single fat inspiring the most autobiographical writing in this mode. Rosie Daykin’s Butter Baked Goods: Nostalgic Recipes from a Little Neighborhood Bakery is, for example, typical of a small number of cookbooks that extend the link between baking and nostalgia to argue that butter is the superlative ingredient for baking. There are also entire cookbooks dedicated to making flavoured butters (Vaserfirer) and a number that offer guides to making butter and other (fat-based) dairy products at home (Farrell-Kingsley; Hill; Linford).Gabrielle Hamilton’s Blood, Bones and Butter: The Inadvertent Education of a Reluctant Chef is typical among chef’s memoirs in using butter prominently although rare in mentioning fat in its title. In this text and other such memoirs, butter is often used as shorthand for describing a food that is rich but also wholesomely delicious. Hamilton relates childhood memories of “all butter shortcakes” (10), and her mother and sister “cutting butter into flour and sugar” for scones (15), radishes eaten with butter (21), sautéing sage in butter to dress homemade ravoli (253), and eggs fried in browned butter (245). Some of Hamilton’s most telling references to butter present it as an staple, natural food as, for instance, when she describes “sliced bread with butter and granulated sugar” (37) as one of her family’s favourite desserts, and lists butter among the everyday foodstuffs that taste superior when stored at room temperature instead of refrigerated—thereby moving butter from taboo (Gwynne describes a similar process of the normalisation of sexual “perversion” in erotic memoir).Like this text, memoirs that could be described as arguing “for” fat as a substance are largely by chefs or other food writers who extol, like McLagan and Hamilton, the value of fat as both food and flavouring, and propose that it has a key role in both ordinary/family and gourmet cookery. In this context, despite plant-based fats such as coconut oil being much lauded in nutritional and other health-related discourse, the fat written about in these texts is usually animal-based. An exception to this is olive oil, although this is never described in the book’s title as a “fat” (see, for instance, Drinkwater’s series of memoirs about life on an olive farm in France) and is, therefore, out of the scope of this discussion.Memoirs of Being FatThe majority of the other memoirs with the word “fat” in their titles are about being fat. Narratives on this topic, and their authors’ feelings about this, began to be published as a sub-set of autobiographical memoir in the 2000s. The first decade of the new millennium saw a number of such memoirs by female writers including Judith Moore’s Fat Girl (published in 2005), Jen Lancaster’s Such a Pretty Fat: One Narcissist’s Quest to Discover If Her Life Makes Her Ass Look Big, or Why Pie Is Not the Answer, and Stephanie Klein’s Moose: A Memoir (both published in 2008) and Jennifer Joyne’s Designated Fat Girl in 2010. These were followed into the new decade by texts such as Celia Rivenbark’s bestselling 2011 You Don’t Sweat Much for a Fat Girl, and all attracted significant mainstream readerships. Journalist Vicki Allan pulled no punches when she labelled these works the “fat memoir” and, although Sidonie Smith and Julia Watson’s influential categorisation of 60 genres of life writing does not include this description, they do recognise eating disorder and weight-loss narratives. Some scholarly interest followed (Linder; Halloran), with Mitchell linking this production to feminism’s promotion of the power of the micro-narrative and the recognition that the autobiographical narrative was “a way of situating the self politically” (65).aken together, these memoirs all identify “excess” weight, although the response to this differs. They can be grouped as: narratives of losing weight (see Kuffel; Alley; and many others), struggling to lose weight (most of these books), and/or deciding not to try to lose weight (the smallest number of works overall). Some of these texts display a deeply troubled relationship with food—Moore’s Fat Girl, for instance, could also be characterised as an eating disorder memoir (Brien), detailing her addiction to eating and her extremely poor body image as well as her mother’s unrelenting pressure to lose weight. Elena Levy-Navarro describes the tone of these narratives as “compelled confession” (340), mobilising both the conventional understanding of confession of the narrator “speaking directly and colloquially” to the reader of their sins, failures or foibles (Gill 7), and what she reads as an element of societal coercion in their production. Some of these texts do focus on confessing what can be read as disgusting and wretched behavior (gorging and vomiting, for instance)—Halloran’s “gustatory abject” (27)—which is a feature of the contemporary conceptualisation of confession after Rousseau (Brooks). This is certainly a prominent aspect of current memoir writing that is, simultaneously, condemned by critics (see, for example, Jordan) and popular with readers (O’Neill). Read in this way, the majority of memoirs about being fat are about being miserable until a slimming regime of some kind has been undertaken and successful. Some of these texts are, indeed, triumphal in tone. Lisa Delaney’s Secrets of a Former Fat Girl is, for instance, clear in the message of its subtitle, How to Lose Two, Four (or More!) Dress Sizes—And Find Yourself Along the Way, that she was “lost” until she became slim. Linden has argued that “female memoir writers frequently describe their fat bodies as diseased and contaminated” (219) and “powerless” (226). Many of these confessional memoirs are moving narratives of shame and self loathing where the memoirist’s sense of self, character, and identity remain somewhat confused and unresolved, whether they lose weight or not, and despite attestations to the contrary.A sub-set of these memoirs of weight loss are by male authors. While having aspects in common with those by female writers, these can be identified as a sub-set of these memoirs for two reasons. One is the tone of their narratives, which is largely humourous and often ribaldly comic. There is also a sense of the heroic in these works, with male memoirsts frequently mobilising images of battles and adversity. Texts that can be categorised in this way include Toshio Okada’s Sayonara Mr. Fatty: A Geek’s Diet Memoir, Gregg McBride and Joy Bauer’s bestselling Weightless: My Life as a Fat Man and How I Escaped, Fred Anderson’s From Chunk to Hunk: Diary of a Fat Man. As can be seen in their titles, these texts also promise to relate the stratgies, regimes, plans, and secrets that others can follow to, similarly, lose weight. Allen Zadoff’s title makes this explicit: Lessons Learned on the Journey from Fat to Thin. Many of these male memoirists are prompted by a health-related crisis, diagnosis, or realisation. Male body image—a relatively recent topic of enquiry in the eating disorder, psychology, and fashion literature (see, for instance, Bradley et al.)—is also often a surprising motif in these texts, and a theme in common with weight loss memoirs by female authors. Edward Ugel, for instance, opens his memoir, I’m with Fatty: Losing Fifty Pounds in Fifty Miserable Weeks, with “I’m haunted by mirrors … the last thing I want to do is see myself in a mirror or a photograph” (1).Ugel, as that prominent “miserable” in his subtitle suggests, provides a subtle but revealing variation on this theme of successful weight loss. Ugel (as are all these male memoirists) succeeds in the quest be sets out on but, apparently, despondent almost every moment. While the overall tone of his writing is light and humorous, he laments every missed meal, snack, and mouthful of food he foregoes, explaining that he loves eating, “Food makes me happy … I live to eat. I love to eat at restaurants. I love to cook. I love the social component of eating … I can’t be happy without being a social eater” (3). Like many of these books by male authors, Ugel’s descriptions of the food he loves are mouthwatering—and most especially when describing what he identifies as the fattening foods he loves: Reuben sandwiches dripping with juicy grease, crispy deep friend Chinese snacks, buttery Danish pastries and creamy, rich ice cream. This believable sense of regret is not, however, restricted to male authors. It is also apparent in how Jen Lancaster begins her memoir: “I’m standing in the kitchen folding a softened stick of butter, a cup of warmed sour cream, and a mound of fresh-shaved Parmesan into my world-famous mashed potatoes […] There’s a maple-glazed pot roast browning nicely in the oven and white-chocolate-chip macadamia cookies cooling on a rack farther down the counter. I’ve already sautéed the almonds and am waiting for the green beans to blanch so I can toss the whole lot with yet more butter before serving the meal” (5). In the above memoirs, both male and female writers recount similar (and expected) strategies: diets, fasts and other weight loss regimes and interventions (calorie counting, colonics, and gastric-banding and -bypass surgery for instance, recur); consulting dieting/health magazines for information and strategies; keeping a food journal; employing expert help in the form of nutritionists, dieticians, and personal trainers; and, joining health clubs/gyms, and taking up various sports.Alongside these works sit a small number of texts that can be characterised as “non-weight loss memoirs.” These can be read as part of the emerging, and burgeoning, academic field of Fat Studies, which gathers together an extensive literature critical of, and oppositional to, dominant discourses about obesity (Cooper; Rothblum and Solovay; Tomrley and Naylor), and which include works that focus on information backed up with memoir such as self-described “fat activist” (Wann, website) Marilyn Wann’s Fat! So?: Because You Don’t Have to Apologise, which—when published in 1998—followed a print ’zine and a website of the same title. Although certainly in the minority in terms of numbers, these narratives have been very popular with readers and are growing as a sub-genre, with well-known actress Camryn Manheim’s New York Times-bestselling memoir, Wake Up, I'm Fat! (published in 1999) a good example. This memoir chronicles Manheim’s journey from the overweight and teased teenager who finds it a struggle to find friends (a common trope in many weight loss memoirs) to an extremely successful actress.Like most other types of memoir, there are also niche sub-genres of the “fat memoir.” Cheryl Peck’s Fat Girls and Lawn Chairs recounts a series of stories about her life in the American Midwest as a lesbian “woman of size” (xiv) and could thus be described as a memoir on the subjects of – and is, indeed, catalogued in the Library of Congress as: “Overweight women,” “Lesbians,” and “Three Rivers (Mich[igan]) – Social life and customs”.Carol Lay’s graphic memoir, The Big Skinny: How I Changed My Fattitude, has a simple diet message – she lost weight by counting calories and exercising every day – and makes a dual claim for value of being based on both her own story and a range of data and tools including: “the latest research on obesity […] psychological tips, nutrition basics, and many useful tools like simplified calorie charts, sample recipes, and menu plans” (qtd. in Lorah). The Big Skinny could, therefore, be characterised with the weight loss memoirs above as a self-help book, but Lay herself describes choosing the graphic form in order to increase its narrative power: to “wrap much of the information in stories […] combining illustrations and story for a double dose of retention in the brain” (qtd. in Lorah). Like many of these books that can fit into multiple categories, she notes that “booksellers don’t know where to file the book – in graphic novels, memoirs, or in the diet section” (qtd. in O’Shea).Jude Milner’s Fat Free: The Amazing All-True Adventures of Supersize Woman! is another example of how a single memoir (graphic, in this case) can be a hybrid of the categories herein discussed, indicating how difficult it is to neatly categorise human experience. Recounting the author’s numerous struggles with her weight and journey to self-acceptance, Milner at first feels guilty and undertakes a series of diets and regimes, before becoming a “Fat Is Beautiful” activist and, finally, undergoing gastric bypass surgery. Here the narrative trajectory is of empowerment rather than physical transformation, as a thinner (although, importantly, not thin) Milner “exudes confidence and radiates strength” (Story). ConclusionWhile the above has identified a number of ways of attempting to classify autobiographical writing about fat/s, its ultimate aim is, after G. Thomas Couser’s work in relation to other sub-genres of memoir, an attempt to open up life writing for further discussion, rather than set in placed fixed and inflexible categories. Constructing such a preliminary taxonomy aspires to encourage more nuanced discussion of how writers, publishers, critics and readers understand “fat” conceptually as well as more practically and personally. 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